Basics of Structural Design

By - Er. Ravi Ranade

NDT consultant, Structural Auditor, Concrete Technologist ( info@concretepune.com)

Preamble –
Basic knowledge of Structural Engineering is MUST for every civil Engineer. Proper
understanding of structural Behaviour is essential to avoid failures. Calculations alone
do not produce safe, serviceable and durable structures, but use of tested materials,
proper quality control, adequate detailing and good supervision are equally important.

Basic IS codes for design –

 IS – 456 – 2000 – Plain & Reinforced Concrete Code of Practice
 IS – 800 – 2008 – Code of Practice for General construction in Steel
 IS – 875 – 1987 – Code of Practice for Design Loads
Part - 1 - Dead loads
Part - 2 - Imposed loads
Part - 3 - Wind loads
Part - 4 - Snow loads
Part - 5 - Special loads and loads combinations
 IS – 1893 – 2002 – Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures
 IS – 13920 – 1993 – Ductile detailing of RCC Structures subjected to Seismic Forces –
Code of Practice
 National Building Code – 2005

Materials –
Cement –
Gr. 43 & Gr 53 grades of Ordinary Portland Cement are commonly available in the
market, but the production of Gr 33 cement is almost stopped. Similarly various
Blended cements made with Fly ash and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag ( GGBS )
are available. Presently IS code supports only Gr. 33 for blended cements, but a similar
gradation as per OPC is likely to be adopted by IS code.

Steel reinforcement –
Which Bars to be used ? - CTD ( HYSD) or TMT?
CTD – Cold Twisted deformed Bars- Deformed bars are manufactured by either hot
rolling or hot rolling followed by cold twisting. The high yield strength was being
first achieved by raising carbon and manganese and to a great extent by cold
twisting. But this leads to lower elongation, weldability and bendability
TMT – Thermo-mechanical treatment Bars – The ribars are heated in three stages- The
bar is process through sequential of rolling stand, rapidly water cooled / quenched –
converts surface layer to hardened structure – Martnsite. Then tempering process

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involving flow of heat from the core of bar to the surface and finally cooling the bars in
air.
Advantages of TMT Bars –
 Lower carbon content – thus better ductility , bendability & weldability
 Better yield strength & % Elongation
 Better fire resistance - Possess in built ability to resist loss of strength at higher
temp.
 Better corrosion resistance due to absence of cold twisting stresses.

Presently there is a Transition Stage from CTD 415 to TMT 500 bars, but TMT bars
Products are yet not stable. Variation in strength and % Elongation is observed. Thus
testing of Steel is recommended. Present test data indicate 5 to 10 % failure rate.

Sub standard Rebars -

In TMT bars , generally it is the strength that suffer whereas in CTD bars, it is the
ductility

Lap Splices -
As per IS – 456 “Lap splices shall not be used for bars larges than 36 mm, but bars may
be welded.” Test mechanical splices before use.

IS – 13920 – 1993 Code AMENDMENT NO. 2 March 2002 -

Steel reinforcements of grade Fe 415 (see IS 1786 : 2008) or less only shall be
used. However, high strength deformed steel bars, produced by the thermo-mechanical
treatment process, of grades Fe 500 D and Fe 550 D, having elongation more than 14.5
% and conforming to other requirements of IS 1786: 2008 may also be used for the
reinforcement. BUT Fe 600 with % elongation less than 14.5 % is NOT allowed.

Concrete –
Concrete is good in compression. (Now high strength mixes have strength from M - 80
to M - 150). But it is weak in tension ( only @ 10 % of Compressive strength and in most
of the cases it is neglected in design)

Loads -
 Dead Loads (DL) – fixed loads
o Building materials/components and the weight of structural components

 Live Loads (LL) – transient and moving loads

o Occupancy loads and furnishing loads (building usage)
o Construction loads
o Live Load maybe variable during structures lifetime

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 Earthquake Loads
o Seismic load based on building mass , type and configuration.
o Vertical and lateral forces (dynamic)

 Wind Load (WL) -

o Lateral load on walls
o Downward and upward pressure on roofs

Earthquake Load Wind Load

Note - The loads specified in the Code does not include loads incidental to construction
such as Stacking of building materials , Use of equipment ( for example, cranes and
trucks ) , Floor to floor propping in multi-storied which causes additional load on lower
floor.

