I don’t wanna talk
About the things we’ve gone through
Though it’s hurting me
Now it’s history
I’ve played all my cards
And that’s what you’ve done too
Nothing more to say
No more ace to play
The winner takes it all
The loser standing small
Beside the victory
That’s her destiny
I was in your arms
Thinking I belonged there
I figured it made sense
Building me a fence
Building me a home
Thinking I’d be strong there
But I was a fool
Playing by the rules
The gods may throw a dice
Their minds as cold as ice
And someone way down here
Loses someone dear
The winner takes it all
The loser has to fall
It’s simple and it’s plain
Why should I complain.
But tell me does she kiss
Like I used to kiss you?  Sing a new song
Does it feel the same
When she calls your name?  And I wouldn't change a thing
Somewhere deep inside
You must know I miss you
But what can I say
Rules must be obeyed
The judges will decide
The likes of me abide
Spectators of the show
Always staying low
The game is on again
A lover or a friend
A big thing or a small
The winner takes it all
I don’t wanna talk
If it makes you feel sad
And I understand
You’ve come to shake my hand
I apologize
If it makes you feel bad
Seeing me so tense
No self-confidence
But you see
The winner takes it all
The winner takes it all...... 
Chiquitita, tell me what's wrong
I have never seen such sorrow
In your eyes
and the wedding is tomorrow
How I hate to see you like this
There is no way you can deny it You're the harmony to every song I
I can see sing
And I wouldn't change a thing
That you're oh so sad, so quiet
Chiquitita, tell me the truth [Joe:]
I'm a shoulder you can cry on She's always trying to save the day
Your best friend Just wanna let my music play
I'm the one you must rely on She's all or nothing
You were always sure of yourself But my feeling's never change
Now I see [Demi (Joe:)]
You've broken a feather Why does he try to read my mind?
I hope (I try to read her mind)
We can patch it up together It's not good to psychoanalyze
(She tries to pick a fight to get
Chiquitita attention)
That's what all of my friends say
You and I know (That's what all of my friends say)
How the heartaches come and
they go [Demi + Joe:]
And the scars they're leavin' You, me
You'll be dancin' once again We're face to face
But we don't see eye to eye
And the pain will end
You will have no time for grievin' Like fire and rain (Like fire and rain)
You can drive me insane (You can drive
Chiquitita me insane)
You and I cry But I can't stay mad at you for
But the sun is still in the sky anything
We're Venus and Mars (Venus and
And shining above you
Mars)
Let me hear you sing once more We're like different stars (like different
Like you did before stars)
but you're the harmony to every song I
Chiquitita sing
DONNA [J:] When I'm yes, she's no
Try once more like you did before [D:] When I hold on, he just lets go
Sing a new song [J + D:] We're perfectly imperfect
Chiquitita But I wouldn't change a thing, no
[Demi (Joe):]
It's like, he doesn't hear a word I say Intro:
His mind is somewhere far away Am G C F
And I don't know how to get there Da da da n da da, Da da da n da
It's like all he wants is to chill out da
(She's serious) Am G C
He makes me wanna pull all my hair x2
out Da da da n da da da da
(She's always in a rush and
interrupted) Verse:
Like he doesn't even care Am G
(Like she doesn't even care) Grew up in a small town
C F
[Demi + Joe:] And when the rain would fall
You, me down
We're face to face Am G F
But we don't see eye to eye I'd just stare out my window
Am G
Like fire and rain (Like fire and rain) Dreaming of what could be
You can drive me insane (You can drive C F
me insane) And if I'd end up happy
But I can't stay mad at you for Am G C
anything I would pray
We're Venus and Mars (Venus and
Mars) Am G
We're like different stars (like different Trying hard to reach out
stars) C F
But when I tried to speak out C
Am G F I'll take a risk, take a
Felt like no one could hear me chance,
Am G G Am G C
Wanted to belong here Make a change, and break away
C F
But something felt so wrong Bridge:
here G
Am G C Buildings with a hundred floors
So I'd pray Am
Am G D F Swinging with revolving doors
I could break away G
Am
Chorus: Maybe I don't know where
C G they'll take me
I'll spread my wings and I'll G Am
learn how to fly. Gotta keep movin on movin on
Am F D I have a dream, a song to sing
I'll do what it takes till I Fly away To help me cope with anything
touch the sky. F G If you see the wonder of a fairy tale
C Break away You can take the future even if you fail
Make a wish, take a chance, I believe in angels
G Am G F Chorus: Something good in everything I see
Make a change, and break away. C G I believe in angels
C G I'll spread my wings and I'll When I know the time is right for me
Out of the darkness and into learn how to fly. I’ll cross the stream - I have a dream
the sun. Am F
Am F Though it's not easy to tell I have a dream, a fantasy
But I won't forget all the ones you goodbye To help me through reality
that I love. C And my destination makes it worth the
C Make a wish, take a chance, while
I'll take a risk, take a G Am G F
Pushing through the darkness still
chance, Make a change, and break away.
another mile
G Am G C C G
I believe in angels
Make a change, and break away Out of the darkness and into
Something good in everything I see
the sun.
I believe in angels
Intro x1 Am F
When I know the time is right for me
But I won't forget the place I
I’ll cross the stream - I have a dream
Verse: come from
I’ll cross the stream - I have a dream
Am G C
Wanna feel the warm breeze I gotta take a risk, take a
C F chance, I have a dream, a song to sing
Sleep under a palm tree G Am G F To help me cope with anything
Am G F Make a change, and break away If you see the wonder of a fairy tale
Feel the rush of the ocean Am G F You can take the future even if you fail
Am G Break away I believe in angels
Get onboard a fast train Am G C Something good in everything I see
C F Break away I believe in angels
Travel on a jetplane When I know the time is right for me
Am G C I’ll cross the stream - I have a dream
Far away I’ll cross the stream - I have a dream 
Am G D F
And break away
Schoolbag in hand, she leaves home in
Chorus: the early morning 
C G Waving goodbye with an absent-
I'll spread my wings and I'll minded smile 
learn how to fly. I watch her go with a surge of that
Am F well-known sadness 
I'll do what it takes till I
And I have to sit down for a while 
touch the sky.
The feeling that I'm losing her forever 
C
And without really entering her world 
Make a wish, take a chance,
I'm glad whenever I can share her
G Am G F
laughter 
Make a change, and break away.
That funny little girl 
C G
Out of the darkness and into
Slipping through my fingers all the
the sun.
time 
Am F
But I won't forget all the ones I try to capture every minute 
that I love. The feeling in it 
Slipping through my fingers all the
time  By the Eiffel tower 
Do I really see what's in her mind  I was so happy we had met 
Each time I think I'm close to knowing  It was the age of no regret 
She keeps on growing  Oh yes 
Slipping through my fingers all the Those crazy years, that was the time 
time  Of the flower-power 
But underneath we had a fear of flying 
Sleep in our eyes, her and me at the Of getting old, a fear of slowly dying 
breakfast table  We took the chance 
Barely awake, I let precious time go Like we were dancing our last dance 
by 
Then when she's gone there's that odd I can still recall our last summer 
melancholy feeling  I still see it all 
And a sense of guilt I can't deny  In the tourist jam, round the Notre
What happened to the wonderful Dame 
adventures  Our last summer 
The places I had planned for us to go  Walking hand in hand 
(Slipping through my fingers all the
time)  Paris restaurants 
Well, some of that we did but most we Our last summer 
didn't  Morning croissants 
And why I just don't know  Living for the day, worries far away 
Our last summer 
Slipping through my fingers all the We would laugh and play 
time 
I try to capture every minute  And now you're working in a bank 
The feeling in it  The family man, a football fan 
Slipping through my fingers all the And your name is Harry 
time  How dull it seems 
Do I really see what's in her mind  Yet you're the hero of my dreams? 
Each time I think I'm close to knowing 
She keeps on growing  I can still recall our last summer 
Slipping through my fingers all the I still see it all 
time  Walks along the Seine, laughing in the
rain 
Sometimes I wish that I could freeze Our last summer 
the picture  Memories that remain 
And save it from the funny tricks of I can still recall our last summer 
time  I still see it all 
Slipping through my fingers  In the tourist jam, round the Notre
Dame 
Slipping through my fingers all the Our last summer 
time  Walking hand in hand 
Paris restaurants 
Schoolbag in hand she leaves home in Our last summer 
the early morning  Morning croissants 
Waving goodbye with an absent- We were living for the day, worries far
minded smile  away 

