Professional Documents
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Module 5 Final
Module 5 Final
Module 5 Final
in Developing Countries
Module 5
Energy and Environment
In Cooperation with
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Sustainable Urban Mobility in Developing Countries
– Module 5 –
Energy and Environment
Published The United Nations Institute for Training and research (UNITAR)
by: Palais des Nations
CH-1211 Geneva 10
Switzerland
ISBN: 978-92-9182-062-7
Disclaimer
“We cannot talk about urban transport until we know what type of a city we want.
And to talk about the city we want is to talk about the way we want to live. Do we want
to create a city for the poor, the children, and the elderly, and therefore for every other
human being, or a city for automobiles? The important questions are not about
engineering, but about ways to live. A premise of the new city is that we want society to
be as egalitarian as possible. For this purpose, quality of life distribution is more
important than income distribution. The equality that really matters is that relevant to a
child: Access to adequate nutrition, recreation, education, sports facilities, green spaces,
and a living environment as free from motor vehicles as possible. The city should have
abundant cultural offerings; public spaces with people; low levels of noise and air
pollution; and short travel times.
Cars destroy the common silence; pollute the air; and require extremely costly
road space and infrastructure that absorbs scarce public funds. While only an upper
middle class minority uses cars, despite enormous costs and injustice, the system works.
But it would not be possible for every citizen to use a private car for his or her mobility;
otherwise jams would be massive and high velocity roads would destroy the human
qualities and structure of the city. Many developing cities are moving in this direction.
Bangkok, Manila, Cairo, Kuala Lumpur and other cities are already notorious for severe
traffic congestion, despite relatively low levels of motorization.
Urban transport is a political rather than a technical issue. The technical aspects
are relatively simple. The difficult decisions relate to who is going to benefit from the
models adopted. Do we dare to create a transport model different from that in the so-
called advanced world cities? Do we dare create a transport system giving priority to the
needs of the poor majority rather than the automobile owning minority? Are we trying to
find the most efficient, economical way to move a city’s population, as cleanly and as
comfortably as possible? Or are we just trying to minimize the upper class’s traffic jams?”
These questions are posed by Enrique Peñalosa, the former mayor of Bogotá
(Colombia), who introduced a number of sustainable transport measures in his city1.
These modules together form a complex picture on what sustainable transport can
be and how it may be implemented.
1
Peñalosa, E., 2005: Urban Transport and Poverty, GTZ Sourcebook Module 1a, Eschborn
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The substantive content of this module was provided by Dr. Niklas Sieber (editor)
a Transport Economist, Regional Planner and University Lecturer from Germany, based
on extensive material provided by GTZ. This publication was prepared under the
supervision of the Local Development Programme of UNITAR and GTZ, especially Mr.
Manfred Breithaupt, Mr. Armin Wagner and Mr. Carlos Pardo for reviewing the module.
Special thanks are due to the aforementioned individuals and institutions for their
support and contributions.
Table of Contents
4.3 Financial mechanisms to tackle Climate Change: CDM and GEF .................. 41
4.3.1 Clean Development Mechanism in the Transport Sector What is the CDM? ....... 42
4.3.2 Global Environment Facility (GEF) .............................................................. 43
List of Figures
Box 1: Potential health benefits of reducing particulate matter in Jakarta, Indonesia .... 11
Box 2: The new vehicle inspection system in Costa Rica ........................................... 21
Box 3: Greenhouse Gas emissions caused by the production of biofuels ..................... 23
Box 4: EcoDriving example from a GTZ pilot project in Santiago de Chile ................... 26
Box 5: Climate change effects – Bangladesh .......................................................... 35
Box 6: EU legislation to reduce CO2 emissions from light duty vehicles ....................... 41
List of Tables
Table 1: Major air pollutants and Greenhouse Gases from transport ............................ 1
Table 2: Summary of pollutant types and emissions for some typical engine and fuel
combinations ....................................................................................................... 3
Table 3: Emission standards for new LGV .............................................................. 10
Table 4: Fuel components influencing vehicle emissions ........................................... 14
Table 5: Visual and measured safety tests ............................................................. 19
Table 6: Fuel consumption at different driving styles ............................................... 25
Table 7: German threshold values for harmful effects of road and rail noise ................ 30
Table 8: Indicative comparison of various noise mitigation measures ......................... 32
Table 9: Greenhouse gas emissions of selected transport systems............................. 39
Table 10: Sustainable transport instruments: meeting local priorities ......................... 40
Acronyms
This Chapter describes which types of air pollution from transport exist and which health
effects they entail. Air quality management includes emission inventories, outdoor
monitoring and dispersion modeling. This chapter provides as well guidance which
measures need to be taken to control transport emissions.