 Static Load v/s Dynamic Load –

Static Load Dynamic Load

Constant with time Variable with time
e.g. Self weight e.g. Wind, Earthquake, Moving Vehicles,
Vibrating machines

L L
o o
a a
d d

Time Time
Static Load Dynamic Load
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 Earthquake load - Dynamic

Structural Design – Optimum Design Requirements

 The building dead load is the only known load. All other forces will vary in
magnitude, duration and location.
 The building is designed for design load possibilities that may occur any time
through its life span.
 The structural efficiency of a building is measured as the ratio of dead to live load.
The building designer strives to keep the ratio low.

Stability of Structure -
 Overturning – Restoring moment shall be not less than the sum of 1.2 times the
maximum overturning moment due to the dead load and 1.4 times imposed loads
 Sliding – Factor against sliding should be more than 1.4
 Lateral Sway – For wind load the lateral sway at the top should not exceed H/500,
where H is the total height of the building. And for seismic loading the permissible
deflection at floor and roof shall be as per IS 1893

Steps in Structural Planning

 Conceiving a basic structural form from plan
 Developing a method of transferring loads- both gravity and lateral loads
 Preliminary sizing the components
 Developing a foundation scheme
 Selecting structural material
 Designing and detailing the structural components
 Devising a construction methodology
 Positioning and Orientation of Columns
 Positioning of beams
 Spanning of Slab
 Design of footing

Types of Structural Forms -

 Tension form :- It is a form in which transfer of forces is purely by tension only. (
Example cable )
 Compression form :- This form transfers the force purely by compression (Example -
Arch)

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 Pure Tension ( cable ) Pure Compression ( Arch)

 Bending forms :- The transfer of force is effected purely by bending (Example -

Beam, slab)
 Twisting form :- It is a tubular form transferring twisting moments by tangential
forces.

Forces and Connections -

Supports are translated into forces and moments in a free body diagrams. The
following are three common supports and the forces and moments used to replace
them.

Supports

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 Beam Supports

Moment Connection –
The frame of a building shall have adequate moment connections or a system of
bracings to effectively transmit all the horizontal forces to the foundations. To resist
lateral load either a structure shall have moment connection at Column – Beam junction
or it shall have some other system to resist the lateral loads such as Shear wall or
bracing etc.

Detailing to achieve the required support condition -

Simple Support

Fixed Support Hinged Support

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Shear – Shear is resisted by concrete , bent up bars and mainly by stirrups

Stirrup spacing often varies along the length of the member, depending on the
magnitude of shear forces present in member

Bending Moment & Shear Force Diagrams –

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Typical Bending Moment Diagram of Frame - ( Dead + Live Load )

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Be cautious while removing or adding any walls in RCC frame structure. As shown in the
above BMD, if loading conditions differ on adjacent spans, then the Bending moments
may vary than as assumed during design.

Re-Distribution of Moments –
The phenomenon of transferring additional moment to any other section which has
reserved load carrying capacity is called Redistribution of forces

Redistribution of moments is not permissible in case of Earthquake loading due to

reversible of moments.

Column Locations, Size & Orientation

Location -
 At corners
 At beam Junctions
 Optimum spacing - 3 to 4 m c/c ( for Residential )
 To give unobstructed space ( for Halls , Offices ), the columns may be placed at
longer spans or in the walls
 Building bylaws ( Side margins ) may detect the column locations
 In old city areas , where buildings are touching each other – Avoid placing column at
the boundary wall locations so as to avoid eccentric footings

Size -
 Minimum width - 200 mm beams with c/c span > 5 m or columns of unsupported
length > 4 m, the column width shall not be less than 300 mm ( IS – 13920 – 1993)
 Width to match the thickness of walls.
 For Residential buildings – 200 to 230 mm and for corner columns 300 mm – EQ
consideration
 For Commercial buildings , IT, Shopping Malls – 300 mm to 600 mm ( Round or
square )
 If the beam intersections are close , then a column having full depth covering such
close intersections may be provided.
 No. of bars – spacing > 75 mm