The summer air was soft and warm 

The feeling right, the Paris night 
Did its best to please us 
And strolling down the Elysee 
We had a drink in each cafe 
And you 
You talked of politics, philosophy and I 
Smiled like Mona Lisa 
We had our chance 
It was a fine and true romance 

I can still recall our last summer 

I still see it all 
Walks along the Seine, laughing in the
rain 
Our last summer 
Memories that remain 

We made our way along the river 

And we sat down in the grass 
Caesar was born into a patrician family, hundreds of his political enemies killed or fifty.[19][20] After the ransom was paid, Caesar

the gens Julia, which claimed descent exiled. Caesar, as the nephew of Marius and raised a fleet, pursued and captured the pirates,

from Iulus, son of the son-in-law of Cinna, was targeted. He was and imprisoned them. He had them crucified on

legendary Trojan princeAeneas, supposedly the stripped of his inheritance, his wife's dowry and his own authority, as he had promised while in

son of the goddess Venus. his priesthood, but he refused to divorce captivity[21]—a promise the pirates had taken as
[5]
 The cognomen "Caesar" originated, according Cornelia and was forced to go into hiding. The a joke. As a sign of leniency, he first had their

to Pliny the Elder, with an ancestor who was threat against him was lifted by the intervention throats cut. He was soon called back into

born by caesarean section (from the Latin verb of his mother's family, which included military action in Asia, raising a band

to cut, caedere, caes-).[6] The Historia supporters of Sulla, and the Vestal Virgins. of auxiliaries to repel an incursion from the east.

Augustasuggests three alternative explanations: Sulla gave in reluctantly, and is said to have

that the first Caesar had a thick head of hair declared that he saw many a Marius in Caesar.

(Latin caesaries); that he had bright grey eyes [9]

Bust of Caesar from the Naples National

(Latin oculis caesiis); or that he killed an Archaeological Museum.

