Math 1310: Integral Calculus and Applications

Winter, 2018

Instructor: Shu Xiao Li

Feb. 12, 2018

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Parametrization

Definition
A (planar) path is a continuous function γ : [a, b] → R2 ,
γ(t) = (f (t), g (t)).
Or equivalently, x = f (t), y = g (t), t ∈ [a, b].

Example
Parametrize the curve y = x from x = 0 to x = 1.

Solution
γ(t) = (t, t), or x = t, y = t, t ∈ [0, 1].

Another Solution
γ(t) = (2t, 2t), or x = 2t, y = 2t, t ∈ [0, 1/2].

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Parametrization
Example
Parametrize the line segment between (a, b) and (c, d).

Solution
γ(t) = (1 − t)(a, b) + t(c, d) = (a − at + ct, b − bt + dt),
t ∈ [0, 1].

Example
Parametrize the circle x 2 + y 2 = 1.

Solution
γ(t) = (cos t, sin t), or x = cos t, y = sin t, t ∈ [0, 2π).

Another Solution
γ(t) = (cos t, sin t), or x = cos t, y = sin t, t ∈ [0, 4π).
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Parametrization
Example
Parametrize the curve y = x 2 between (−1, 1) and (1, 1).

Solution
γ(t) = (t, t 2 ), or x = t, y = t 2 , t ∈ [−1, 1].

Another Solution
γ(t) = (sin t, sin2 t), or x = sin t, y = sin2 t, t ∈ [0, ∞).
(Animation)

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Parametrization
Example
γ(t) = (cos t, sin(2t)), t ∈ [0, 2π). (Animation)

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Parametrization
Example
γ(t) = (t + sin(3t), t + sin(2t)), t ∈ [0, 2π). (Animation)

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Parametrization
Example
γ(t) = (sin(8t), sin(7t)), t ∈ [0, 2π). (Animation)

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Parametrization
Example
γ(t) = (2 cos(6t) + cos(13t), 2 sin(6t) − sin(13t)), t ∈ [0, 2π).
(Animation)

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Parametrization

Self-intersection
Let γ be a path. If γ(s) = γ(t) for some s 6= t, then γ(t) is called
a self-intersection.

Example
Find the self-intersection of the path γ(t) = (cos t, sin(2t)),
t ∈ [0, 2π).

Solution
Assume γ(s) = γ(t) for some s, t. Then, cos s = cos t implies
s = 2π − t. Hence, sin(2(2π − t)) = sin(2t) i.e.
sin(2t) = sin(−2t). Therefore, sin(2t) = 0 and we must have
t = π/2, s = 3π/2 or t = 3π/2, s = π/2. In both cases, the
intersection is (0, 0).

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Parametrization

Tangent
Let x = f (t), y = g (t) be a parametric equation where f (t), g (t)
are differentiable, then
dy dy /dt g 0 (t)
(t) = = 0 .
dx dx/dt f (t)

Proof
y (x) = g (t) = g (f −1 (x)), then by the chain rule,

dy
= (g (f −1 (x)))0
dx
= g 0 (f −1 (x))(f −1 (x))0
1 g 0 (t)
= g 0 (f −1 (x)) = .
f 0 (f −1 (x)) f 0 (t)

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Parametrization

Second Derivative
Similarly, if f 00 (t) and g 00 (t) exists, then
 
  d dy /dt
2
d y d dy dx g 00 (t)f 0 (t) − g 0 (t)f 00 (t)
= = = .
dx 2 dx dx dx/dt f 0 (t)3

Definition
A curve is concave up on (a, b) if its second derivative is
positive on (a, b).
A curve is concave down on (a, b) if its second derivative is
negative on (a, b).

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Parametrization

Example 1
Let γ(t) = (t 2 , t 3 − t). Find its tangents at the point (1, 0).

Solution
When γ(t) = (1, 0), we have t 2 = 1 and t 3 − t = 0. Hence, t = 1
or t = −1.

dy 3t 2 − 1
At t = 1, (1) = (1) = 1. Hence, the tangent line is
dx 2t
y = x − 1.

dy 3t 2 − 1
At t = −1, (−1) = (−1) = −1. Hence, the tangent line
dx 2t
is y = −x + 1.

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Parametrization

Example 2
Let γ(t) = (t − sin t, 1 − cos t). Find its tangent line at t = π/3.

