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01 Introduction 170814
01 Introduction 170814
01 Introduction 170814
NATUNA
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION I
ndonesia the and is the largest archipelagic state in world comprising five major islands about 300 smaller
island groups. Alto- gether there are 13,667 islands and islets of which about 6,000 are inhabited. The
archipel- ago is situated on a crossroad between two oceans, the Pacific and Indian oceans, and bridges
two continents, the Asian and Austra- lian. Indonesia has a total area of 9.8 million sq km, of which more
than 7.9 million sq km are under water. Physiographically, the islands of Sumatra, Java and Kalimantan
are attached to the Sunda Shelf of the Asian continent. On this landmass the water depth does not exceed
200 meters. To the east, Irian Jaya and the Aru is- lands lie on the Sahul Shelf, which are parts of the
Australian continent. Located between these two shelves is the island group of Nusa Tenggara, Sulawesi,
Maluku and Halmahera. These islands are encircled by deep seas which in many places reach 5,000
meters. About 60 Tertiary sedimentary basins, spread out from Sumatra in the west to Irian Jaya in the
east, are identified in Indonesia. So far only 38 ba- sins have been explored and drilled for petro- leum
and 14 of them are now producing oil and gas. 73 percent of these basins are located off- shore, about one
third of them in the deeper sea, with water depth exceeding 200 m.
1.1. HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL STUD- IES
Intensive geological surveys, research, and publication conducted under Dutch colonial government,
which gradually spread through- out Indonesia. Many significant surveys and publications were made in
the latter years ofthe nineteenth century. Many eminent geologist either worked in Indonesia or took part
in well- organized expeditions there. The Geological Survey of the Netherlands Indies lasted from 1850 to
1950, with its headquaters in Bandung and the Bureau of Mines in Batavia (then Ja- karta). During that
time, the regular survey publication was the series Jaarboek van het Mijnwezen, published in Batavia. In
addition, several books and many articles were pub- lished in Europe on the geology of Indonesia.
Virtually everything ceased in 1941 with the outbreak of war.
Many famous Dutch geologists wrote about Indonesia. Some authors who synthesized the earlier work
and built upon it in their books have been recorded below. The earliest and widest compilation was by
Brouwer (1925). Rutten gave a series of lectures in 1927 to 1932 and his books brought the attention of
the world to this fascinating region of Southeast Asia. Umbrove (1949) also did much to sum- marize the
prominent features of Indonesia. However, it was by the impressive work of van Bemmelen (1949,
reprinted in 1970) that the geology of Indonesia and Southeast Asia be- came well known. Van
Bemmelen hand been a member of the Geological Survey of the Neth- erlands Indies since 1927, and was
working on the manuscript in Bandung in 1941 when the Japanese invaded. He was interned during the
war. Mention should also be made of the novel gravity measurements made by Vening Meinesz in the
submarine K XIII in 1927, 1929, and 1930. Through his work, the unique nature of the deep-sea trenches
of the Indone- sian region was brought to the attention of the world (Vening Mainesz, 1954).
The literature of the Indonesian region is rich and varied, but for most people Van Bem- melen (1970)
will serve as a summary. Since the war and the independence of Indonesia, the Geological Survey of
Indonesia has made great progress in better understanding this vast and complicated country. The book by
Hamilton (1979), which summarized most of the later work, is now widely known, and it interprets the
region in modern plate tectonics terminol- ogy. Katili is one of Indonesian geologists who wrote
numerous publications, especially on the tectonic of the region. Many other Indonesian geologists
contributed remarkable publications through both regional and international jour- nals recently. The
Indonesian Geologist Asso- ciation (founded in 1960) and the Indonesian Petroleum Association (founded
in 1971) pub- lished proceedings of the their annual conven- tions with important technical papers, which
1
AN OUTLINE OF THE GEOLOGY OF INDONESIA
Fig. 1.1. Crust map of Indonesia (Simandjuntak & Barber, 1996)
many geologists referring to.
