flows from a hotter to a colder t i P equilibrium, ie. toward uniformity of tecapernee eee satu timc of energy. For example, the engine of a ear reache oe Har junding air (ambient) because of the heat-energy input, When me gents fhe temperature equalises to ambient. Similarly, the hua ed ee most constant body temperature, despite fluctuations in ambient temperature, Wi occurs, body temperature reverts to ambient eg he ability to increase the temperature of a subst i Bist crergy has been used by people for thousands of years: The eae aa foergy t0 cool to below ambient is known as reftigeration; this is a far mo Sh process, which has been successfully applied only inthe last century or so. Prior to tbat, nly refrigeration method available was evaporative cooling which gives only a limited temperature decrease. The use of refrigeration to achieve very low temperatures (down almost to absolute zero) is known as eryogenics and is used today mainly for gas liquefaction. The use of ice in an insulated container to maintain low temperatures is not a true tefrigeration method, but rather a heat-transfer method of cooling. This method was popular in the early part of this century when there was a flourishing ioe trade with ice from the polar regions, and it is still in use today in portable ice-boxes and for applications using liquid nitrogen (a by-product from the manufacture of liquid oxygen). Today, the most popular method of refrigeration is the vapour-compression s so in this chapter, most attention will be devoted to it. However, some other met refrigeration such as evaporative-cooling, absorption, air-cycle and thermoel refrigeration will be dealt with briefly. Only basic vapour-compression systems analysed, and dual-refrigerant, cascade and cryogentt systems will not be treated. Refrigerant properties may be obtained accurately from tables, just as (Chaper 11) were obtained from steam tables. In this chapter, refrigerant prop obtained from the pressure-enthalpy diagram (p-h cinerea) beet of also being able to trace the een the Pa Sepa ve i be read as accural > small-scale diagram cannot | read amples and the a obtained in the values quote 12.1 Vapour-compression refrigeration j compression refrigeration uses two basic principles:t when the pressure ui Sianown as volatile liquids, u ‘pressure jg reduced to below atmospheric, 12.1 proves. Fig. 12.1 Experiment to demonstrate freezing of water by evaporation of a volatile liquid unde: reduced pressure This was the basis for the first vapour-compression refrigeration system invented by Jacob Perkins in 1824. The ether, after passing through the vacuum pump, was condensed, back into liquid again in a water-cooled condenser. The condensed ether was then passed back into the evaporation vessel, thereby setting up a continuous refrigeration cycle. It was soon realised that it was better to use a liquid that evaporated at a low temperature at pressures around atmospheric. In order to recondense the vapour, it would then be necessary to elevate the pressure in the condenser. By this method, the whole system could be kept Bs pressures poe atmospheric by the use of a compressor rather thaft vacuum pump (although, of course, a compressor will also act as a vacuum, intake is throttled). By keeping the whole s ‘detected more readily, and if a slow leakage does occur, the system will continue to fu until it runs out of refrigerant. Also, the higher the aie in the system, cific volume of the vapour; this permits com pipes an eat exchangers, pel a smaller swept volume for the(©) (@) Fig. 12.2. Basic vapour-compression refrigeration cycle liquid + vapour J tubes, or a serpentine path of a single tube, through which rigerant passes. The , through which the ref tubes are provided with fins to maximise the heat-transfer surface, = F ® — @ Liquid throtting. The refrigerant leaves the condenser as a liquid under pressure. In order to enable evaporation and refrigeration, the pressure must now be reduced back to approximately the same pressure as that of the vapour prior to compression. This is achieved by passing the liquid through a throttling or expansion valve. As the pressure drops, some liquid flashes into vapour, so that saturated liquid — and flash vapour leave the valve ‘ i In domestic appliances (for reasons of economy), a capillary place of a throttling valve. This has the same basic