Caesar left Rome and joined the army, where
elephant (caesai in Moorish) in battle.[7] Caesar On his return to Rome he was elected
he won the Civic Crown for his part in an
issued coins featuring images of elephants, military tribune, a first step in a political career.
important siege. On a mission to Bithynia to
suggesting that he favoured this interpretation He was elected quaestor for 69 BC,[22] and
secure the assistance of
of his name. Despite their ancient pedigree, the during that year he delivered the funeral oration
King Nicomedes's fleet, he spent so long at his
Julii Caesares were not especially politically for his aunt Julia. His own wife Cornelia also
court that rumours of an affair with the king
influential. Caesar's father, also called Gaius died that year.[23] After her funeral, in the spring
arose, which Caesar would vehemently deny for
Julius Caesar governed the province ofAsia, or early summer of 69 BC, Caesar went to
the rest of his life.[14] Ironically, the loss of his
[8]
 while his mother, Aurelia Cotta, came from an serve his quaestorship in Spain.[24] While there
priesthood had allowed him to pursue a military
influential family. Little is recorded of Caesar's he is said to have encountered a statue
career: the high priest of Jupiter was not
childhood.[9] Caesar's formative years were a of Alexander the Great, and realized with
permitted to touch a horse, sleep three nights
time of turmoil. There were several wars from dissatisfaction he was now at an age when
outside his own bed or one night outside Rome,
91 BC to 82 BC, although from 82 BC to 80 BC, Alexander had the world at his feet, while he
or look upon an army.[15]Hearing of Sulla's death
the dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla was purging had achieved comparatively little. On his return
in 78 BC, Caesar felt safe enough to return to
Rome of his political enemies. Domestically, in 67 BC,[25] he married Pompeia, a
Rome. Lacking means since his inheritance was
Roman politics was bitterly divided. In 85 BC granddaughter of Sulla, and whom he later
confiscated, he acquired a modest house in a
Caesar's father died suddenly[10] so at sixteen divorced.[26] In 63 BC he ran for election to the
lower-class neighbourhood of Rome.[16] Instead
Caesar was the head of the family. The post of Pontifex Maximus, chief priest of the
he turned to legal advocacy. He became known
following year he was nominated to be the new Roman state religion. He ran against two
for his exceptional oratory, accompanied by
[11]
high priest of Jupiter.  Since the holder of that powerful senators. There were accusations of
impassioned gestures and a high-pitched voice,
position not only had to be a patrician but also bribery by all sides. Caesar won comfortably,
and ruthless prosecution of former governors
be married to a patrician, he broke off his despite his opponents' greater experience and
notorious for extortion and corruption.
engagement to a plebeian girl he had been standing.[27] When Cicero, who was consul that
On the way across the Aegean Sea,[17] Caesar
betrothed to since boyhood, and marriedLucius year, exposed Catiline's conspiracy to seize
was kidnapped by pirates and held prisoner.
Cinna's daughter Cornelia.[12] Then, having control of the republic, several senators
[18]
 He maintained an attitude of superiority
brought Mithridates to terms, Sulla returned to accused Caesar of involvement in the plot.[28]
throughout his captivity. When the pirates
Rome and had himself appointed to the revived
thought to demand a ransom of After his praetorship, Caesar was appointed to
office of dictator.[13] Sulla's proscriptions saw
twenty talents of silver, he insisted they ask for govern Spain, but he was still in considerable
debt and needed to satisfy his creditors before
he could leave. He turned to Marcus Licinius
Crassus, one of Rome's richest men. In return
for political support in his opposition to the
interests ofPompey, Crassus paid some of
Caesar's debts and acted as guarantor for
others. Even so, to avoid becoming a private
citizen and open to prosecution for his debts,
Caesar left for his province before his
praetorship had ended. In Spain he conquered
two local tribes and was hailed as imperator by
his troops, reformed the law regarding debts,
and completed his governorship in high esteem.
[29]
 Being hailed as imperatorentitled Caesar to
a triumph. However, he also wanted to stand
for consul, the most senior magistracy in the
republic. If he were to celebrate a triumph, he
would have to remain a soldier and stay outside
the city until the ceremony, but to stand for
election he would need to lay down his
command and enter Rome as a private citizen.
He could not do both in the time available. He
asked the senate for permission to stand in
absentia, but Cato blocked the proposal. Faced
with the choice between a triumph and the
consulship, Caesar chose the consulship.[30]
Consulship and military campaigns
Main articles: Military campaigns of Julius
Caesar and First Triumvirate
In 60 BC, Caesar sought election as consul for
59 BC. Two other candidates stood for the
consulship, and the election was dirty.
Even Cato, with his reputation for
incorruptibility, is said to have resorted to
bribery in his favor. Caesar won, along with
conservative Marcus Bibulus.[31]
Bust of Pompey.
Caesar was already in Crassus' political debt,
but he also made overtures to Pompey.
Pompey and Crassus had been at odds for a
decade, so Caesar tried to reconcile them.
Between the three of them, they had enough
money and political influence to control public
business. This informal alliance, known as
the First Triumvirate (rule of three men), was
cemented by the marriage of Pompey to
[32]
Caesar's daughter Julia.  Caesar also married
again, this time Calpurnia, who was the
daughter of another powerful senator.[33]
Caesar proposed a law for the redistribution of
public lands to the poor, a proposal supported
by Pompey, by force of arms if need be, and by
Crassus, making the triumvirate public. Pompey
filled the city with soldiers, and the triumvirate's
opponents were intimidated. Bibulus attempted
to declare the omens unfavorable and thus void
the new law, but was driven from the forum by
Caesar's armed supporters. Hisbodyguards had
their ceremonial axes broken, two high
magistrates accompanying him were wounded,
and Bibulus himself had a bucket of excrement
thrown over him. In fear of his life, he retired to
his house for the rest of the year, issuing
occasional proclamations of bad omens. These
attempts to obstruct Caesar's legislation proved
ineffective. Roman satirists ever after referred to
the year as "the consulship of Julius and
Caesar".[34]
When Caesar was first elected, the aristocracy
tried to limit his future power by allotting the
woods and pastures of Italy, rather than
thegovernorship of a province, as his military
command duty after his year in office was over.
[35]
 With the help of political allies, Caesar later
had this overturned, and was instead appointed
to govern Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy)
and Illyricum (southeastern Europe),
with Transalpine Gaul(southern France) later
added, giving him command of four legions. The
term of his governorship, and thus his immunity
from prosecution, was set at five years, rather
than the usual one.[36] When his consulship
ended, Caesar narrowly avoided prosecution for
the irregularities of his year in office, and quickly
left for his province.[37]
Conquest of Gaul
Main article: Gallic Wars
Caesar was still deeply in debt, and there was
money to be made as a governor, whether by
extortion[38] or by military adventurism. Caesar
had four legions under his command, two of his
provinces bordered on unconquered territory,
and parts of Gaul were known to be unstable.
Some of Rome's Gallic allies had been defeated
by their rivals, with the help of a contingent
of Germanic tribes. The Romans feared these
tribes were preparing to migrate south, closer to
Italy, and that they had warlike intent. Caesar