1.2. REGIONAL TECTONIC FRAME- WORK
The Indonesian archipelago is situated on the southeastern extension of the Eurasian Plate. It is
bounded to the south and west by the Indon-Australian (Indian Ocean) Plate, and to the east by the
Philippine Sea and Pacific Plates. The margin of the plates are in colli- sion, resulting in the consumption
of plates along subduction zones, the creation of vol- canic arcs, and the formation of compressional and
oblique slip structures. It is generenally ac- knoledged that the physiographic setting of the Inndonesian
archipealgo is dominated by two so called continental shelfal regions. The Sunda shelf area (or Sundaland
to erverl au- thors) lies to the west, and the Sahuls shelf area to the east, separated by a geologically com-
plex region of deep sea basins and island arcs.
Both shelfal areas provide some semblance of stable continental cores to the eastern and western halves
of the archipelago. The Sahul shelf area, part of Indin Ocean-Australian con- tinental plate, extends
through most of Irian Jaya, the Arafura Sea and the soutern part of the Timor Sea and southward on
towards the present Australian landmass. Th Sunda shelf
Fig. 1.2. Index map for Figure 1.3
2
area represents the subemerged souteastern outgrowth of the Eurasian contienantal plate and comprises
peninsular Malaysia, most of Sumatra, Java and Borneo, mosr of the Java Sea and the southern part of the
South China Sea.
The shelfal area, consisting of intensely de- formed pre-Tertiary sedimentary and crystaline igneous
and metamorphic rocks, has been tec-
3. NATUNA
Fig. 1.3 Sections across Western Indonesia (Katili, 1981)
tonically stable since Teritary time. The more unstable marginal parts has been subjected to Tertiary
mountain building and accompanying subsidence movements and presently expresses itself as a volcanic
inner arc of islands (trench- slope break). The volcanic arc comprises Su- matra, Java and extends furhter
estward into the Lesser Sunda Islands of Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores and the smaller isalands rim-
ming the Banda Sea to the east and northeast.
The non-volcanic outer arc compirses the is- lands owest of Sumatra and a submarine ridge south of Java,
with the non-volcanic islands of Timor, Tanimbar, Kai and Seram believed to bits eastern continuation.
Western Indonesia is chiefly an area of Ter- tiary sedimentary deposition, whereast eastern Indonesia
was a major depocentre throughout late Paleozoic and Mesozoic time. Belief in the
3
AN OUTLINE OF THE GEOLOGY OF INDONESIA
Fig. 1.4 Fault system of Indonesia illustrating sequential Cainozoic deformation. The map display plate frag-
structural continuity of the Sumatra, Java, Banda Sea arcs (also known as Sunda arc) with the two
continental domains of the Sunda Shelf and the Sahul Shelf has been widely accepted in the past but it
now appears that these arcs are the resulting features of long term plate convergence. Actually, it was not
until the late 1960's that the new concepts were introduced to describe the geologic evolution of the
Indon- sian archipelago. these ideas negated the older tectonic models developed in the 1930's and the
1940's which followed the concept of sev- eral orogenic belts forming an arcuate (or con- centric) pattern
around the core of Sundaland in ever widening areas towards the Indian Ocean.
When the new concept of global plate tec- tonics were introduced in 1967, western Indo- nesia (i.e.
Sumatra and its surrounding regions) became a major focus of attention for further investigation. This
region, with its deep sea trenches, volcanic chains, sedimentary basins and cratonic continental areas, is
situated at the convergence of a northward moving Indian
Ocean plate subduction beneath the Eurasian continental plate.
Studies were made by Hatherton and Dick- inson (1969), Fitch (1970), Hamilton (1970, 1979), and
Katili (1971) but it was not until 1973 that the first plate tectonic model of west- ern Indonesia was
published by Katili. In this model, the following structural zones are listed along transverse sections of
Sumatra & Java:
1. The active subduction zone 2. The magmatic of volcanic arcs 3. The foreland (back-arc) basins. The
subduction zones have systematically moved farther away from the continent towards the Indian Ocean.
The magmatic zones also show a zonal arrangement but the ages of the volcanics and granitic zones do
not necessarily become younger towards the ocean. This posed problems to earlier investigators
postulating the theory of a concentric arrangement of oro- gens but is explained by the supposition that
the dips of the Benioff zones varied with time (Katili, 1980), Lithospheric descent in western Indonesia
(i.e. Sumatra) also appears to have
4
3. NATUNA
occurred during Permian, Jurassic, Cretaceous, Miocene and Pliocene times and continuous today.