effect of allowing the liquid to across the boundary between the high-pressure and low-pressure sides of the since the capillary tube has a high pressure loss. @® —- @ Liquid evaporation. After leaving the throttling valve, the: 5 orate readily at low temperature. The at low pressure and will evap cus ala pei place in the evaporator; like the consent ea Fraser extended area, The evaporator is isc Son ings and there downwards) which is insulated from ea inlet side of the temperature. The vapour now passes336 HEAT ENGINEERING Other ways of achieving cold-space temperature control are by the use of (a) & compressor bypass control, which allows the compressor to be bypassed once the set point temperature is reached. This has the advantage of allowing the compressor to operate continuously, rather than intermittent stopping and starting (b) a thermostatic expansion valve in place of the throttling valve or capillary tube. This valve senses the temperature of the gas leaving the evaporator and adjusts the flow of refrigerant accordingly, hence performing the dual functions of throttling and control 12.2 Performance criteria Evaporating temperature The desired cold-space temperature in turn controls the evaporating temperature: it is usual to allow 5-10°C difference to enable heat transfer. For example, if the desired cold-space temperature is 0°C, the evaporator temperature would be ~5°C to ~ 10°C. Condensing temperature The condensing temperature must be greater than the temperature of the heat sink—the water or air to which the heat is rejected. If lake water or sea water is used, the condensing temperature may be lower and more constant than if air is used. However, most systems must, of necessity, use air cooling, and the condensing temperature is therefore governed by the ambient air temperature. Unfortunately, when refrigeration is most needed, the air temperature is usually high. Since summer air temperatures may often reach 40°C in Australia, the condensing temperature should be designed to be as high as 50°C in order to allow a temperature differential for heat transfer System pressures As has been stated previously, it is generally desirable to keep the low-side pressure above atmospheric. The high-side pressure then depends upon the condensing temperature for the refrigerant chosen. It is, of course, desirable to ke value, otherwise the likelihood of lea the pressure ratio increases. p the high-side pressure to a reasonable kage is increased and the compressor efficiency falls as Choice of refrigerant The choice of refrigerant depends on many factors, but in the first analysis, a refrigerant may be chosen on the basis of the pressures and temperatures in the system, Each refrigerant has different condensing and evaporating pressures for given condensing and evaporating temperatures, and a refrigerant must be found to satisfy the design criteria in this regard. If several refrigerants are suitable, further selection may be based upon the best compromise between such factors as cost, availability, toxicity, heat-transfer coefficients, volume flow rates, mass flow rates, chemical reaction with metals and environmental impact. One of the earliest refrigerants to be widely used was ammonia. Temperatures down 10 ~ 35°C could be obtained at atmospheric pressure, and it could be condensed at 204 atm (2:1 MPa) at 50°C. Ammonia also found widespread use in domestic absorption- refrigeration systems; however, these gradually lost favour compared with the vapour” compression systems. Ammonia does have one serious drawback in that it is highly toxic. During the early part of this century, intensive research (particularly by the Du Pont division of General Motors Corporation) resulted in the discovery of synthetic non-toxi¢ refrigerants. These refrigerants were given the trade name ‘Freon’. When their paten'sy diagram). The two D-h dae 2 (see Appendix 8), on the y-axis (logarithmic seale) and ps also contains lines of constant i a (5), and also dryness fraction in ¢] region only. The characteristic iquid and eee ie heated the top (critical point) is outlined. Location of these regions is shown in Figure 12.3, As with any evaporating liquid in the wet region, constant-temperature lines are parallel to the x-axis because evaporation from liquid to vapour takes place at simultaneous constant pressure and constant temperature. After