raised two new legions and defeated these
tribes.[39]
In response to Caesar's earlier activities, the
tribes in the north-east began to arm
themselves. Caesar treated this as an
aggressive move, and, after an inconclusive
engagement against the united tribes, he
conquered the tribes piecemeal. Meanwhile,
one of his legions began the conquest of the
tribes in the far north (directly opposite Britain).
[40]
 During the spring of 56 BC the Triumvirate
held a conference, as Rome was in turmoil and
Caesar's political alliance was coming undone.
The meeting renewed the Triumvirate and
extended Caesar's governorship for another five
years.[41] The conquest of the north was soon
completed, while a few pockets of active
resistance remained.[42] Caesar now had a
secure base from which to launch an invasion of
Britain.
The Roman Republic in 40 BC after Caesar's
conquests.
In 55 BC Caesar repelled an incursion into Gaul
by two Germanic tribes, and followed it up by
building a bridge across the Rhine River and
making a show of force in Germanic territory,
before returning and dismantling the bridge.
Late that summer, having subdued two other
tribes, he crossed into Britain, claiming that the
Britons had aided the one of his enemies the
previous year. His intelligence was poor, and
although he gained a beachhead on the coast
he was unable to advance further, and returned
[43]
to Gaul for the winter.  He returned the
following year, better prepared and with a larger
force, and achieved more. He advanced inland,
and established a few alliances. But poor
harvests led to widespread revolt in Gaul which
forced Caesar to leave Britain for the last time.
[44]
While Caesar was in Britain his daughter Julia,
Pompey's wife, had died in childbirth. Caesar
tried to re-secure Pompey's support by offering
him his great-niece in marriage, but Pompey
declined. In 53 BC Crassus was killed leading a
failed invasion of the east. Rome was on the
edge of civil war. Pompey was appointed sole
consul as an emergency measure, and married
the daughter of a political opponent of Caesar.
The Triumvirate was dead.[45]
In 52 BC another, larger revolt erupted in Gaul,
led by Vercingetorix. Vercingetorix managed to
unite the Gallic tribes and proved an astute
commander, defeating Caesar in several
engagements, but Caesar's elaborate siege-
works at theBattle of Alesia finally forced his
surrender.[46] Despite scattered outbreaks
of warfare the following year,[47] Gaul was
effectively conquered. Plutarch claimed that the
army had fought against three million men in the
course of the Gallic Wars, of whom 1 million
died, and another million were enslaved. 300
tribes were subjugated and 800 cities were
destroyed.[48] However, in view of the difficulty in
finding accurate counts in the first place,
Caesar's propagandistic purposes, and the
common gross exaggeration of numbers in
ancient texts, the totals of enemy combatants in
particular are likely to be too high.
Civil war
Main article: Caesar's civil war
In 50 BC, the Senate, led by Pompey, ordered
Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome
because his term as governor had finished.
[49]
 Caesar thought he would be prosecuted if he
entered Rome without the immunity enjoyed by
a magistrate. Pompey accused Caesar of
insubordination and treason. In January 49 BC
Caesar crossed the Rubicon river (the frontier
boundary of Italy) with only one legion and
ignited civil war. Upon crossing the Rubicon,
Plutarch reports that Caesar quoted the
Athenian playwright Menander in Greek,
saying let the dice be tossed.[50] Pompey and
much of the senate fled to the south, having
little confidence in his newly raised troops.
Despite greatly outnumbering Caesar, who only
had hisThirteenth Legion with him, Pompey had
no intention of fighting. Caesar pursued
Pompey, hoping to capture him before his
legions could escape.[51] Pompey managed to
escape before Caesar could capture him.
Caesar decided to head for Spain, while leaving
Italy under the control of Mark Antony. Caesar
made an astonishing 27-day route-march
to Spain, where he defeated Pompey's
lieutenants. He then returned east, to challenge
Pompey in Greece where in July 48 BC
at Dyrrhachium Caesar barely avoided a
catastrophic defeat. He decisively defeated
Pompey, at Pharsalus in an exceedingly short
engagement later that year.[52]
Bust of Cleopatra VII.
In Rome, Caesar was appointed dictator,
[53]
 with Mark Antony as his Master of the
Horse (second in command); Caesar presided
over his own election to a second consulship
and then, after eleven days, resigned this
dictatorship.[53][54] Caesar then pursued Pompey
to Egypt, where Pompey was soon murdered.
[55]
 Caesar then became involved with an
Egyptian civil war between the child pharaoh
and his sister, wife, and co-regent
queen, Cleopatra. Perhaps as a result of the
pharaoh's role in Pompey's murder, Caesar
sided with Cleopatra; he is reported to have
wept at the sight of Pompey's head, [56] which
was offered to him by the pharaoh as a gift. In
any event, Caesar defeated the pharaoh's
forces in 47 BC and installed Cleopatra as ruler.
Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated their victory
with a triumphant procession on the Nile in the
spring of 47 B.C. The royal barge was
accompanied by 400 additional ships,
introducing Caesar to the luxurious lifestyle of
the Egyptian pharaohs. Caesar and Cleopatra
never married, as Roman Law only recognized
marriages between two Roman citizens. Caesar
continued his relationship with Cleopatra
throughout his last marriage, which lasted 14
years – in Roman eyes, this did not constitute
adultery – and may have fathered a son
calledCaesarion. Cleopatra visited Rome on
more than one occasion, residing in Caesar's
villa just outside Rome across the Tiber.
Late in 48 BC, Caesar was again appointed
Dictator, with a term of one year.[54] After
spending the first months of 47 BC in Egypt,
Caesar went to the Middle East, where he
annihilated the king of Pontus; his victory was
so swift and complete that he mocked Pompey's
previous victories over such poor enemies.
[57]
 Thence, he proceeded to Africa to deal with
the remnants of Pompey's senatorial
supporters. He quickly gained a significant
victory in 46 BC over Cato, who then committed
suicide.[58] After this victory, he was
appointed Dictator for ten years.
[59]
 Nevertheless, Pompey's sons escaped to
Spain. Caesar gave chase and defeated the last
remnants of opposition in the Battle of Munda in
March 45 BC.[60]During this time, Caesar was
elected to his third and fourth terms as consul in
46 BC and 45 BC (this last time without a
colleague).
Dictatorship and assassination
While he was still campaigning in Spain, the
Senate began bestowing honors on Caesar.
Caesar had not proscribed his enemies, instead
pardoning almost all, and there was no serious
public opposition to him. Great games and
celebrations were held on April to honor
Caesar’s victory at Munda. Plutarch writes that
many Romans found the triumph held following
Caesar's victory to be in poor taste, as those
defeated in the civil war had not been
[61]
foreigners, but instead fellow Romans.  On
Caesar's return to Italy in September 45 BC, he
filed his will, naming his grandnephew Gaius
Octavius (Octavian) as the heir to everything,
including his name. Caesar also wrote that if
Octavian died before Caesar did, Marcus Junius When Caesar returned to Rome, a triumph was
Brutuswould be the next heir in succession. held in his honor. The senate voted to place his
triumphal chariot on the capital, opposite of
During his early career, Caesar had seen how
Jupiter's, and that a bronze statue of him be put
chaotic and dysfunctional the Roman Republic
up on a monument representing the world with
had become. The republican machinery had
an inscription to the effect that he was
broken down under the weight of imperialism,
a demigod.[64] Four triumphs were celebrated
the central government had become powerless,
(ostensibly over Gaul,
the provinces had been transformed into