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Orientation -
 As far as possible, the depth of the column shall be parallel to the major plane of
bending.
 For uneven Unsupported length of the column orient column depth in axis of larger
unsupported height.
 For long buildings, orient the column depth perpendicular to the length of building.
 In general the stiffness of all frames in both the directions shall be equal.
 For corner columns “L” shape columns and for edge columns “T” shape columns may
be provided.
 Avoid columns offsets in toilets.

Sample Placement of Columns

Beam position & Size

 Beams shall normally be provided under walls or below heavy point loads
 Spacing of beam is decided by maximum span of slab
 Avoid larger spacing of beams from deflection criteria .
 Deflection is proportional to cube of L / D ratio.
 Rule of thumb – Beam Depth = 1” for every 1’ span
 Avoid puncturing beams for plumbing and electrical lines.
 Provide lowered beam for toilets.
 Provide additional width of beam to accommodate electrical conduits.

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Torsion –
Following situations will create torsion. As far as possible avoid torsion, wherever
possible by proper detailing.

Slab Spanning –

 One way slab if Ly / Lx > 2, But in practice sometimes slabs with Ly / Lx > 1.5 are
also designed as one way slabs. In such cases care will have to be taken to avoid
cracks at top over shorter edges. Provide nominal steel at top over short edge to
avoid such cracks.
 Optimum spans - ( Residential buildings )
- One way slab - Lx - 3 to 3.2 m
- Two Way slab - Lx - 4 to 4.5 m
- Cantilever slab – Lx – 1.5 m

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 Slab thickness shall be as less as possible with due deflection considerations. Lesser
thickness of slab yields lower loads and economy.
 Too thin slab may lead to vibrations.

a) Different Methods of supporting Balcony

b) Different Methods of supporting Balcony

Limit State design

As the name indicate, this methods considers various states such as cracked, un-
cracked, elastic , plastic and ultimate state to ensure safety and serviceability.

The acceptable limit for the safety and serviceability before failure occurs is called as
“Limit State”.

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The aim of design is to achieve acceptable probabilities that the structure will not
become unfit for the use for which it is intended, that is, it will not reach a limit state.

Limit state of Collapse ( Safety )

a) Rupture due to overloads
b) Elastic Instability & plastic instability
c) Overturning

Limit state of serviceability

a) Deflection
b) Cracking - Crack width shall be less than 0.3 mm for “Normal” exposure
condition & or 0.1 for “Severe” Exposure condition
c) Other Limit states - Effect of vibration or fatigue & Lateral drift for tall buildings
due to Earthquake / Wind loads

Limit state of Durability

a) Resistance to chemical & environmental action
b) Fire resistance

Permissible Limits for Deflection – IS 456-2000

RCC Beams Not more than span / 350

The vertical deflection limits may generally be assumed to be satisfied provided that the
span to depth ratios are not greater (for spans up to 10 m)

Beams & one way slabs –

Cantilever 7
Simply supported 20
Continuous 26

Two way Slabs -

Simply supported slabs 35

Continuous slabs 40

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Permissible Limits for Deflection – IS 800-2008

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Characteristic Strength of Materials
The term ‘characteristic strength’ means that value of the strength of the material
below which not more than 5 percent of the test results are expected to fall.

Characteristic load
The term ‘characteristic load’ means that value of load which has a 95 percent
probability of not being exceeded during the life of the structure.

Partial safety factor for Materials –

For Concrete it is 1.50 & for Steel it is 1.15.

Why such a high factor of safety for concrete?

The steel being a homogeneous material & manufactured in factory with more quality
control, the partial safety Factor is less as compared with concrete, which a
heterogeneous material manufactures at site with comparatively less quality control.

Further In the case of mild steel and high tensile steel the stress-strain diagrams are
straight lines upto elastic limit. The design stress is much less than elastic limit stress
and hence upto design stress the material follows Hook’s law and is perfectly elastic.