entering the superheat region, lines of qinstant temperature drop down sharply, eventually becoming nearly parallel to the Jraxis. This shows that the superheated vapour approaches perfect gas behaviour, when ay Senthalpic (constant-enthalpy) process is also an isothermal process. critical point x Pressure P wet region (liquid + vapour)p. cific volume at this condition ; ind evaporator temperature ee a pee enthalpy if saturated vapour is constant entropy) from 100 kPa through a pressure ratio of 8:1 (©) the dryness fraction and the temperature if saturated liquid is throt ressure of 80 kPa ‘) ‘ ) fhe temperature, if saturated liquid at 20°C has its specific enthalpy reduc Solution (a) Superheated; h = 418 kJ/kg (b) v = 0-082 m'/kg (c) Ay = 332 — 160 = 172 kJ/kg, T = —45°C (d) hz — hy = 375 — 338 = 37kd/kg (ce) x = 0-42; T = -35°C fj () T= 25°C iG Note: There may be a slight variation in the answers due to individual reading and interpolation of the chart. 7 12.4 Basic vapour-compression cycle—theoretical analysis The basic vapour-compression system may be drawn on a pA diagram as shown in Figure 12.4, The steps in the cycle are as follows: (a) © — @ Compression. In refrigeration, the temperature of the vapour entering the _ compressor is below ambient, and hence the direction of heat flow will be in 4 during the initial stages of compression. Once the vapour temperature reaches am the direction of heat flow will be reversed. Overall, it has been found that a Fe assumption is that the inward and outward hi takes place adiabatically. it entropy upward from igher (condensing) pressure. In the basic cycle, point (1) is assumed - eet O)wialthe sarechcat sopie, 'med to be on the saturated-vapour ) ® oo . the condensé@ ® 124 p-h diagram for the basic vapour-compression cycle ‘on the p-h diagram, The pressure falls until point pressure as at point ) @ — @ Evaporation, Like condensation, evaporation is tak a "pressure process. pra, Lk cn esure OCS ntl all the liquid i converted toA similar analysis of the condenser yields where Qou is the heat rejected per kilogram of refrigerant. Work done The compression process is assumed to be isentropic (reversible adiabatic). Since no heat flow takes place, the only input is work, and the steady-flow energy equation yields Wah hy compression work (12.3) where W is the work done per kilogram of refrigerant. Coefficient of performance The coefficient of performance (COP) is the ratio of the refrigeration energy to the inpul energy. Hence the theoretical COP is figeraion a _RE_h~ he oe a = hi; : coefficient of performance (refrigeration) (124) _ COP is a measure of the efficiency of the system: a achieved from a given work input, the better the see Hoe teen is oft Beinn tal Con ramon why RE cannot be greater than W. For this ‘can often be of the asa Pitney, since an efficiency is always less than 1. Th order of 2 to 3, and the theoretical COP is considerably higherTy T= From the R12 chart, = 343 kI/kg. hy = 376 kJ/kg fy = he = 239 kI/kg Refer to Figure 12.6,p: = 150 kPa © Pressure ratio (c) For a cooling load of § MJ/h: 5000 Mass flow rate of refrigerant = 7 = 48:1 kg/h 12.5 Carnot principle applied to refrigeration systems In a heat engine, the maximum attainable efficiency (Carnot efficiency) inere greater difference in upper and lower cycle temperatures. A Carnot engine may by the input of work and become a refrigerator. The reversed Carnot cycle efficient refrigeration cycle possible between temperature limits J, and Ts, wher upper cycle temperature and T- is the lower cycle temperature. For a Carnot heat engine: ELR-k i Tk For a reversed Carnot engine (reftigerator): = — coefficient of performance (Carnot Therefore, the closer T;, and T. the higher the xample, cy Cop. F h Otte anc (2728), COP. = 6-82, but when 7 = “30°c (243 he ttt) etgerator, may be stated: ‘re is the smalles ‘ ; mallest difference1um. coefficient of performance possible is obtained and is given by Equation 12.5: 1 Po = See Tyg. 1 Re 1 ~ 3137253 — 1 =4@22 When COP values calculated in Examy c ples 12.2 and 12.3 are compared, it is seen that e the ideal vapour-compression cycle has a COP considerably lower than that of the reversed Carnot cycle 12.6 Actual basic cycle ‘The main differences between the actual cycle and the theoretical cycle are shown in Figure 12.7. They are as follows: (a) In the actual cycle, pressure