Broadly speaking, the back-arc (foreland) basins occuring within this plate tec- tonic setting determine the
position of the oil bearing Tertiary basins. In a more detailed sub- division, the following structural
elements may be noted:
1.The trench 2.The non-volcanic outer island arc 3.The fore-rac basinsn (on the arc- trench gap)
4.The volcanic / magmatic rec 5.The back arc basins. 6.The Sunda continental craton
Presently known and established hydrocar- bon production is primarily confined to the back-arc basins
of North Sumatra, Central Su- matra, South Sumatra, Sunda and the north Java basinal area. Significant
oil production also comes from the East Kalimantan basins. Additional production comes from the
Natuna Sea in the Sunda Craton which is the south- eastern-most part of the Eurasian continental plate.
The Sulawesi-Banda sea region in east- ern Indonesia is apparently a focal point of convergence between
three plates: the west- bound Pacific oceanic plate; the northbound Australian continental plate; and the
Eurasian continental plate in the north and west. The re- sulting complicated geologic setting certainly
needs further research, particularly with regard to tectonic development and hydrocarbon maturation and
migration history within the various basins. However, within the U-shaped Banda arc region the
following features are presently be recognized: 1. An inner ridge, comprising the volcanic islands of Bali,
Sum- bawa, Flores, Wetar, Damar and Banda Api.
2. An outer ridge, comprising the islands of Sawu, Roti, Timor, Leti, Babar, Tanimbar, Kai, Watubela,
Seram and Buru which consist mainly of subduction melanges and imbricate complexes of Tertiary age.
3. Outer-arc basins, which include the Lom- bok basin, the Sawu basin and 'further east, the Weber
Basin.
4. The trench, over 6,000 m deep south of Bali and Sumbawa and over 5,000 m deep north of Buru,
elsewhere averages 2,000 m in depth (Hamilton, 1979). The next generation of prospect areas is likely to
focus on some of these outer-arc ba-sins together with the shelf basins within the Arafura shelf region.
This is in addition to the onshore and offshore exten-
sions of the known Salawati, Bintuni, Aki- meugah, Merauke and Waropen basins in Irian Jaya, the
Seram basin of the island of Seram and the offshore basins in the Sulawesi region. In contrast to the
western part of Indonesia, wrench faults with a wide variety of orienta- tions are far more common in
eastern Indone- sia. A different style of basin development re- sults from the complex faulting and
requires different exploration concepts and strategies.
1.4. REGIONAL STRATIGRAPHY 1.4.1. BASEMENT The term of basement was long, and still is,
viewed as a complex of mostly crystalline metamorphic rocks, which underlies a sedimentary basin. The
simplistic preoccupation towards the basement was usu- ally perceived them as pre-Tertiary rocks origi-
nated in continental environment. The advents of plate tectonics and recent progresses ob- tained through
studies of metamorphic rocks in the country have gradually eliminated such a misleading presumption.
The Indonesian archi- pelago is broadly formed by two continental masses — each corresponds to the
amalga- mated Eurasian plate in the west and Austra- lian plate in the east, respectively — and the
intervening Tertiary collision zone in the mid- dle. Rapid uplift in this Tertiary collision zone has
facilitated adequate studies during the last two decades, whereas other investigation in other parts of the
continental masses were mostly hindered by extensive coverage of Ce- nozoic sedimentary and volcanic
rocks and lo- gistical problems as well. Three major types of orogenies in Indonesia may be recognized.
1.The Sunda type, representing the narrow and well-defined Late Mesozoic Cordilleran- type Meratus
—Karangsambung orogen along the rim of the southeastern Sundaland and the Neogene orogeny
stretching across Sumatra, Java and Nusatenggara. Suspected collision of microcontinent occurred in the
Meratus- Karangsambung orogen.
2.The Makassar ,type, which spatially out- boards the Meratus-Karangsambung orogen, constitutes
Oligocene and Miocene orogenies as a result of consecutive subduction obduction events of the East Arm
of Sulawesi and the docking of Australian-derived microcontinents onto Sulawesi 3.The Banda type,
which is characterized by repeated pre-collisional ob- ductions of short-lived spreading ridges in front of
the Australian passive margins, took place in Oligocene and Miocene, respectively. Understanding the
Indonesian orogeny from
5
AN OUTLINE OF THE GEOLOGY OF INDONESIA
the perspective of basement geology has not arrived its mature stage, although significant contributions
have been documented. With re- gard to the whole earth tectonics paradigm, fur- ther studies, particularly
dedicated on the ophiolite emplacement- metamorphism rela- tion, deserve further attention.