In the case of concrete the stress-strain diagrams are curves but if the design stress
level is kept very small say 1/3 ultimate stress the stress - strain diagrams can be
assumed to be straight lines for the stress range o to design stress.

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Why such a high factor of safety for RCC structures as compared with steel
structures ?
Many of the following factors are not correctly known so far -
 Reliability of live loads on floors of building and highways
 Material characteristics of RCC as one material
 Strength of cracked section
 Effect of horizontal diaphragm (slab) on skeletal portal frame
 Behaviour of Flat slabs / Pre-stressed units in building frame under earthquake
loads.
 Effect of in-filled walls with and without openings on lateral resistance of multistory
structures
 Assessment of strength of structure after ageing
 And many others……..

For design purposes, the compressive strength of concrete in the structure is assumed
to be 0.67 times the characteristic strength. The partial safety factor y, = 1.5 shall be
applied in addition to this , thus the final design strength of concrete = 0.45 Fck

Partial safety factor for Loads – IS - 456 specifies following factors

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Singly Reinforced Section -

Modes of failure –

Balanced – When the ratio of steel to concrete is such that the strain in steel and strain
in concrete reach their maximum values simultaneously .

Under-reinforced - When the ratio of steel to concrete is such that the strain in steel
reach the maximum value.

Over–reinforcement - When the ratio of steel to concrete is such that the strain in
concrete reach the maximum value.

Over-reinforced sections lead to a brittle failure & hence not permitted in Limit state
design.

Similarly avoid shear failure as it causes a sudden failure giving no warning. Normally
the structure should fail in bending mode rather than shear mode.

“T” & “L” beams

A slab which is assumed to act as a compression flange of a T-beam or L-beam shall

satisfy the following:
a) The slab shall be cast integrally with the web, or the web and the slab shall be
effectively bonded together in any other manner; and
b) If the main reinforcement of the slab is perpendicular to the beam,

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As seen the above figure, in case of continuous spans, the Beam section can be designed
as “T” or “L” Beam for a length of beams having positive ( Sagging ) bending moment,
but near and over support having negative ( Hogging ) bending moment, the section
needs to be designed as “Rectangular” section, as the compression is at bottom. Due to
such complexity, normally beam section is considered as rectangular in analysis and
design.

Design of Column –

In RCC frame structures, Column is never only an axially loaded member ( i.e. pure
compression member ) but is ALWAYS subjected to biaxial moments.

Moments in columns are induced due to –

 Fixity of Column-Beam junction
 Eccentricity of axial load caused by off-centre columns, Casting error ( out of
plumb )
 Eccentric sitting of beams

IS – 456 – 2000 recommends to design the columns for minimum of a 20 mm

eccentricity

As a rule of thumb ( recommended by Reynolds4 ), the column can be designed as

compression member by assuming equivalent column load coefficients as below –

Rigid Connections Simple

Column Top Storey next Lower Connections
Storey to top Storey All

Internal Column 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Edge ( side) column 4.5 2.0 1.4 1.15

Corner Column 6.0 2.3 1.8 1.33

Equivalent direct load = Coefficient x Static axial load

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Note – Above said coefficient are approximate and are meant for approximate design a
column mainly for residential building and only for standard dead + Live loads and not
for earthquake / wind loads.

Foundation Design -

 Soil Investigation is recommended for all medium and major structures.

 The foundations are designed for the uplift force, down thrust, lateral forces and
over turning moments for varieties of soils.
 Flat Foundations are better choice considering equal pressure distribution below
foundation and compaction point of view.
 Depending upon the soil type & conditions the foundation system can be an Open
foundations, Raft slab or Pile foundations.
 For Pile foundations, as the concrete is being poured in bore holes in soil, it is
recommended to test 100 % of piles with Pile Integrity Testing machine.
 As per IS – 1904-1986, for RCC structures with open foundations, the maximum total
settlement shall be less than 60 mm and the differential settlement shall not exceed
0.0020 L ( where L is the centre to centre distance between two adjacent columns ).
Differential settlement leads to substantial increase in moments on the columns and
beams.