drops occur throughout the system as a result of frictional resistance. The pressure at inlet to both evaporator and condenser is greater than the pressure at outlet. (©) Compression is not isentropic (ideal adiabatic) because (i) heat flow occurs during compression; (ii) gas friction and turbulence occur.344° HEAT ENGINEERING i atio sc 4 ase in the required pressure 1 's primarily cause an increas ess ond he at Pred with the pressure ratio and the power required for the ideal] Tiere t ‘ony G onal Change to the refrigeration effect, Also, in a real fomersser, there are mechanical loses whch further increase the work of compression. Hence the COP oy a al system will be less than the ideal 7 oe on Sct oke ene the divergence between the actual and theoretical cycles may be taken into account by (a) reducing the theoretical COP by a suitable factor. range 60-70%; (b) allowing for the efficiency of compression. Two efficiencies need to be considered: the adiabatic (or isentropic) efficiency and the mechanical efficiency. These efficiencies wens defined and discussed in Chapter 7, and their use in a refrigeration compressor is illustrated in Example 12.3 which follows. factor will usually be in the Example 12.4 for (he refrigeration system given in Example 12.2, the actual compressor has an adiabatic (isentropic) efficiency of 80% and a mechanical efficiency of 86%. Determine (2) the actual compressor work per kilogram of refrigerant; (b) the actual COP; (6) the actual motor power needed to drive the compressor. Solution (4) Overall efficiency of compression: No = th X Tm 0-8 x 0-86 = 0-688 Actual st 3 Compressor work = 53 = AB kd /kg (b) Actual COP = 217 Since the ideal COP = 3 it is a 'S. fis seen that the actual COP is about 70% of the (c) Refrigeration load = 5 MJ/h 5 6 (kW) 139 kW Motor power 1:39 217 0-64 kWa single system is required to service a numbe i ca r + of cold used coupled to a single compressor and condenser, Ths gives 2 a0 he advantage, Dut gives a cost advantage when i ‘evaporator has its own compressor and condenser, The ti tievaporato a it . The disadvantage of the mul system is balancing, since each cold space may have a diferent loading, Cascade system The cascade system is often used in low-temperature applications in which the temperature range (and also the pressure range) is beyond a reasonable scope for a single refrigerant. Two or more refrigerants may then be used in essentially separate systems, but with a common heat exchanger. The exchanger is actually the condenser for the low-temperature side and the evaporator for the high-temperature side, combined in one unit. Suetion-liquid heat exchanger ‘One of the simplest and most widely used variations to the basic cycle incorporates a heat exchanger between the liquid from the condenser and the vapour from the evaporator. This has the effect of superheating the vapour coming into the compressor and subcooling the liquid coming out of the condenser (Fig. 12.8) condenservolume vapour entering the compressor i : the Pin ih man alow raid aane the greater refrig system capacity is practically the same. ; The widespread use of the suction-liquid heat exchanger is based considerations: {a) It reduces the flashing of vapour during throttling (which otherwise tends flow of refrigerant). (b) It minimises the likelihood of liquid entering the compressor (where it coul damage). Example 12.5 Consider the refrigeration system in Example 12.2, Presence of a suction-liquid heat exchanger of 100 Of the liquid leaving the condenser by 10°C. Solution Referring to the p-h diagram (Fig, 12.8): Pi = 150 kPa, pr = 960 kPa (as before) fy = 239 kJ/kg (as before) fe = 343 kI/kg (was hi before) T; = 40°C (as before) T = Te = ~20°C (Tr and T, before) ie T, - 10 is pegreter diagram, he = 229 kJ/kg = hs. hy — ha = hy - bg +239 - 229 = hy — 343 Shy = 353 kI/kg Ti = -3°Cand iy = 389 kJ/kg, he ~ hs » and repeat the calculation, a % efficiency which drops the= 317 (was 3-15) ressure ratio is the same, 6-4, ss flow rate of refrigerant for a cooling load of S MJ/his Tia = 439 kg/h (was 48-1) Heat pump fee is no essential difference in principle between a heat pus rigeration d refrigeration systems can be designed to provide heating os wel a aheat pump, heating is provided from the heat rejected at the condenser, so that the main practical difference is that in the heat pump, the