Egypt, Pharnaces and Jubaalthough actually
independent principalities under the absolute
over the Romans he had defeated). Part of the
control of their governors, and the army had
triumph involved Arsinoe IV, a former queen of
replaced the constitution as the means of
Egypt, paraded around the streets in chains.
accomplishing political goals. With a weak
This spectacle had never before been seen, at
central government, political corruption had
least not in Rome, and the people had pity on
spiraled out of control, and the status quo had
her.[65] A fest was also held, and then Caesar
been maintained by a corrupt aristocracy, which
was escorted home by twenty elephants
saw no need to change a system which had
carrying torch barriers. The following day,
made its members rich.
numerous spectacles were held. 400 lions were
Between his crossing of the Rubicon River in 49
killed, and gladiators fought individually and in
BC, and his assassination in 44 BC, Caesar
groups. In addition, a naval battle was staged
established a new constitution, which was
on a flooded section of theField of Mars.
intended to accomplish three separate goals. [64]
 Finally, two armies of war captives (2,000
[62]
First, he wanted to suppress all armed
people, 200 horse and 20 elephants on either
resistance out in the provinces, and thus bring
side) fought each other in the Circus
order back to the empire. Second, he wanted to
Maximus to the death. The people were
create a strong central government in Rome.
bothered, not so much by the sheer scale of the
And finally, he wanted to knit together the entire
bloodshed as much as the waste of such a vast
empire into a single cohesive unit. [62] The first
sum of money. Rioting resulted, which only
goal was accomplished when Caesar defeated
stopped when Caesar had two rioters sacrificed
Pompey and his supporters.[62] To accomplish
by the priests on the Field of Mars.[64]
the other two goals, he needed to ensure that
When the triumph was over, Caesar set forth to
his control over the government was
passing an unprecedented legislative agenda.[64]
undisputed,[63] and so he assumed these powers
[dubious  –  discuss]
 He ordered a census be taken,
by increasing his own authority, and by
which forced a reduction in the grain dole. Then
decreasing the authority of Rome's other
he mandated that jurors could only come from
political institutions. Finally, he enacted a series
the senate or the equestrian ranks. Next he
of reforms that were meant to address several
passed a sumptuary law which restricted the
long neglected issues, the most important of
purchase of certain luxuries. After this, he
which was his reform of the calendar.
passed a law that rewarded families for having
Dictatorship
many children, in an effort to speed along the
repopulation of Italy. Then he passed a law
which outlawed professional guilds, except
those of ancient foundation, since many of
these were subversive political clubs. He then
passed a term limit law applicable to governors.
Next he passed a debt restructuring law, which
ultimately eliminated about a fourth of all debts
owed.[64] The Forum of Caesar, with its Temple
of Venus Genetrix, was then built among many
other public works. Caesar also tightly regulated
the purchase of state-subsidised grain and
reduced the number of recipients to a fixed
number, all of whom were entered into a special
register.[66] From 47 to 44 BC he made plans for
the distribution of land to about 15,000 of his
veterans.[67] The most important change,
however, was his reform of the calendar. The
calendar at the time was regulated by the
movement of the moon, and this had resulted in
a great deal of disorder. Caesar replaced this
calendar with the Egyptian calendar, which was
regulated by the sun. He set the length of the
year to 365.25 days by adding
an intercalary/leap day at the end of February
every fourth year.[68] To bring the calendar into
alignment with the seasons, he decreed that
three extra months be inserted into 46 BC (the
ordinary intercalary month at the end of
February, and two extra months after
November). Thus, the Julian Calendar opened
on January 1, 45 BC.[64][68] This calendar is
almost identical to the current Western
calendar.
Shortly before his assassination, he passed a
few more reforms.[64] He established a police
force, appointed officials to carry out his land
reforms, and ordered the rebuilding
of Carthageand Corinth. He also extended Latin
rights throughout the Roman world, and then
abolished the tax system and reverted to the
earlier version which allowed cities to collect
tribute however they wanted rather than
needing Roman middlemen. His assassination
prevented further and larger schemes. He
wanted to build an unprecedented temple to
Mars, a huge theater, and a library on the scale
of the Library of Alexandria.[64] He also wanted
to convert Ostia to a major port, and cut a canal
through the Isthmus of Corinth. Militarily, he
wanted to conquer the Dacians, Parthians, and
avenge the loss at Carrhae. Thus, he instituted
a massive mobilization. Shortly before his
assassination, the senate bestowed more
honors on him. They named him censor for life,
Father of the Fatherland, decreed that his
image be stamped on coins (a symbol of
monarchy), that his birthday be celebrated by
public sacrifices, and that the month
of Quintilis be renamed July in his honor. They
even went further and decreed that he should
sit in the senate on a gilded chair in the clothes
that the kings had formally worn, according to
HH Scullard reference From the Graccchi to
Nero, third edition it is doubtful that he was
addressed outright as "Jupiter Julius" and
instituted a de facto cult around him with Mark
Antony as its high priest.[64] The senators may
have done this to hasten his undoing, although
he accepted most of these honors and became
so prideful that he dispensed with his
bodyguard.
Political reforms
Main article: Constitutional Reforms of Julius
Caesar
The history of Caesar's political appointments
are complex and uncertain. Caesar held both
the dictatorship and the tribunate, but alternated
between the consulship and theProconsulship.
[63]
 His powers within the state seem to have
rested upon these magistracies.[63] He was first
appointed dictator in 49 BC possibly in order to
preside over elections, but resigned his
dictatorship within eleven days. In 48 BC, he
was appointed dictator again, only this time for
an indefinite period, and in 46 BC, he was
appointed dictator for ten years. In February of
44 BC, one month before his assassination, he
was appointed dictator for life. Under Caesar, a
significant amount of authority was vested in his
lieutenants,[69] mostly because Caesar was
frequently out of Italy.[69] In October of 45 BC,
Caesar resigned his position as sole consul,
and facilitated the election of two successors for
the remainder of the year, which, in theory at
least, restored the ordinary consulship, since
the constitution did not recognize a single
consul without a colleague.[70] In 48 BC, Caesar
was given permanent tribunician powers,
[71]
 which made his person sacrosanct and
allowed him to veto the senate,[71] although on at
least one occasion, tribunes did attempt to
obstruct him. The offending tribunes in this case
were brought before the senate and divested of
their office.[71] This was not the first time that
Caesar had violated a tribune's sacrosanctity,
since after he had first marched on Rome in 49
BC, he forcibly opened the treasury in spite of a
seal placed on it by a tribune. After the
impeachment of the two obstructive tribunes,
Caesar, perhaps unsurprisingly, faced no
further opposition from other members of the
tribunician college.[71]
Denarius (42 BC) issued by Cassius
Longinus andLentulus Spinther, depicting the
crowned head of Liberty and on the reverse a
sacrificial jug and lituus, from the military mint
in Smyrna.
In 46 BC, Caesar gave himself the title of to him.[72] To minimize the risk that another violence!" ("Ista quidem vis est!").[75] At the same