For small structures ( one or two storey ), in absence of any detail soil investigation
data, the bearing capacity of various soil types may be assumed as below. But it shall be
confirmed that, there is no softer strata below the founding level than the assumed
strata type. And there is no ground water for at least 1.5 m to 2 m below the founding
level.

Approximate Bearing Capacities

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The safe net bearing capacity of soil depends on number of factors like Type of soil,
Depth of water table, moisture condition, size & shape of footing, Load eccentricity etc.

Working Stress Method -

 Based on a classical Elastic theory & developed for purely elastic materials.
 The stresses in the structure at working loads are not allowed to exceed a certain
proportion of the yield stress of the construction material, i.e. the stress levels are
limited to the elastic range.
 Sometimes still used because –
o Mathematically simple in application
o It gave reasonable safety and serviceability

Salient Features –
 Assume that both concrete & steel obey Hook’s Law (Displacement is proportionate
to load ), which in not true
 Due to non-linear stress-strain relationship Modulus of Elasticity also varies,
therefore constant value of Modular ratio cannot be used
 It does not predict true margin of safety ( Plastic zone is ignored )
 Additional Load carrying capacity in plastic region is not taken into account
 It considers Ultimate stress as the limit of safety, but safety is a function of ultimate
strain
 Since the structure is subjected to loads, then loads should form failure criteria and
not stress

Pre - stressed / Post – Tensioned Concrete

Pre-stressing of concrete is defined as the application of compressive stresses to

concrete members. Those zones of the member ultimately required to carry tensile
stresses under working load conditions are given an initial compressive stress before
the application of working loads so that the tensile stresses developed by these working
loads are balanced by induced compressive strength. Pre-stress can be applied in two
ways - Pre-tensioning or Post-tensioning.

Pre-tensioning
Pre-tensioning is the application, before casting, of a tensile force to high tensile steel
tendons around which the concrete is to be cast. When the placed concrete has
developed sufficient compressive strength a compressive force is imparted to it by
releasing the tendons, so that the concrete member is in a permanent state of pre-stress.

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Post-tensioning
Post-tensioning is the application of a compressive force to the concrete at some point
in time after casting. When the concrete has gained strength a state of pre-stress is
induced by tensioning steel tendons passed through ducts cast into the concrete, and
locking the stressed tendons with mechanical anchors. The tendons are then normally
grouted in place.

Advantages of Pre-stressing

 Pre-stressing minimises the effect of cracks in concrete elements by holding the

concrete in compression.
 Pre-stressing allows reduced beam depths to be achieved for equivalent design
strengths.
 Pre-stressed concrete is resilient and will recover from the effects of a greater
degree of overload than any other structural material.
 If the member is subject to overload, cracks, which may develop, will close up on
removal of the overload.
 Pre-stressing enables both entire structural elements and structures to be
formed from a number of precast units, e.g. Segmented and Modular
Construction.
 Lighter elements permit the use of longer spanning members with a high
strength to weight characteristic.
 The ability to control deflections in pre-stressed beams and slabs permits longer
spans to be achieved.
 Pre-stressing permits a more efficient usage of steel and enables the economic
use of high tensile steels and high strength concrete.

Pre – stressing Post – Tensioning

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Joints in construction -

Concrete structures are subjected to a variety of stresses. These stresses are the result
of shrinkage and differential movement.
Shrinkage occurs during hydration, and differential movement is caused by
temperature changes and different loading conditions.
These stresses can cause cracking, spalling, and scaling of concrete surfaces and, in
extreme cases, can result in failure of the structure

Expansion joints

All concrete, once placed, will contract slightly during the curing process; this is the
primary cause of small surface cracks that appear during the curing process.

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When set, concrete will expand and/or contract slightly with ambient temperature. It is
therefore advisable to incorporate some form of movement joint within larger slabs,
particularly those 6m x 6m in plan or larger.

Normally structures exceeding 45 m in length are designed with one or more expansion
joints.