Approximately 1,200 million people are exposed globally to levels of sulphur dioxide
(SO2) high above World Health Organization guidelines and approximately 1,400 million
people are exposed to excessive levels of smoke and particulate matter (PM). Fifteen to
twenty percent of Europeans and North Americans are exposed to excessive levels of
nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and excessive levels of carbon monoxide (CO) persist in half of
the World’s cities. Estimates of the increase in daily mortality show that on a global scale
4-8% of premature deaths each year are due to exposure to PM in the ambient and
indoor environment, with potentially 500,000 excess deaths annually due to PM outdoor
concentrations, and about 2.5 million excess deaths annually due to PM indoor
concentrations. Moreover, approximately 20-30% of all respiratory diseases appear to be
caused by ambient and indoor air pollution, again with an emphasis on the latter.
Table 1
Major air pollutants and Greenhouse Gases from transport
HC Hydro Carbons
CO Carbon monoxide
Oxides of nitrogen, including nitrogen dioxide
NOx
(NO2)
Sulphur oxides, including sulphur dioxide
SOx, soot
(SO2)
PM Particulate Matter
03 Ozone
CO2 Carbon Dioxide; not classified as air pollutant
Although enormous progress has been made in Air Quality Management and clean air
implementation plans for urban areas, especially in Developed Countries, a substantial
number of people living in urban areas - approximately 1.5 billion, or 25% of the global
population—are still exposed to enhanced concentrations of gaseous and particulate
pollutants in the air they breathe. In addition, the use of open fires for indoor cooking
and heating currently exposes approximately 2 billion people to substantial
concentrations of suspended particulate matter, 10—20 times higher than outdoor
concentrations. Sources of outdoor air pollution include industrial, commercial, and
vehicular emissions, as well as vegetation fires. Furthermore, urban population growth in
low-income countries (see Module 1, Chapter 1.1) is placing stress on already inadequate
infrastructures and technical and financial capacities. Together with increased car
ownership, this will lead to increases in the share of people being affected by air pollution
(Figure 1).
2
Adapted from Schwela (2004): GTZ Sourcebook Module 5a.
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Human health studies show that air pollution in developing countries accounts per year
for hundreds of thousands of excess deaths, millions of limited activity days and billions
of dollars in medical costs. These losses, and the associated degradation in quality of life,
impose a significant burden on all sectors of society, but especially the poor.
Figure 1
Percentage of urban populations being affected by air pollution
Source: UN (2008)
The World Health Organization reports that 3 million people now die
each year from the effects of air pollution. This is three times the
1 million who die each year in automobile accidents.
Major types of air pollutants include particulate matter, lead, carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxides, volatile organic compounds and hydrocarbons, and photochemical oxidants such
as ozone. Table 2 shows pollutants typically associated with some typical engine and fuel
combinations. In Developing Cities, however, the most critical air pollutants are PM and
lead where leaded fuels are have not been phased out. With respect to PM, the most
commonly reported indicator is the mass of total suspended particles (TSP). In many
cities the TSP annual mean concentration exceeds 100 µg/m3, with the levels exceeding
300 µg/m3 in several cities of China and India. Where leaded vehicle fuel is still used,
airborne lead concentrations are likely to be in the range of 0.5 – 6 µg/m3. Even higher
values were observed in Dhaka (up to 14.6 µg/m3). Where leaded fuel is no longer used,
concentrations are likely to fall to less than 0.2 µg/m3. The concentrations of air pollution
in major and megacities of Developing Countries reach levels of concern for public health.