condenser is located in the heated ge and the evaporator is located externally (Fig. 12.9). The atmosphere becomes a source tiheat rather than a sink for heat. This requires some difference in the design of the stor and condenser, particularly if the system is to be designed for dual cooling operation. Since it is generally impractical to reverse the positions of the evaporator condenser, dual operation is achieved by reversing the flow of refrigerant.fy = he hh ~ COP (heat pump) = 1 + COP (refrig.) The theoretical COP of a heat pump is greater by one than the theoretical COP refrigerator using the same cycle. So if the system in Example 12.2 were operated as pump, the COP would be 4.15 rather than 3.15. Carnot principle applied to the heat pump A reversed Camot cycle may operate as a heat pump as well as a refrigerator. The the Carnot heat pump is given by: Cee COP (heat pump) = 1 + COPe (refrig.) 1 =l+ 2 T/T. = 1 but = COP (refrig.) cor, = —_! _ T—TyT, | ©eflicient of performance (Carnot heat pu Lite Pen, the Camor Principle applied to the heat pump indica eo pater is least difference between condensing and a ahieh “or 's Possible in theory, in practice the COP is ar sano soa Water gt ono, Pt relatively high—for exami : at a considerably higher and more unil ae in winter)—the COP will be Neat is the air, and when the | tto a higher te : The second law may also be stated as follows: ‘The divcton o if exer nergy is added ross a singl m bounda s : syste dary must always be from the hotter to the colder temperature, In the heat pump, there is not just one system be a ire a sy oundary across which heat flows, but rather fo. system ' T 1 1 1 1 1 impossible — violation of second law Heat pump — no violation of thermodynamics of second law of thermodynamics Fig. 12.10 The heat pump does not violate the second law of thermodynamics Practical limitation of the heat pump Although the heat pump reduces the energy required for heating, with real COP values of the order of 3 feasible, widespread usage is limited by several factors: (a) the high capital cost of equipment required, compared with electric heaters, gas-burners: or oil-burners; _ (b) problems of icing-up (frosting) i : outside air temperature falls to 1 2 the evaporator, 2 10°C temperature 0 oi ‘the evaporator temperature will be S Cc ie we freezing isture on the evaporator h e eee the ice, it is necessary 10 provide further to remove‘A heat pump using R12 and operating on the basic cycle is to be used to heating to a building in winter. If the outside air temperature Is 10°C ‘building air temperature 25°C, determine the following for the ideal cycle: (a) pressure ratio required (b) COP 4 (c) required refrigerant flow rate CY (d) electrical energy input and actual COP, if the motor and compressor have an. efficiency of 50% (e) required flow rate of air through the evaporator if the air is to leave the eva pet Allow 10°C temperature differential for heat transfer in both the evaporator and condenser, and take cp for air as 1-005 kJ/kg K Solution ou = 100 kW T= T= 0°C (10 ~ 10) Tr = 35°C (25 + 10)fy = 352, hk; = 369, hy = hy = 234 Heat output = fy — hy = 135 kI/kg Work input = hy — py = I7kI/kg * Theoretical COP = 7.94 Theoretical refrigerant flow rate 100 135 = 0-74 kg/s (a) Electrical energy input = x x 0-74 = 25-2kW tual GOP ax 108 135 Actual COP = 55 or 5 = 397 (e) Heat input (at evaporator) = mi(hi — ha) "74 x (352 — 234) = 873kW For air, rig, AT = 87°3. . 87-3 “m= 1005 x 5 = 17-4kg/s 9 Other refrigeration systems an Although the vapour-compression system using cone a the vast majority of all refrigeration installations, several their own areas of application. refrigeré which the human body is achieveFig. 12.12 Evaporative refrigeration {nto a sponge or cloth and then passing a current of ait through it. The air molecules draw off the water molecules with them as they move past and the water evaporates more quickly. This method is still used today in evaporative coolers, of which several domestic models fare available. It is also the principle behind waterbags attached to motor vehicles and evaporative cooling towers used in industry. i ‘The energy input for evaporative refrigeration derives from the work necessary to achieve the airflow. The use of natural wind currents means that the work input is achieved at no cost; but wind energy is unreliable and generally