Solution
! √ !
π π π 3 1
At t = , γ = − , and
3 3 3 2 2

dy sin t √
(π/3) = (π/3) = 3.
dx 1 − cos t
√ !
1 √ π 3
Therefore, the tangent line is y − = 3 x − + .
2 3 2

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Parametrization

Example 3
Let γ(t) = (cos t, sin 2t), t ∈ [0, 2π). Find its vertical and
horizontal tangent lines.

Solution
γ has horizontal tangent when dy /dx = 0 i.e. when dy /dt = 0
and dx/dt 6= 0. Hence, 2 cos 2t = 0 and − sin t 6= 0. We have
π 3π 5π 7π
t= , , or . The tangents are y = 1 and y = −1.
4 4 4 4
γ has vertical tangent when dy /dx = ∞ i.e. when dy /dt 6= 0 and
dx/dt = 0. Hence, 2 cos 2t 6= 0 and − sin t = 0. We have t = 0 or
t = π. The tangents are x = 1 and x = −1.

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Parametrization

Area under curve

Let γ(t) = (f (t), g (t)), t ∈ [a, b] be a parametrization of a curve
y = h(x), x ∈ [f (a), f (b)], then the area under curve γ is
Z b
g (t)f 0 (t)dt.
a

Proof
Z f (b) Z f (b)
By definition, the area is h(x)dx = g (f −1 (x))dx.
f (a) f (a)
Substitute x = f (t) and dx = f 0 (t)dt, we have
Z f (b) Z b
−1
g (f (x))dx = g (t)f 0 (t)dt.
f (a) a

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Parametrization

Example 1
Find the area bounded by γ(t) = (t 2 , t 3 − t).

Solution
The area bounded by γ(t) = (t 2 , t 3 − t) is (−2) times the area
under γ(t) for t ∈ [0, 1). Hence, the area is
Z 1 Z 1
3 8
−2 (t − t)(2t)dt = −4 t 4 − t 2 dt = .
0 0 15

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Parametrization

Example 2
Find the area under γ(t) = (t − sin t, 1 − cos t), t ∈ [0, 2π).

Solution

Z 2π Z 2π
(1 − cos t)(1 − cos t)dt = 1 − 2 cos t + cos2 tdt
0 0
Z 2π
1 + cos 2t
= 1 − 2 cos t + dt
0 2
 
3 sin 2t 2π
= t − 2 sin t +
2 4

0

= 3π.

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Parametrization

Example 3
Find the area bounded by γ(t) = (cos t, sin 2t).

Solution
The area bounded by γ(t) = (cos t, sin 2t) is (−4) times the area
under γ(t) for t ∈ [0, π/2). Hence, the area is
Z π/2 Z π/2
−4 sin 2t(− sin t)dt = 4 (2 sin t cos t) sin tdt
0 0
Z π/2
=8 sin2 t cos tdt
0
Z 1
8
=8 u 2 du = .
0 3

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Parametrization

Volume by revolution
Let γ(t) = (f (t), g (t)), t ∈ [a, b] be a parametrization of a curve
y = h(x), x ∈ [f (a), f (b)], then the volume of the solid obtained
by rotating the curve γ about x-axis is
Z b
π(g (t))2 f 0 (t)dt.
a

Proof
Z f (b)
By definition, the volume is π(h(x))2 dx. Substitute x = f (t)
f (a)
and dx = f 0 (t)dt, we have
Z f (b) Z b
−1
π(g (f 2
(x))) dx = π(g (t))2 f 0 (t)dt.
f (a) a

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Parametrization

Example 1
Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating
γ(t) = (t 2 , t 3 − t) about x-axis.

Solution

Z 1 Z 1
3 2 π
π(t − t) (2t)dt = 2π t 7 − 2t 5 + t 3 dt = .
0 0 12

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Parametrization

Example 2
Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating
γ(t) = (t − sin t, 1 − cos t), t ∈ [0, 2π) about x-axis.

Solution

Z 2π
π(1 − cos t)2 (1 − cos t)dt
0
Z 2π
=π 1 − 3 cos t + 3 cos2 t − cos3 tdt
0
Z 2π
3 3 3 1
=π 1 − 3 cos t + + cos 2t − cos t − cos 3tdt
0 2 2 4 4
=5π 2 .

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Parametrization

Example 3
Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating
γ(t) = (cos t, sin 2t) about x-axis.

