A new multimedia resource for teaching quantum mechanics concepts

Antje Kohnle, Donatella Cassettari, Tom J. Edwards, Callum Ferguson, Alastair D. Gillies et al.

Citation: Am. J. Phys. 80, 148 (2012); doi: 10.1119/1.3657800

View online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1119/1.3657800
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Published by the American Association of Physics Teachers

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A new multimedia resource for teaching quantum mechanics concepts
Antje Kohnle,a) Donatella Cassettari, Tom J. Edwards, Callum Ferguson, Alastair D. Gillies,
Christopher A. Hooley, Natalia Korolkova, Joseph Llama, and Bruce D. Sinclair
School of Physics and Astronomy, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, KY16 9SS, Scotland,
United Kingdom
(Received 28 July 2011; accepted 13 October 2011)
We describe a collection of interactive animations and visualizations for teaching quantum
mechanics. The animations can be used at all levels of the undergraduate curriculum. Each animation
includes a step-by-step exploration that explains the key points. The animations and instructor
resources are freely available. By using a diagnostic survey, we report substantial learning gains for
students who have worked with the animations. VC 2012 American Association of Physics Teachers.
[DOI: 10.1063/1.3657800]

I. INTRODUCTION potentials (5); measurement and wave function collapse (1);

Quantum mechanics is one of the most challenging topics
students encounter in the physics curriculum. Students can
become proficient at performing quantum mechanical calcula-
tions, but still have difficulty interpreting their results. A sub-
stantial effort has been made to investigate particular student
difficulties and misconceptions in quantum mechanics and to
discern the underlying reasons for these difficulties.1–11 This
work has led to the development of conceptual diagnostic
tests,12–16 and to the development of resources and teaching
strategies for improving student learning of quantum
mechanics.17–21
There is evidence that a conceptual knowledge of quantum
mechanics is robust and well-maintained over substantial peri-
ods of time.22 Animations and simulations can play an impor-
tant role in helping students build mental representations of
physics concepts, and have been shown to be effective in
helping students learn a number of physics topics.23–36 The
animations and visualizations (collectively called animations
in what follows) we have been developing and evaluating37
are complementary to existing resources. Based on education
research and our own teaching experience (the project
includes four quantum mechanics lecturers), each animation
includes a step-by-step exploration that explains key points in
detail, and specifically targets student misconceptions and
areas of difficulty in quantum mechanics.
In Sec. II, we describe the animations in detail and highlight
aspects that make them useful educational tools. Section III
presents the outcomes of interviews and observation sessions
with students from two institutions. Section IV explains our
evaluation efforts, and Sec. V discusses future work.
II. OVERVIEW OF THE ANIMATIONS
Since summer 2009 we have been creating a set of anima-
tions aimed at university students studying quantum mechan-
ics. This resource now includes over 40 animations and
additional animations are being developed and added. So far,
we have developed animations on the following topics (the
number of animations for each topic are in parentheses, with
some animations listed under more than one topic): Probabil-
istic analysis of classical systems (2); Bohr’s model of the
hydrogen atom (1); the photoelectric effect (1); probability
current (1); wave packets (5); the Heisenberg uncertainty
principle (2); momentum probability densities; the one-
dimensional infinite square well (10); the finite well (2); the
harmonic oscillator (5); bound states in other one-dimensional
one-dimensional scattering (4); expansion in eigenstates (5);
the sudden approximation (3); bound states in two-dimensional
potentials (3); time-independent perturbation theory (4); multi-
particle wave functions (2); spin and angular momentum (5);
the density matrix (1); and quantum information (1).
The animations are created in Adobe Flash,38 which
allows for easy layering of objects and ensures that the ani-
mations have a small file size. The calculations were per-
formed in Mathematica and the graphs were imported as a
series of static vector curves into Flash. The animations
require Flash Player and can be viewed in a web browser39
or downloaded as individual swf files. Flash Player is in-
stalled as a plug-in on most browsers so users may drag the
file into a browser window to run the animation.
Key aspects that make the animations useful for learning
include that they are based on outcomes of education research
and our experience; each animation focuses on a single con-
cept and includes a “Step-by-Step Exploration” tab which
explains details of the animation. In each step, one aspect of
the animation is explained and highlighting is used to show
this aspect in the graphs or images. Users can move forward
and backward through the steps, or move directly to the first or
last step; all animations include interactive elements such as
sliders, radio buttons, play controls, and check boxes to en-
courage exploration and investigation. The animations help
students build their intuition by emphasizing comparisons with
classical behavior, highlighting both similarities and differen-
ces between classical and quantum systems. Several anima-
tions use wave packets to describe localized particles, making
possible the comparison with classical particle trajectories.
Instructor resources include problem sheets with full solu-
tions. The problems require students to make predictions,
switch between different representations, and interpret the
results of calculations. The animations and instructor resour-
ces have been tested with students and the results of the
evaluations have been used to optimize the resources (see
Ref. 37 and Secs. III and IV).
To illustrate some of these points, Fig. 1 shows two
screenshots of an animation on the probabilistic analysis of a
classical oscillator. Probability plays a key role in under-
standing quantum physics, but many students have little ex-
perience analyzing classical systems probabilistically.7,8
This animation helps students understand the classical proba-
bility density of a mass-spring system, and to distinguish
between probability densities and probabilities. Figure 1(a)
shows the main window, with snapshots of the oscillator’s
position at various times; Fig. 1(b) shows one of the steps in