"Prefect of the Morals", which was an office that general might attempt to challenge him, time, Casca produced his dagger and made a
[69]
was new only in name, as its powers were  Caesar passed a law which subjected glancing thrust at the dictator's neck. Caesar

identical to those of the censors.[71] Thus, he governors to term limits.[69] Near the end of his turned around quickly and caught Casca by the

could hold censorial powers, while technically life, Caesar began to prepare for a war against arm. According to Plutarch, he said in Latin,

not subjecting himself to the same checks that the Parthian Empire. Since his absence from "Casca, you villain, what are you

the ordinary censors were subject to, and he Rome might limit his ability to install his own doing?"[76] Casca, frightened, shouted "Help,

used these powers to fill the senate with his consuls, he passed a law which allowed him to brother!" in Greek ("ἀδελφέ, βοήθει!", "adelphe,

own partisans. He also set the precedent, which appoint all magistrates in 43 BC, and all consuls boethei!"). Within moments, the entire group,

his imperial successors followed, of requiring and tribunes in 42 BC.[70] This, in effect, including Brutus, was striking out at the dictator.

the senate to bestow various titles and honors transformed the magistrates from being Caesar attempted to get away, but, blinded by

upon him. He was, for example, given the title of representatives of the people to being blood, he tripped and fell; the men continued