Contraction Joints

Also known as 'shrinkage joints', this type of joint allows only for contraction or
shrinkage of the slab, as can be anticipated during the curing process.
Large flat areas, or long lengths of concrete placed monolithically, require contraction
joints.
These are essentially weakened planes constructed in a concrete member to provide a
reduction in member thickness for the purpose of controlling shrinkage stresses to that
specific area.

Typical Construction joint

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Construction joints (Cold joints)

Construction joints are the joints provided between successive pours of concrete that
have been carried out after a time lag.

As far as possible the construction joints should be avoided and every care should be
taken to keep their numbers minimal.

Since, presence of these joints creates a plane of weakness within the concrete body,
these joints should be pre-planned and their location should be such that they are at
places where they are subjected to minimum bending moment and minimum shear
force.

Typical Locations of Cold Joints

Cracks in structure -
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a) Structural Cracks –

Structural cracks can occur due to various reasons such as -

 Incorrect Design
 Faulty construction
 Overloading ( change of use, alterations etc. )
 Incorrect Detailing
 In correct assessment of bearing capacity
 Foundation movement and settlement of soil
 Corrosion

b) Non Structural Cracks –

Non-Structural cracks are mostly due to internally induced stresses in building

materials such as -

 Moisture changes
 Thermal movement
 Elastic deformation
 Creep
 Chemical reaction
 Foundation movement and settlement of soil
 Vegetation

Building materials expand on absorbing moisture and shrink on drying. These are
generally reversible. Shrinkage in concrete or mortar depends on a number of factors -

 Concrete Mix - Richer the mix greater is the drying shrinkage.

 Water content - More water in mix induces greater shrinkage
 Aggregate - Large aggregates with good grading has less shrinkage for same
workability as less water is used
 Curing: If proper curing starts as soon as final set has taken place and continued for
7 to 10 days shrinkage is comparatively less
 Excessive fines: More fines in aggregate requires more water for same workability
and hence more shrinkage.
 Temperature: Concrete made in hot weather needs more water for same workability
and hence results in more shrinkage.
Type of Crack Cause / Reason
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Random or Map Pattern cracks in concrete These cracks are likely to be due to
members exposed to weather occurring shrinkage caused by carbonation of
many years after construction ( 15 to 25 concrete.
years) & Progressing very slowly
Straight cracks in concrete members Corrosion Cracks
parallel to reinforcement, accompanied by
spalling of cover and exposure of
reinforcement at places, cracking having
occurred 10 to 25 years after construction
Straight cracks in RCC sunshads across the
These cracks are due to Drying shrinkage
length occurring at regular intervals of 3 to
of concrete combined with thermal
5 m & also at changes in direction. contraction. Cracks are more prominent in
winter. These cracks would occur when
proper Control / expansion joints have not
been provided.
Straight cracks in long RCC Balconies Same as Above , but spacing of cracks in
across their length balconies is somewhat more than those in
sunshades.

Yield Lines - Slab

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Structural Cracks –
Structural cracks can develop in various forms such as –
Compression crack – Normally vertical to force
Tension Crack – Normally perpendicular to the force
Torsional crack – Normally spiral
Shear Crack – inclined crack
Flexural crack – Perpendicular to the main reinforcement

Bridge girder showing Shear & Flexural Cracks

Settlement Cracks -
Building on expansion clays are extremely crack prone. The soil movement in such clay
is more appreciable upto a depth of 3.5 m and this causes swelling and shrinkage and
results in crack in the structure.
The cracks due to settlement are usually diagonal in shape.

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 Settlement Cracks Corrosion Cracks

Repair of Cracks in Structures –

The repair for cracks may be undertaken after ascertaining the reasons for the
appearance of the crack. A few basic principles if followed will be more effective

 Rendering of minor crack less than 1 mm wide may be done after observing the
crack for some time and then sealing it with weak mortar of cement, lime and sand.
 Cracks where width change with season should be filled up with elastic fillers like
silicon or polyurethene compound.
 Where shear crack are observed shear keys made of RCC concrete with at least 1.5
percent steel vein forcemeat may be provided at 1 to 1.5m intervals.