Solution

Z 0
π(sin 2t)2 sin tdt
π
Z 0
=π (2 sin t cos t)2 sin tdt
π
Z 0
=4π sin3 t cos2 tdt
π
Z 1
16
=4π (1 − u 2 )u 2 du = π.
−1 15

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Parametrization
Exercise 1
Find the area bounded by the curve (Animation)
γ(t) = (16 sin3 t, 13 cos t − 5 cos 2t − 2 cos 3t − cos 4t), t ∈ [0, 2π).

Graph

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Parametrization

Hint
A vertical tangent is x = 16, when t = π/2 and γ(t) = (16, 4).
Therefore. the area is
Z π/2 Z π !
0 0
2 (g (t) − 4)f (t)dt + f (t)g (t)dt
0 π/2
Z π/2
=2 (13 cos t − 5 cos 2t − 2 cos 3t − cos 4t)(48 sin2 t cos t)dt
0
Z π/2
+2 (−4)(48 sin2 t cos t)dt
Z0 π
+2 (16 sin3 t)(−13 sin t + 10 sin 2t + 6 sin 3t + 4 sin 4t)dt.
π/2

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Parametrization
Exercise 2
Find the length
√ of the curve tp ∈ [−π/2, π/2] (Animation),
γ(t) = (t, ( cos t cos 200t + |t| − 1)(4 − t 2 )0.1 ).

Graph

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Parametrization

Arc length
Let γ(t) = (f (t), g (t)), t ∈ [a, b] be a parametrization of y = h(x)
on [f (a), f (b)] where f (t), g (t) are differentiable and f 0 (t), g 0 (t)
are continuous on [a, b]. Then the length of γ(t) is
Z b q
(f 0 (t))2 + (g 0 (t))2 dt.
a

Proof
Z f (b) q
By definition, the length is 1 + (h0 (x))2 dx. Substitute
f (a)
x = f (t) and dx = f 0 (t)dt, we have
Z f (b) q Z b q
1+ (h0 (x))2 dx = 1 + (g 0 (t)/f 0 (t))2 f 0 (t)dt.
f (a) a

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Parametrization

Example 1
√ √
Find the length of the curve γ(t) = (t 2 , t 3 /3 − t), t ∈ [− 3, 3].

Solution
√
Z 3 q
√ (2t)2 + (t 2 − 1)2 dt
− 3
√
Z 3p
= √ t 4 + 2t 2 + 1dt
− 3
√
Z 3
2
= √ t + 1dt
− 3
√
=4 3.

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Parametrization

Example 2
Find the length of the curve γ(t) = (t − sin t, 1 − cos t),
t ∈ [0, 2π).

Solution

Z 2π q
(1 − cos t)2 + (sin t)2 dt
0
Z 2π p
= 1 − 2 cos t + cos2 t + sin2 tdt
0
Z 2π p
= 2(1 − cos t)dt
0
Z 2π q 2π
2
= 2 sin (t/2)dt = −4 cos(t/2) = 8.

0 0

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Parametrization

Surface area
Let γ(t) = (f (t), g (t)), t ∈ [a, b] be a parametrization of
y = h(x), x ∈ [f (a), f (b)] where f (t), g (t) are differentiable and
f 0 (t), g 0 (t) are continuous on [a, b]. Then the are of the surface
obtained by rotating the curve γ about x-axis is
Z b q
2πg (t) (f 0 (t))2 + (g 0 (t))2 dt.
a

Proof
Exercise.

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Parametrization

Example 1
Find the area of the surface obtained
√ √ by rotating
γ(t) = (t 2 , t 3 /3 − t), t ∈ [− 3, 3] about x-axis.

Solution
√
Z 3 q
2π(t − t 3 /3) (2t)2 + (t 2 − 1)2 dt
0
√
Z 3 p
= 2π(t − t 3 /3) t 4 + 2t 2 + 1dt
0
√
Z 3
= 2π(t − t 3 /3)(t 2 + 1)dt
0
 6  √
t 1 4 1 2  3
=2π − + t + t  = 3π.
18 6 2 0

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Parametrization

Example 2
Find the area of the surface obtained by rotating
γ(t) = (t − sin t, 1 − cos t), t ∈ [0, 2π) about x-axis.