"Father of the Fatherland" and "imperator". representatives of the dictator.[70] stabbing him as he lay defenceless on the lower
[69]
 Coins bore his likeness, and he was given Assassination steps of the portico. According to Eutropius,

the right to speak first during senate meetings. around sixty or more men participated in the
[69]
 Caesar then increased the number of assassination. He was stabbed 23 times.

magistrates who were elected each year, which The senators encircle Caesar. [77]
 According to Suetonius, a physician later

created a large pool of experienced established that only one wound, the second
On the Ides of March (15 March; see Roman
magistrates, and allowed Caesar to reward his one to his chest, had been lethal. [78] The
calendar) of 44 BC, Caesar was due to appear
supporters.[70] Caesar even took steps to dictator's last words are not known with
at a session of the Senate. Mark Antony, having
transform Italy into a province, and to more certainty, and are a contested subject among
vaguely learned of the plot the night before from
tightly link the other provinces of the empire into scholars and historians alike. Suetonius reports
a terrified Liberator named Servilius Casca, and
a single cohesive unit. This addressed the that others have said Caesar's last words were
fearing the worst, went to head Caesar off. The
underlying problem that had caused the Social the Greek phrase "καὶ σύ,
plotters, however, had anticipated this and,
War decades earlier, where individuals outside τέκνον;"[79] (transliterated as "Kai su, teknon?":
fearing that Antony would come to Caesar's aid,
Rome, and certainly outside Italy, were not "You too, child?" in English). However,
had arranged for Trebonius to intercept him just
considered "Roman", and thus were not given Suetonius himself says Caesar said nothing.
as he approached the portico of Theatre of
[75]
full citizenship rights. This process, of fusing the  Plutarch also reports that Caesar said
Pompey, where the session was to be held, and
entire Roman Empire into a single unit, rather nothing, pulling his toga over his head when he
detain him outside. (Plutarch, however, assigns
than maintaining it as a network of unequal saw Brutus among the conspirators.[80] The
this action to delay Antony to Brutus Albinus.)
principalities, would ultimately be completed by version best known in the English-speaking
When he heard the commotion from the senate
Caesar's successor, the emperor Augustus. world is the Latin phrase "Et tu, Brute?" ("And
chamber, Antony fled.[73]
you, Brutus?", commonly rendered as "You too,
When Caesar returned to Rome in 47 BC, the
According to Plutarch, as Caesar arrived at the
Brutus?");[81][82] this derives from
ranks of the senate had been severely depleted,
Senate, Tillius Cimber presented him with a
Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, where it actually
and so he used his censorial powers to appoint
petition to recall his exiled brother. [74] The other
forms the first half of a macaronic line: "Et tu,
many new senators, which eventually raised the
conspirators crowded round to offer support.
Brute? Then fall, Caesar." It has no basis in
senate's membership to 900.[70] All of these
Both Plutarch and Suetonius say that Caesar
historical fact and Shakespeare's use of Latin
appointments were of his own partisans, which
waved him away, but Cimber grabbed his
here is not from any assertion that Caesar
robbed the senatorial aristocracy of its prestige,
shoulders and pulled down Caesar's tunic.
would have been using the language, rather
and made the senate increasingly subservient
Caesar then cried to Cimber, "Why, this is
than the Greek reported by Suetonius, but
because the phrase was already popular at the
time the play was written. [83] According to
Plutarch, after the assassination, Brutus
stepped forward as if to say something to his
fellow senators; they, however, fled the building.
[84]
 Brutus and his companions then marched to
the Capitol while crying out to their beloved city:
"People of Rome, we are once again free!"
They were met with silence, as the citizens of
Rome had locked themselves inside their
houses as soon as the rumour of what had
taken place had begun to spread.
A wax statue of Caesar was erected in the
forum displaying the 23 stab wounds. A crowd
who had gathered there started a fire, which
badly damaged the forum and neighbouring
buildings. In the ensuing chaos Mark
Antony, Octavian (later Augustus Caesar), and
others fought a series of five civil wars, which
would end in the formation of the Roman
Empire.
Aftermath of the assassination
Mark Antony, Caesar's cousin
The result unforeseen by the assassins was
that Caesar's death precipitated the end of the
Roman Republic.[85] The Roman middle and
lower classes, with whom Caesar was
immensely popular and had been since before
Gaul, became enraged that a small group of
aristocrats had killed their champion. Antony,
who had been drifting apart from Caesar,
capitalised on the grief of the Roman mob and
threatened to unleash them on the Optimates,
perhaps with the intent of taking control of
Rome himself. But, to his surprise and chagrin,
Caesar had named his grandnephew
Gaius Octavian his sole heir, bequeathing him
the immensely potent Caesar name as well as
making him one of the wealthiest citizens in the
Republic.[86] The crowd at the funeral boiled
over, throwing dry branches, furniture and even
clothing on to Caesar's funeral pyre, causing the
flames to spin out of control, seriously
damaging the Forum. The mob then attacked
the houses of Brutus and Cassius, where they
were repelled only with considerable difficulty,
ultimately providing the spark for the Liberators'
civil war, fulfilling at least in part Antony's threat
against the aristocrats.[87] However, Antony did
not foresee the ultimate outcome of the next
series of civil wars, particularly with regard to
Caesar's adopted heir. Octavian, aged only 18
at the time of Caesar's death, proved to have
considerable political skills, and while Antony
dealt with Decimus Brutusin the first round of
the new civil wars, Octavian consolidated his
tenuous position. In order to combat Brutus and
Cassius, who were massing an enormous army
in Greece, Antony needed soldiers, the cash
from Caesar's war chests, and the legitimacy
that Caesar's name would provide for any action
he took against them. With the passage of
the lex Titia on 27 November 43 BC,
[88]
 the Second Triumvirate was officially formed,
composed of Antony, Octavian, and Caesar's
loyal cavalry commander Lepidus.[89] It
formally deified Caesar as Divus Iulius in 42 BC,
and Caesar Octavian henceforth became Divi
filius ("Son of a god").[90] Seeing that Caesar's
clemency had resulted in his murder, the
Second Triumvirate brought back the practice
of proscription, abandoned since Sulla.[91] It
engaged in the legally sanctioned murder of a
large number of its opponents in order to secure
funding for its forty-five legions in the second
civil war against Brutus and Cassius.[92] Antony
and Octavius defeated them at Philippi.[93]
Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, Caesar's
adopted heir
Afterward, Mark Antony married Caesar's lover,
Cleopatra, intending to use the fabulously
wealthy Egypt as a base to dominate Rome. A
third civil war broke out between Octavian on
one hand and Antony and Cleopatra on the
other. This final civil war, culminating in the
latter's defeat atActium, resulted in the
permanent ascendancy of Octavian, who
became the first Roman emperor, under the
name Caesar Augustus, a name that raised him
to the status of a deity.[94]
Julius Caesar had been preparing to
invade Parthia, the Caucasus and Scythia, and
then march back to Germania through Eastern
Europe. These plans were thwarted by his
assassination.[95] His successors did attempt the
conquests of Parthia and Germania, but without
lasting results.
Julius Caesar was the first historical Roman to
be officially deified. He was posthumously
granted the title Divus Iulius or Divus Julius (the
divine Julius or the deified Julius) by decree of
the Roman Senate on 1 January 42 BC.
Though his temple was not dedicated until after
his death, he may have received divine honours
during his lifetime:[96] and shortly before his
assassination, Mark Antony had been appointed
as his flamen(priest).[97] The cult of Divus Iulius
was promoted by both Octavian and Mark
Antony. After the death of Antony, Octavian, as
the adoptive son of Caesar, assumed the title
of Divi Filius (son of a god).
Personal life
Health and physical appearance
Based on remarks by Plutarch,[98] Caesar is shapely limbs, a somewhat full face, and keen Caesar's cognomen would itself become a title;