1.4.2. PALEOZOIC Parts of Southeast Asia show evidence of having Paleozoic or older continental crust.
These include small fragments in the Philip- pine and Indonesian archipelagoes, New Guinea and
adjoining shelves, and (the main area) a large mass consisting of nearly all of
mainland Southeast Asia most of Sumatra, southwestern Borneo, and parts of the border- ing and
intervening seas. Ophiolite belts, prob- able sutures, and contrasting geology across them indicate that this
main mass is a mosaic of different fragments or blocks (Staufer, 1983). The Barisan Mountain Range in
Suma- tra occupies the axial part of the island and is composed mainly of Permo-Carboniferous to
Mesozoic rocks (Fig. 1.5). They have been weakly metamorphosed and are mainly mafic to intermediate
volcanics and volcaniclastics, slates, phyllites, wackes and limestones (Page & Young, 1981). The oldest
fossiliferous for-
Fig. 1.5 Distribution of Paleozoic and Mesozoic outcrops in Indonesia (after Umbgrove, 1938; Sartono, 1979; van
Gorsel, 2014)
6
3. NATUNA
mations of Kalimantan are found in the north- west domain of the island (Fig. 1.5), consist of Late
Carboniferous limestone and marble con- taining diagnostic fusulinids. These crop out in small areas of
both West Kalimantan (Emmichoven, 1939) and Sarawak (Sanderson 1966). Devonian limestone was
found by Wit- kamp in 1925 and concluded as boulders within Permian section (Sugiaman & Andria,
1999). In Kalimantan the limestone and marble flank a unit comprising schist, phyllite and quartzite with
garnet grade greenschist facies assemblages. Small areas of similar schist are present in Sarawak (Pimm,
1965). In Kaliman- tan the metamorphic rocks are intruded by bio- tite granite which yields K-Ar ages
from Per- mian to Late Triassic (Williams et al, 1989) The Permian limestones and basalts of the
Maubisse formation in Timor Island reflect sedimentation during rift formation of the Pa- leo-Tethys Sea.
Stratigraphic contacts with coeval Early Permian Atahoc and Late Permian Cribas formation are rare but
exist, suggesting accumulation of elastics proximal to the rift zone in a tectonically linked but separate
basin. Intra-basinal crustal flexure and extension are reflected by basalts in the Maubisse and be- tween
the Atahoc and Cribas formation (Bird, 1987 & Sawyer et al., 1993). In Irian Jaya, the Paleozoic Kariem
and Awitagoh formations are considered to belong to the oldest rock in the island. The Kariem formation
consists of a monotonous alternation of gray to black slaty shales and siltstones with lighter pyrilllitic
slates and bands of finegrained quartzites. The whole formation is silicified while dissemi- nated pyrite is
common throughout. The Awitagoh formation consists of highly altered dark limestones and volcanic
breccias. The whole sequence is intensely silicified and calci- fied. These two formations are grouped as
pre- Permo-Carboniferous sequences by Wegen (1966).
1.4.3. MESOZOIC In western Indonesia, Mesozoic rocks gener- ally occur in Sumatra, Java and
Kalimantan (Fig. 1.5). Triassic limestones are found in west Sumatra above the Permian limestones.
Many of the granitic rocks in West Kalimantan contain a strong foliation, and the Late Triassic ages are
obtained from biotites within the de- formed rock. Jurassic fossils have been identi- fied from several
localities in the region (Easton, 1904). The Jurassic interval appear to form a conformable sequence with
the Triassic
strata. In the far west spilite appears to overlie the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic sedimentary sequences,
which are only mildly deformed. Late Jurassic near shore detritus and shallow marine limestone form a
marginal facies to the north-trending trough containing dominantly Cretaceous sandy turbidites and
calcareous mudstone (Williams et al, 1989). The Meso- zoic rocks exposed in some islands of the east-
ern Indonesia region (Fig. 1.5) have experi- enced rift-drift characters in the form of conti- nental
fragments with only partly oceanic. In some examples they reveal a tectonic contact with the oceanic.