impractical, so the airflow is usually achieved by means of a motorised fan. Evaporative refrigeration is simple and can have a high COP, but it has several major disadvantages which detract from its widespread use: (a) The lowest temperature change which can be achieved with an air—water syste only about 20°C (and this can only be achieved under very favourable conditions). ‘Temperatures approaching freezing or below are not achievable (b) The method works well only if the air humidity is low. In summer conditions with high air temperature and humidity, the COP and temperature change are small. The carly growth of domestic refrigeration was largel; ion eft e f stic re i ly a result of the 5 which was very reliable since it contained no moving parts and ua ‘sould be bt cheaply. This system used a heat input rather than a work input, but offered low peat eisieny 30 ea Cops of about 03 to 0°6 were all that could be obtained our-compressi gives COPs of about 2 to 4, it is not hard to realis system became almost obsolete once the vapcur connate h absorption refrigeration is still used i i a in large industrial i (low-temperature) heat is available canon be. Another advantage n Or compressor vibration. Also, ak ons, since it can be operated directly by sol on ny. ¢ basic principle of the ammonia. ‘on avnentl ned for any system in which liquid evanorney a instead of using @ vacuum pump, a steam e or a Biase "evaporation, the ammonia vapour is absorbed tn to eae ‘achieve this (Fig. 12.13) a liquid evaporator Fig. 12.13 Principle of absorption refrigeration It is necessary to provide cooling in the absorber, since the absorption process liberates: heat that would otherwise cause the vapour pressure of the water to rise and con er inhibit the evaporation of the ammonia. The simple system as shown in Figure 12.13 can only operate for a short period of before the water becomes saturated with ammonia. The strong solution in the ab circulated to a generator where heat is added, driving off the ammonia vapour again sO itcan then be condensed and returned to the evaporator. The weak solution left i generator is returned to the absorber. In this way, the process is made continuous, the of energy is the heat in the generator, and cooling is provided in the condenser absorber. * e r . " Aircycle refrigeration uses air as the refrigerant. Unlike refrigeration sy there is no change of phase involved, yet the same basic fof the system is based on the fact that if air compressed ca ly), there is an increase in temperature due to he oo ‘energy. Conversely, if compressed air is allowed to ex will be a drop iFig. 12.14 Air-cycle refrigeration Air-cycle refrigeration is generally uneconomic compared with vapour-compression systems. It does, however, find particular use in aircraft where the low weight and size of the plant and the complete safety of air as a refrigerant are of Paramount importance. Thermoelectric refrigeration Thermoelectric refrigeration is a method of refrigeration whereby electric enerey is used directly to achieve a refrigeration effect, without any intermediate conversion process (such. as conversion to mechanical energy to drive a compressor), Thermoelectric refrigeration is based upon Seebeck effect. The w with vapour-compression refri low-load systems as used in caray:compressor work per kilogram and toy saturated vapour from 100 KPa to | MPa isentropically (2) 23°C; 413 kJ/kg; 0-024 m? (€) 6043; 67C OOM Te 0) 185K eg A refrigeration plant, operating on the basic cycle, uses RID. The « on p : , The € ae is —10°C and the condensing temperature is 50°C. D (a) evaporator pressure (b) condensing pressure (©) pressure ratio of the compressor (€) ideal compressor work per kilogram of refrigerant (a) 220 kPa (b) 1-2 MPa (c) 5-45 (d) 33 kJ/kg For the refrigeration system given in Problem 12,2, the cooling load is 10 kW. compressor has an adiabatic (isentropic) efficiency of 800 and a meci efficiency of 85%. Determine (a) the actual compressor work per kilogram of refrigerant; (b) the refrigeration effect; (©) the power required to drive the compressor. (a) 48-5 kJ/kg (b) 97 kJ/kg (c) 5kW (a) Define refrigeration. (b) What is the difference between a heat pump and a refrigeration plant, and has the higher COP between the same temperature limits? () What is the Carnot principle as applied to refrigeration systems? (4) What is the