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 If cracks are due to movement of soil in black cotton once, prevention of moisture
penetration in the surrounding areas has to be ensured by providing a waterproof
blanket around the plinth. The masonry wall below ground level should also be
separated from the adjoining soil by replacing the existing soil with coarse grain
material.
 The surface width of the cracks should not, in general, exceed 0.3 mm in members
where cracking is not harmful and does not have any serious adverse effects upon
the preservation of reinforcing steel nor upon the durability of the structures.
 In members where cracking in the tensile zone is harmful either because they are
exposed to the effects of the weather or continuously exposed to moisture or in
contact soil or ground water, an upper limit of 0.2 mm is suggested.
 Width of cracks. For particularly aggressive environment, such as the ‘severe’
category, the assessed surface width of cracks should not in general, exceed 0.1 mm.

Cracks in Non Load bearing Masonry

Crack Width (mm) Category Classification

Less than 2 mm Very slight Aesthetic
2 mm to 5 mm Slight Aesthetic
5 mm to 15 mm Moderate Serviceability
15 mm to 25 mm Severe Serviceability
Over 25 mm Very severe Stability

Non-Moving cracks

Crack Width Description of Grout

05 – 10 mm Non – shrink cementitious grouts (ready to use) with sand (less
than 1.18 mm size).
02 – 05 mm Non – shrink cementitious grouts ( ready to use) without sand
1.0 – 03 mm Low Viscosity (500 Cps ) Epoxy injection grouts with Pressure of
5 to 7 Kg/Sqcm.
0.3 – 1.0 mm Super Low Viscosity (less than 200 Cps) Epoxy injection grouts
with 5 to 7 Kg/Sqcm. Pressure.
0.1 – 0.5 mm High Molecular weight very low viscosity ( 2 to 5 Cps. ) Resin
injection grout with 2 Kg/ Sqcm.

Moving cracks

Crack Width Description of Grout

01 – 05 mm Flexible Epoxy / Polyurethane Sealant (for Non-structural
cracks)
01 – 05 mm Silicon / Polysulphide Sealant ( For Surface gap sealing )

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General measures for avoidance reduction of cracks due to elastic strain, creep
and shrinkage
 Water cement ratio is to be controlled.
 Reasonable pace of construction adopted.
 Brick work over load bearing RCC members should be done after removal of
shutting giving a time gap.
 Brick walls between columns should be deferred as much as possible.
 Plastering of areas having RCC and brick members should be done after sufficient
time gap say one month or suitable groves provided in junction.
 Shuttering should be allowed stay for a larger period say 30 days or so for
cantilevers which are bound to deflect appreciably.

New Structural Repair Technique - Fiber Wrapping

Fiber Reinforced Composites can be used in the concrete structures in following forms –

Plate – at a face to improve the tension capacity

Bars – as reinforcement in the beams and slabs replacing the steel bars.
Cable – as tendons and post tension members
Wraps – around concrete members to confine concrete and improve the compressive
strength
Stand alone components – to replace heavier concrete or steel members to reduce self
weight and increase capacity of structure.

Type of Fiber Tensile strength ( Mpa)

Carbon 2500 – 4000

Aramid 3000 – 4000
Glass 1700 – 3000
Polyester 2000 – 3000
Steel 250 – 600

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Limitations
 Strengthening by FRP, only on tension side of flexural members, may lead to over-
reinforced section and sudden failure
 Column – Beam junctions ( with slab ) can not be treated by FRP
 Efficiency reduces, if not wrapped on all faces
 Structural solutions with FRP system not yet fully developed
 Requires very skilled labour / Contractor
 Don’t go by manufacturers high claims – based on idealistic conditions

Learning from failures - 10 Basic Rules

References –
1) IS – 456 – 2000 - Plain & Reinforced Concrete Code of Practice
2) IS – 875 – 1987 - Code of Practice for Design Loads
3) IS – 1904 - 1986 - Code of Practice for Design & Construction of Foundations in Soil
4) “Limit State Theory & Design Reinforced Concrete” – by Dr. Karve S R & Dr. Shah V L
5) “Reinforced Concrete Designer's Handbook” – by C.E. Reynolds

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