sometimes thought to have suffered black eyes."[106] it was greatly promulgated by the Bible, by the

from epilepsy. Modern scholarship is "sharply Name and family famous verse "Render unto Caesar the things

divided" on the subject, and it is more certain Main article: Etymology of the name of Julius which are Caesar's, and unto God the things

that he was plagued by malaria, particularly Caesar that are God's". The title became the
Main article: Julio-Claudian family tree
during the Sullan proscriptions of the 80s. [99] German Kaiser and Slavic Tsar/Czar. The last

Using the Latin alphabet as it existed in the day tsar in nominal power was Simeon II of
Caesar had four documented episodes of what
of Caesar (i.e., without lower case letters, "J", or Bulgaria whose reign ended in 1946; for two
may have been complex partial seizures. He
"U"), Caesar's name would be rendered "GAIVS thousand years after Julius Caesar's
may additionally have had absence seizures in
IVLIVS CAESAR"; the form "CAIVS" is also assassination, there was at least one head of
his youth. The earliest accounts of these
attested, using the old Roman representation of state bearing his name.
seizures were made by the
G by C; it is an antique form of the more
biographer Suetonius, who was born after
common "GAIVS". The standard abbreviation
Caesar died. The claim of epilepsy is countered
was, and this is not archaic, "C. IVLIVS
among some medical historians by a claim
CAESAR". (The letterform "Æ" is a ligature,
of hypoglycemia, which can cause epileptoid
which is often encountered in
seizures.[100][101][102]
Latin inscriptions where it was used to save
In 2003, Psychiatrists Harbour F. Hodder
space, and is nothing more than the letters
published what he termed as the "Caesar
"ae".) In Classical Latin, it
Complex" theory, arguing that Caesar was a
was pronounced /ˈɡaːjus ˈjuːljus ˈkajsar/. In the
sufferer of temporal lobe epilepsy and the
days of the late Roman Republic, many
debilitating symptoms of the condition were a
historical writings were done in Greek, a
factor in Caesar's conscious decision to forgo
language most educated Romans studied.
personal safety in the days leading up to his
Young wealthy Roman boys were often taught
assassination.[103]
by Greek slaves and sometimes sent

A line from Shakespeare has sometimes been to Athens for advanced training, as was

taken to mean that he was deaf in one Caesar's principal assassin, Brutus. In Greek,

ear: Come on my right hand, for this ear is deaf. during Caesar's time, his family name was
[104]
 No classical source mentions hearing written Καίσαρ, reflecting its contemporary

impairment in connection with Caesar. The pronunciation. Thus his name is pronounced in

playwright may have been making metaphorical a similar way to the pronunciation of the

use of a passage in Plutarch that does not refer German Kaiser. This German name was

to deafness at all, but rather to a gesture phonemically but not phonetically derived from

Alexander of Macedon customarily made. By the Middle Ages Ecclesiastical Latin, in which

covering his ear, Alexander indicated that he the familiar part "Caesar" is [ˈtʃeːsar], from which

had turned his attention from an accusation in the modern English pronunciation is derived, as

order to hear the defense.[105] well as the title of Tsar. His name is also

remembered in Norse mythology, where he is

The Roman historian Suetonius describes
manifested as the legendary king Kjárr.[107]
Caesar as "tall of stature with a fair complexion,