These Mesozoic rocks are en- countered in the islands of Sulawesi, Buton, Banggai-Sula, Buru, Seram,
Timor, Hal- mahera, Misool, Irian Jaya and in some of smaller islands. In Sulawesi, the Mesozoic rocks
are exposed in the west-, southeast- and east-arms. In the west-arm, the rocks are a tur- bidite type and
overlie low- to high-grade metamorphic rocks which were derived from the Eurasian continent. The
continental terrain exposes in the southeast arm indicates terres- trial sedimentary rocks, probably derived
from the Australian Continent. The terrain has been under-thrusted into ophiolite overlain by a deep
marine carbonate exist in east-arm of Sulawesi. These rocks have been thrusted onto the rocks of the
Banggai-Sula terrain eastward in Middle Miocene and onto Cretaceous high-grade meta- morphic rocks to
the west. The Mesozoic rocks exposed in Buton and Banggai-Sula islands (Fig. 1.5) have similar terrain
with those Meso- zoic rocks exposed in the southeast-arm of Su- lawesi. In Buton, elastic sediments and
carbon- ate rocks are interpreted to have been deposited in shallow to deep marine environments. The
Mesozoic rocks in the Banggai-Sula show peri- ods transgressive succession. The terrestrial low-grade
metamorphosed sedimentary rocks gradually changes into transition to shallow marine environments and
fine-grained elastic and carbonate of deep marine origin. Buru and Seram islands are considered to be
micro- continents bordered by the south Banda Basin. The Mesozoic sediments occurring in the is- lands
(Fig. 1.5) are typical of flysch of marine elastics and carbonates. These rocks were de- fined as the
Triassic Dalan and Gegan Forma- tions (Buru Island), and also Kanikeh and Manusela Formations
(Seram Island). These units are unconformably overlain by the Juras- sic Cretaceous Nief Beds (Seram
Island), Mefa and Kuma Formations (Buru Island) respec- tively. The Nief Beds are characteristic of deep
7
AN OUTLINE OF THE GEOLOGY OF INDONESIA
marine carbonate. The Mefa Formation com- prises submarine volcanics, while the Kuma Formation is
composed of fine elastic and car- bonate. Most Jurassic- Cretaceous rocks in Buru and Seram were
deposited in a shallow to deep marine environment. A collision event in Timor and its surrounding islands
during Neo- gene time resulted in an amalgamated of pre- collision Mesozoic rocks of Banda fore-arc and
the Mesozoic rocks from the Australian Conti- nent. The para-authochthonous deep marine sequences of
Australian continent have been thrusted onto the Metamorphic complex (Cretaceous Mutis Complex) and
a shallow marine environment. The Mesozoic rocks in Irian Jaya and Misool Island (Fig. 1.5) consist of
elastic and carbonate sediments, granite, ul- tramafic and metamorphic rocks. The elastic and carbonate
deposits are commenced by the terrestrial environment. The formation rests partly conformably and
disconformably on a fluvio-deltaic of Paleozoic sedimentary se- quence. In contrast, the Mesozoic rocks
in Mi- sool Island is commenced by turbidite type de- posits. This sequence overlies unconformably on
the Paleozoic Liga Metamorphic rocks. In Irian Jaya, the Triassic time was established to correspond to
culmination of block faulting and uplift just prior to the onset of sea floor spreading. It marked the peak of
a regressive cycle. The Triassic Tipuma Formation is con- formably succeeded by the Jurassic-Cretaceous
Kambelangan Group deposited in a shallow marine environment. A small exposure of late Cretaceous
turbidite type deposits is found in the Sumba Island (Praikajelu Formation). Al- though the underlain unit
is unknown, the overlying Praikejelu Formation is equivalent with the rocks exposed in south Sulawesi.
1.4.4. CAINOZOIC The Cainozoic or the Tertiary sedimentary strata in Indonesia (Fig. 1.6) mainly rest
un- conformably on a pre-Tertiary crystalline base- ment. Tertiary sedimentary sections vary in thickness
not only between basins but often within the basins. A maximum accumulation of 6000 m is found in
northern Sumatra whereas the coeval Central and South Sumatra basins contain 3500 and 4000 m
respectively. Further east, in the Sunda basin the maximum known thickness of the Tertiary sedimentary
section is the order of 3400 m. In east Kalimantan, on the other hand, wells 3500 m deep are still in Mio-
cene or possibly younger sediments. Exception to the above are an anticlinals structure in the
8
Barito basin (Tanjung), where a basement high was penetrated at 1200 m and an inland struc- ture in the
West Java basin in which an intru- sive body was encountered at 1950 m. Gener- ally, in West Java in
general, few wells have drilled below 2500 m, hence the pre-Tertiary basement has not normally been
penetrated. However, on the onshore portion of this basin, notably within certain basin "lows", an esti-
mated 5000 m of Tertiary sediments and inter- bedded volcanics are thought to be present. Further north,
offshore, basement seems to rise sharply and several wells have penetrated it at depths of only 1500 m.