Solution

Z 2π q
2π(1 − cos t) (1 − cos t)2 + (sin t)2 dt
0
Z 2π
=2π (1 − cos t)(2 sin(t/2))dt
0
Z 2π
=16π − 4π cos t sin(t/2)dt
0
Z 2π
64
=16π + 2π sin(t/2) − sin(3t/2)dt = π.
0 3

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Polarization

Polar Coordinates
A point (x, y ) can be represented by a pair (r , θ) where r ≥ 0 and
θ ∈ [0, 2π).

Change coordinates
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ,
p
r = x 2 + y 2 and θ = tan−1 (y /x).

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Polarization

Example
Express the following Cartesian coordinates in terms of polar
coordinates
(1, 1), (0, 1), (−1, −1), (1, −1).

Example
Express the following polar coordinates in terms of Cartesian
coordinates
(1, π), (2, π/4), (2, 3π/2), (3, 5π/3).

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Polarization

Polar equations
A polar equation is of the form r = f (θ), e.g. r = 2θ, or more
generally F (r , θ) = 0 e.g. r θ + cos r = 0.

Change coordinates
Given a Cartesian equation F (x, y ) = 0, the corresponding polar
equation is F (r cos θ, r sin θ) = 0.

Given a polar equation

p F (r , θ) = 0, the corresponding Cartesian
equation is F ( x 2 + y 2 , tan−1 (y /x)) = 0.

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Polarization

Example
Express the following polar equations in terms of Cartesian
equations
r = 1,
r = θ,
r = cos θ.

Solution
x 2 + y 2 = 1,
p 
y = x tan x2 + y2 ,
x 2 + y 2 = x.

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Polarization

Example
Express the following Cartesian equations in terms of polar
equations
y =1
x 2 + 2y 2 = 1
y = x2

Solution
1
r=
sin θ
s
1
r=
1 + sin2 θ
sin θ
r=
cos2 θ
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Polarization

Parametrization
The graph of a polar equation r = f (θ) can be expressed as a path
γ(t) = (f (t) cos t, f (t) sin t) in Cartesian coordiates.
The x-intercepts of the graph r = f (θ) appear when
θ = 0, π, 2π, . . . i.e. at (f (0), 0), (f (π), 0), (f (2π), 0), . . . .
The y -intercepts of the graph r = f (θ) appear when
θ = π/2, 3π/2, −π/2, . . . i.e. at (0, f (π/2)), (0, f (3π/2)),
(0, f (−π/2)), . . . .

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Polarization

Example 1
Sketch the curve r = θ, θ ∈ [0, 2π), and find its length.

Graph

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Polarization

Solution
The curve has parametric equation γ(θ) = (θ cos θ, θ sin θ),
θ ∈ [0, 2π). Therefore, the length is
Z 2π q
(cos θ − θ sin θ)2 + (sin θ + θ cos θ)2 dθ
0
Z 2π p
= 1 + θ2 dθ
0
 p  2π
θ 2
1 p 2
= θ + 1 + ln  θ + 1 + θ 
 
2 2 0
p 1 p
=π 4π 2 + 1 + ln( 4π 2 + 1 + 2π).
2

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Polarization

Example 2
Sketch the curve r = 1 + cos θ, θ ∈ [0, 2π) and find its length.

Graph

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Polarization

Solution
The curve has parametric equation
γ(θ) = ((1 + cos θ) cos θ, (1 + cos θ) sin θ), θ ∈ [0, 2π). Therefore,
the length is
Z 2π q
(−2 sin θ cos θ − sin θ)2 + (− sin2 θ + cos θ + cos2 θ)2 dθ
0
√
Z 2π Z 2π
= 2 + 2 cos θdθ = 2 |cos(θ/2)| dθ
0 0
Z π Z 2π
= 2 cos(θ/2)dθ − 2 cos(θ/2)dθ
0 π
π 2π
=4 sin(θ/2) − 4 sin(θ/2) = 8.
 
0 π

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Polarization

Example 3
Sketch the curve r = 1 + cos(θ + π/2), θ ∈ [0, 2π).

Graph

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Polarization

Exercises
Sketch the following curves.
r = |θ|, θ ∈ [−2π, 2π].
r = 1 + 2 sin θ, θ ∈ [0, 2π).
r = sin 3θ, θ ∈ [0, 2π).
r = sin 4θ, θ ∈ [0, 2π).
r θ = 1, θ ∈ (0, 4π].

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