148 Am. J. Phys. 80 (2), February 2012 http://aapt.org/ajp C 2012 American Association of Physics Teachers
V 148

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Fig. 1. (Color online) Screenshots of the animation, “Probabilistic analysis of a mass-spring system.” (a) The “Animation” view and (b) the “Step-by-step
Exploration” view.

the Step-by-step Exploration tab, with the classical probabil-
ity density seen as the limit when the number of snapshots
approaches infinity and the bin size approaches zero.
III. STUDENT OBSERVATION SESSIONS
To optimize interface design and content we conducted
individual student observation sessions and interviews with
five first- or second-year physics students from the University
of Edinburgh, and eight second- or third-year physics students
from the University of St. Andrews. The Edinburgh students
used two animations in a single workshop session; the St.
Andrews students had used a larger number of animations in
tutorial problems. In the observation sessions the students first
interacted freely with an animation they had not encountered
previously (see Fig. 2). This animation covered material

149 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 80, No. 2, February 2012 Kohnle et al. 149

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 Fig. 2. (Color online) Screenshot of the animation “Scattering from a finite well,” after modifications due to the observation sessions were implemented.
which was not part of the quantum physics courses at either
institution, but which should have been accessible to both
groups of students. During this part of the session, students
were asked to think aloud while using the animation. In the
second part, students were asked questions about the content
of the animation to see if the explanations and graphs made
sense to them. A follow-up interview gave students the oppor-
tunity to reflect on their use of this animation and others they
had used. The entire session lasted about 30 min.
Despite the small number of volunteers for these observa-
tion sessions, we found a high level of consistency across
both institutions on several issues concerning interface
design and content. The feedback led to a number of inter-
face design improvements that are now being incorporated
into all animations. In particular, we are changing the step-
by-step exploration controls (see Fig. 3), disabling backward
controls on the first step and forward controls on the last
step, and adding a step counter that shows the total number
of steps and highlights the current one. We also modified the
Fig. 3. (Color online) A picture of the (a) old and (b) revised step-by-step
exploration controls. Student observation sessions had shown that navigation
through the steps was unclear.
150 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 80, No. 2, February 2012
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design of the radio buttons to make it more obvious which
button is selected, extended the functionality of the sliders so
that the slider can be changed both by dragging and by click-
ing a certain slider position, and grayed out controls that are
not active, such as in the step-by-step exploration.
We also used the interface design research outcomes of
PhET,40–42 such as including controls that students may
believe to be significant but are not (such as allowing the
user to change the light intensity in the photoelectric effect,
even though this change has no effect on stopping voltage),
and avoiding an overly complex appearance on start-up,
because such an appearance can inhibit exploration and
interaction. Check boxes, in particular those displaying addi-
tional graphs or information, are unchecked as the default,
and a simple situation is displayed. As an example, the “Bohr
model and its extension to elliptical orbits” animation begins
with circular orbits. We keep the “look-and-feel,” that is, the
interactive elements, controls, and layout, consistent across
all animations. For example, classical quantities are shown
as red in all animations. We also include multiple representa-
tions of the same phenomenon, or contrast the quantum and
classical behavior of the same phenomenon. For example,
we show the trajectory of a ball in a two-dimensional infinite
square well and the corresponding quantum momentum
probability density. Tabs are made more prominent to avoid
the “Step-by-Step Exploration” tab from being overlooked.
Several issues were raised that are not specific to the partic-
ular animation used, including avoiding inconsistencies in nu-
merical and graphical representations due to the number of
decimal places displayed. (In the animation used in the obser-
vation sessions, the reflected fraction was displayed as “0.00”,
even though the graph still showed a reflected wave function
with nonzero amplitude); choosing a plotting range large
enough that the shape of the wave function (oscillatory or ex-
ponential) is unambiguous; and using color to distinguish
Kohnle et al. 150
between overlaid curves, such as the incident and reflected
wave function.
IV. DIAGNOSTIC SURVEY RESULTS
In 2010 we performed a preliminary evaluation of the ani-
mations using questionnaires and a diagnostic survey admin-
istered to second-year and third-year undergraduates taking
courses on quantum mechanics.37 The results showed that
the students found the animations useful for improving con-
ceptual understanding. Second-year students performed
significantly better than the third-year students on the two
questions related to topics for which second-year students
had used animations but third-year students had not.
Because we were not able to determine whether this differ-
ence in performance was due to the animations or another
factor, we modified our procedure to try to isolate the effect
of the animations and administered the same diagnostic
survey to second-year students at a time when only part of
the class had used the animations.
All students completing the survey were either studying
for a physics or astronomy degree or a joint degree including
physics. The introductory course includes 15 lectures on
quantum physics and covers historical aspects of the devel-
opment of quantum mechanics, the Schrödinger equation,
bound-state solutions for the one-dimensional infinite and
finite-depth square wells, energy eigenstates and superposi-
tion of states, expectation values, and scattering from a
potential step and a finite well. Students used two of the ani-
mations, The potential step and finite well, in an hour-long
workshop. This use was the first time that students used the
animations. During the workshop, students were given a
problem set which asked them to explore the effect of vary-
ing certain parameters, for example, the affect of the height
of a potential step on the wavelength in the transmitted
region, and then perform calculations to quantify and verify
their observations. The diagnostic survey was administered
during the last week of the semester at a time when roughly
half the class had already participated in the animations
workshop. Students were given 35 min to complete the sur-
vey and were asked to circle the correct answer for each
question, rate their certainty on a scale of 1–4 (1 being most
certain), and briefly explain their reasoning in a free-text
comment. The survey covered the topics of the course. Two
of the questions were taken from the quantum mechanics vis-
ualization instrument (QMVI)12,13 and the rest were devel-
oped by us. The survey contained ten multiple-choice
questions and one that required students to sketch a wave
function for a quantum tunneling situation (this question is
not included in the following analysis).
Of the 48 students who completed the survey, 22 students
had already used the animations, 17 had not, and 9 surveys