The Sunda Shelf areas stabilized toward the end of Mesozoic time. The shelf edges appear to have been
broken up by basement block faulting. Fault movements seem to have been continuous from the
beginning of basin subsi- dence, and to have controlled sedimentation. Less differential movement took
place in late Tertiary time, and although sedimentary strata of this age are generally not dissected, folding
was apparently localized and influenced by the fault trends. Uplifted fault blocks are character- ized by
clastic sedimentation, whereas carbon- ate deposition tended to take place away from basement highs.
Less is known about the northern parts of the Sunda shelf, although faulting apparently influenced its
sedimenta- tion history also. Additional data is still needed to evaluate the east Indonesian oil basins, but
faulting again remains the most convincing mechanism of basin formation. In the western Indonesian
back-arc basins, rapid sedimenta- tion occurred during the Tertiary in what may best be described as
partially closed marine en- vironments (Fig. 1.6). These sediments were then subjected to the moderate to
intense fold- ing which followed at the end of the Tertiary. Most of Indonesia's oil fields are in these
back- arc basins and similar basin evolution and sedi- mentation cycles may be inferred for arch ba- sin
(Koesoemadinata, 1969), although basin development and timing of tectonic events may have varied.
Tertiary sediments were deposited initially on eroded surfaces cut into late Creta- ceous strata. Faulting,
resulting from exten- sional tectonics characterizing early Tertiary time, was contemporaneous with
erosion and deposition and controlled sedimentation throughout most of Tertiary time. This is most
noticeable in the Central Sumatra, South Su- matra and Java sea basins. Similarities in the stratigraphic
sections are observed within the Indonesian back-arc basins. A transgressive
3. NATUNA
Fig. 1.6. Tertiary basins of Indonesia, based on a variety of publications.
facies lies at or near the base, but is preceded in some basins by volcanic activity or terres- trial
sedimentation. In time, littoral to neritic deposition gave way to bathyal shale deposi- tion. Sedimentation
in the back-arc basins ap- pears to have been continuous until near the end of Tertiary time when a major
regression set in, ultimately filling the basins mainly with clastic sediments. This regressive phase may
have been induced by compressive tectonics which, subsequent to early Tertiary extensional tectonics,
began to influence these back-arc basinal areas around intra-Miocene time. The East Java basin is
characterized by a high car- bonate content and is a notable exception. From more recent data, an
increasing number of cycles become apparent as one moves east- ward toward east Java and Madura
(Samuel, 1983). In the eastern Indonesia sedimentary ba-
sins, the basement can be as old as Permian but is usually deemed to include anything pre- Pliocene.
These oil-prospective basins, in con- trast to those of western Indonesia, are re- markably young having
sedimentation histories beginning as recently as late Miocene and ex- tending into the Pleistocene (Fig.
1.6). The Plio-Pleistocene section is of special interest in Timor and Seram where it unconformably
overlies deformed basement rocks. The mark- edly structural character of these basins, and their thick,
young sedimentary sequences un- derscores the magnitude of structural deforma- tion and the resulting
high sedimentation rates in this tectonic setting.
9
REGIONAL GEOLOGY OF
INDONESIA
Legend Quaternary Recent volcanic formation Cenozoic
formations Mesozoic formations Paleozoic formations Plutonic
rocks Metamorphic rocks Active volcanoes
AND
ANDA A
Sunda Shelf
SULAWESI SE
MALAYSIA
USINGAPORE
HALARA
SUMA
BACAUN
SULAWESI
MEND
TAN JAYA
200 m
BANDA SEA
- 6s
Arafura
A
Surabaya LRT
200 m
Sahul Shelf
0
200 400
600 KM
Darman, 2016
V2X