Carnot principle as applied to heat pumps? (©) What is the maximum possible COP of both a refrigeration plant and ¢ pump operating with condensing absolute temperature 7 and absolute temperature 7;?12.7 12.8 cost = 7:5 cents/kWh Heat pump actual COP = 2:5 Efficiency of electrical motor = 90% Gas cost = 35 cents/m’ ; Energy content of gas = 37-5 MJ/m: Efficiency of gas-burner system = 85% (a) $6400 (b) $7590 A basic-cycle refrigeration plant works between pressure limits of 120 and 800 kPa using R12 as the refrigerant. Determine (per kilogram of refrigerant flow) the theoretical values of the following: (a) refrigeration effect (b) heat rejected in the condenser (©) work done by the compressor (d) coefficient of performance (©) evaporator temperature (0) condensing temperature (g) dryness fraction after throttling (h) specific volume of the vapour entering the compressor (@ temperature of the vapour leaving the compressor (a) 108 ki/kg (b) 142K /kg | (©) 34KS/kg (d) 3518 (@) -26°C (8) 32°C (g) 0-34 (h) O14 m/kg (i) 45°C Repeat Problem 12.7 using R22 instead of R12. Compare the refrigeration effect and COP. Would R22 be a suitable refrigerant if atmospheric cooling is to be used for the condenser? Give reasons. (@) V72kS/kg | (b) 221 kI/ke | (c) 49KT/ke (4) 3:51 -3PC () 15°C (g) 0:26 (h) 0-18m'/kg (i) 50°c @ o A refrigeration plant is to be designed for the following conditions: Maximum ambient temperature = 42°C Cabinet temperature = — 10°C Maximum compressor pressure ratio = 8:1 rature dil ial for = SC i peep are difereatial heat transfer 5°C in evaporator, 1 Cooling load = 12 kWWhat is a suction-tiguia a system? heat exchanger in a Vapour. Te tam a Tas ants Of Using suc sb ee (0) Draw a line diagram of a refrigeration meng ManeEr. 7 Pe ange’. Show the path of the refrge Plant incorporating a sucti (@) On a pA diagram, d oe me Tiquid heat exchanger, ‘™® P&S refrigeration cyele incorporat : oe suction. FTA Bitton liquid heat exchanger increases ME ng not correspondingly increased? © Telrigeration effect. Why is the p21 (a) What are the rwo assumptions made ; Peiie sentrapie? Plions made when refrigeration compression ig taken as (b) Bonn ah ‘wo compression efficiencies wi when determin ct pee ‘ing the actual work of comp! (c) Name four types of comy (d) What are the adv: be used? hich should be taken into account Tession compared with the isentropic f compressors in use with refigeration plant. antages of multistage compression, and when is it most likely to 12.12 (a) Discuss the main wa io theoretical ays in which the actual refrigeration cycle differs from the (b) What is the main effect of these differences? 12.13 A refrigeration plant operating on the basic cycle uses R12 circulating at 1-5 kg/s. The evaporator temperature is ~ 10°C and the pressure ratio is 8:1, Determine (a) the theoretical compressor power, cooling load and COP; (b) the maximum possible COP a refrigeration system could have for the same condensing and evaporating temperatures, and the minimum power input necessary for the same cooling load. (a) 55-5 kW; 122 kW; 2-2 (b) 3-5; 35 kW jon plant has a cooling load of 1 MW and operates on the 2. The cold-space temperature is —20°C, and ambient ‘The evaporator temperature is S°C below cold-space condensing temperature is 10°C above ambient. Draw the diagram and determine the following: 12.14 An industrial refrigerati basic cycle using RI temperature is 35°C. temperature and the ¢ theoretical cycle on ap-h (a) coefficient of performance (b) mass flow rate of R12 (c) pressure ratio of the compressor ipe for a d) diameter of the compressor outlet pipe 8 is fey) rate of ambient air through the co1 ii TSEC sae 1oskale 89 Uma ation systems operating & Beas ecrnine the annual eneray cost of the follovies Hee 3 Joad of 50 bys an actual COP = 2°5. og by ! a 9 cen] (9 vapourcomprein Sr of he Se a motor f 2 COP = 05; (b) absorption system with 27 ey of the gas-bumer én e velocity of 20 m/s ne ndenser for an air temperature jon Ss 7 content 37°5 pate: cents/™ of the natural as (@ 815573 (b) $42048 eee358 HEAT ENGINEERING 12.16 An ice-making plant 12.17 12.18 12.19 12.20 produces 10 kg blocks of ice at a rate of 500/h. The refi RID, with s condensing temperature of 40°C and an evaporator temperat a °C a dat —10°C. 7 ~20° ao roduced from water at 15°C and is store th ad ths be eyele with an ‘actual COP of 65% of the