Fig. 4. (Color online) The outcomes of the diagnostic survey, shown as (a) the percentage of correct answers for each of the questions, shown separately for
those students that had used animations and those that had not, and (b) the difference between the percentage of correct responses for those students that had
used the animations and those that had not. Questions 5 and 7 cover the topics of the animations used in the workshop.

151 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 80, No. 2, February 2012 Kohnle et al. 151

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had no response to this question. Questions 5 and 7 covered
the topics of the animations used in the workshop. Question 5
focused on the finite well and asked which of the following
statements about the bound state energy levels in the finite
well are true (for the text of the question, see Ref. 37): (a) A
minimum well depth is required for there to be any energy lev-
els; (b) the greater the well depth, the more energy levels exist;
(c) the spacing between energy levels is independent of the
well depth; (d) for any well depth, there are an infinite number
of energy levels; or (e) the difference in energy between adja-
cent energy levels increases with increasing quantum number.
Statements (b) and (e) are correct, the others are incorrect.
Question 7 on the potential step is question 14 from the
QMVI.12,13 This question shows five sets of incident, trans-
mitted, and reflected wave functions for E > V0 and asks stu-
dents to choose the physically correct curves. Incorrect curves
show non-continuity at the interface, a shorter wavelength in
the region of non-vanishing potential, or a difference in wave-
lengths of the incident and reflected wave functions.
Figure 4 shows the distribution of results for all questions.
For question 5, 13 of 22 students who had used the animation
answered the question correctly, and only 3 of 17 students
who had not used the animation answered the question cor-
rectly. On question 7, the results are 14 of 22 and 3 of 17,
respectively. All students had worked on tutorial problems
on the topics covered in questions 5 and 7, and solutions had
been discussed in the tutorials. Because the workshops
require no preparation and no homework is assigned, it is
likely that those students who used the animations interacted
with them only during the workshop session.
A multi-dimensional chi-square test showed a significant
relation between having worked with the animations and
performance. For question 5 v2(1, N ¼ 39) ¼ 6.8, p < 0.01,
two-tailed, and for question 7 v2(1, N ¼ 39) ¼ 8.2, p < 0.01,
two-tailed. We performed multi-dimensional chi-square or
exact significance tests when cells had expected counts less
than five for all other questions. Except for question 1(b)
(v2(1, N ¼ 39) ¼ 5.8, p < 0.05), none of these tests were
significant (p > 0.1), as was expected because these ques-
tions did not cover the topics of the animations with which
students had worked.
V. DISCUSSION
During the past year, we have roughly doubled the number
of animations available, increasing the range and level of the
animations to include topics from introductory quantum phe-
nomena through advanced undergraduate quantum mechanics.
The diagnostic survey measured only short-term learning
gains, and long-term learning gains by using the animations
and learning gains across different institutions remain to be
investigated. A major focus will be to extend the animations
to areas that are currently underrepresented. In particular,
quantum information theory is an area of increasing impor-
tance. We also plan to make the source code for the anima-
tions publicly available. One common student request has
been for more detailed explanations or different levels of
explanations, and a longer-term goal will be to integrate the
animations into complete multimedia learning modules.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the UK
Higher Education Academy, which funded this project as a
152 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 80, No. 2, February 2012
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Physical Sciences Subject Centre Development Project
2009=10 and 2011=12, and the support through the Univer-
sity of St. Andrews Fund for Initiatives in Learning, Teach-
ing, and Assessment. They thank Aleksejs Fomins, David
Canning, and Liam Atkinson, outstanding summer students
who created many of the animations. They are grateful to Dr.
Judy Hardy for organizing the observation sessions at the
University of Edinburgh. They thank the anonymous referees
for their helpful comments. Instructors can email the corre-
sponding author for a password to access the instructor
resources.
a)
Electronic mail: ak81@st-andrews.ac.uk
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