theoretical. Determine (a) the refrigeration capacity of the plant; (b) the mass flow rate of refrigerant, (c) the energy cost per block of ice pr cents/ kWh. Take ¢ = 419 kI/kEK for water, ¢ = 2-04KI/kgK for ice, and L = 335 ks;4g for ice-water. (a) S81 kW (b) 5:53 kg/s (6) 4°63 cents Berant ure of © Plant oduced, if electricity is purchased at a cost of g (a) Discuss whether the heat pump violates the first and second laws of thermodynamics. . (b) Describe three practical considerations which limit the widespread use of the heat pump. An electric motor is to be used to power a heat pump and provide 100 kW of heat at 50°C. The source of heat is the atmosphere and design atmospheric temperature may be taken as S°C, The refrigerant is to be R12 and a 10°C temperature differential is to be provided for heat transfer in both condenser and evaporator. (a) For the ideal cycle, determine the COP, pressure ratio of the compressor and mass flow rate of refrigerant. (b) If the actual COP is 70% of the ideal and the efficiency of the electric motor is 90%, determine the electrical energy input and cost saving per year from using the heat pump rather than electrical heating, if electricity costs 6 cents/kW h, and the plant operates an average of 60 h/ week for 48 weeks/annum. (a) 3-7; 5-8; 0-82 kg/s (b) 42-9 kW; $9860 A heat pump using R12 and working on the basic cycle is to supply air at 35°C from ambient air at 15°C at a rate of 2kg/s. For effective heat transfer, the condenser temperature is to be 10°C above supply air temperature, and the evaporator temperature 10°C below ambient. Draw the ideal cycle on a p—h chart and determine the following: (a) heating load (take ¢» for air = 1-005 kJ/kg K) (b) coefficient of performance (c) mass flow rate of R12 (d) diameter of outlet pipe to compressor for a gas velocity of 20 m/s (€)_mass flow rate of air through the evaporator for an air temperature drop of 7:5°C (2) 40-2kW (b) 68 (c) O31 kg/s (a) 18:5 mm_ (e) 4°5 ke/s Mg ageration plant using R12 works between pressure limits of 900 KPa and a. ‘The refrigerant leaves the evaporator saturated and is supetheated bY 20°C before entering sled Subcooled 10°C Me the Compressor. ‘The refrigerant leaving the condenser is a) Draw the theoretical © i For the theoreti eye dare PA gram, (b) the coefficient of performance; (©) the density of refrigerant just before compression, (6) 29 (©) 6-67 kg/m? ,{c) the COP; ia is ~ ae flow rate of R12: (c liameter of t ee velocity of 18 tala Outlet pipe from the compressor ©) 945kW (6) 52 (6) O65 gs o. (© 305 A freezer plant usin, i temperature ~40°C anda condense ureompresion system is not to be less than atmospheric ratio per stage of compression is 8:1 (with equal pressure ratio per stage), (a) Choose between R12 and R22 as a suitable wok ‘orn, gag Sa (b) How many stages of compression are required? 2” (©) What is the required pressure ratio per stage? (€) What is the theoretical COP? a (©) If an actual compressor has an isentropic efficiency of 85%, what is the actual COP? ted ae (f) If intercooling is provided between stages so as to return the vapour to condition, what is the theoretical saving in work (per kilogram of flow) and what is the new theoretical COP? (a) R22 (b) 2 (6) 45:1 (d) 14 (©) 0-84 (f) 7K; E53 at any stage, and the A beat pump using R12 has, as a heat source, a fresh-water lake that has temperature of 10°C. The heat is used to provide air at 35°C for eireulation a building in which the winter heating load is 400 kW. The basic eyele is t0 with a 10°C. differential allowed for heat exchanges in both evaporator. Determine the theoretical values of the followings (a) COP (b) pressure ratio of the compressor (c) mass flow rate of RI2 (d) mass flow rate of water, if the If the compressor has an actual efficiency of 70%, determine the following: (c) actual COP 8 actual power input to the compressor P (a) 6&1 (b) 3+55;1 (0) 31 ke/s @ : vapour-compression refrigeration using , A aor com? prin ’ 765: 1. Determine the following:is meant by a cascade system of refrigeration? nis a cascade system most likely to be used? ‘Draw a line diagram of a cascade system, incorporating the 6 Discuss the following methods of refrigeration and their compared with the vapour-compression system: (a) evaporative refrigeration (b) absorption refrigeration (c) air-cycle refrigeration (@) thermoelectric refrigeration