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Table 2
Summary of pollutant types and emissions for
some typical engine and fuel combinations
Figure 2 gives an overview on the air quality of selected cities, based on the guidelines
for ambient air quality developed by the World Health Organization (WHO). Apparently,
particulate matters (SPM or PM) constitute a major problem in most of the cities, where
WHO guidelines are exceeded by a factor of more than two. In 17 of 21 cities, CO is a
serious health concern; followed by lead, which is exclusively a problem in the developing
world, since industrialized countries have no more lead in their fuels.
Figure 2
Overview of ambient air quality in selected cities, 1990s
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Figure 3
Ambient air concentration of particulate matter in cities
Figure 4 describes the pathway emissions take, starting with primary pollutants from the
source of emission and being chemically transformed during transport to secondary
pollutants before they are come back to the ground through emissions. Here they cause
damages not only to human beings, but as well to buildings and agriculture. The effects
may be valued in terms of cost and used for cost-benefit calculations. Air Quality
Management must take into account each of these steps.
Figure 4
The impact pathway of emissions
The health impacts of air pollutants are numerous and varied and can become manifest
in any system of the human body. Systems affected include the respiratory system,
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immune system, skin and mucous tissues, and the cardiovascular system. Health effects
of air pollution on the respiratory system include acute and chronic changes in pulmonary
function, increased incidence and prevalence of respiratory symptoms, sensitization of
airways to allergens, and exacerbation of respiratory infections such as rhinitis, sinusitis,
pneumonia, alveolitis, and legionnaires’ disease. Principal agents for these health effects
are the combustion products SO2, NO2, PM10 and CO.
The goal of Air Quality Management is to maintain a quality of air that protects human
health and welfare. In order to achieve this goal, it is necessary to develop appropriate
air quality policies and strategies. Government policy is the foundation for Air Quality
Management. Without a suitable policy framework and adequate legislation, it is difficult
to maintain an active or successful Air Quality Management program. A policy framework
refers to policies in several areas, including transport, energy, planning, development
and the environment. Air quality objectives are more readily achieved if these
interconnected government policies are compatible, and if mechanisms exist for co-
coordinating responses to issues which cross different areas of government policy.
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Figure 5
Simplified Air Quality Management cycle
Figure 5 shows a simplification, how air pollution may be contained through political
decision making. The starting point is high concentrations of air pollutants, causing - as
described in the impact pathway - health effects and thus economic damages. Triggered
by this, a political decision must be made, legislation changed and air pollution control
measures implemented. An emission inventory reveals the changes in air pollutant
concentration. This has to be confirmed through outdoor monitoring.
In order to set up am emission inventory, the following procedures have previously been
developed in industrialized countries, and could be considered as a model for the
Developing World as well:
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2. Compiling the data: Constructing the inventory requires information on the source
strength (the amount of emissions) of all emitters within a specified area. For
some components of an emissions inventory, accurate data may be available, e.g.
industrial emissions. In other cases, emissions can be calculated from estimates
of process inputs. For example, the emissions of SO2 from coal-fired electricity
generation plants can often be calculated with reasonable accuracy from the
knowledge of the throughput and sulphur content of the fuels and other
information.
3. Determining emission factors: When source data are missing, it is common to use
general emission factors for both point and diffuse sources. For example motor
vehicle emissions may be estimated in terms of grams of emissions per km
travelled. Calculations involve the distance travelled by vehicles, the number of
vehicles, temperature, fuel consumption and the composition and properties of
the fuels used.
Air quality monitoring is done through measurements of the ambient air quality in
selected location of the cities. It fulfills a central role in this process, providing the
necessary sound scientific basis for policy and strategy development, objective setting,
compliance measurement against targets and enforcement action (see Figure 5). For this
purpose, air measurement stations are required to quantify the pollutant concentration
and thus determine the air quality.
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The simplest approach uses a point source dispersion model to estimate the ground-level
concentrations of the pollutants of interest at some distance (typically from hundreds of
meters to tens of km). More complicated models allow the examination of multiple
sources, including area sources. Dispersion modeling is a powerful tool for the
interpolation, prediction and optimization of control strategies. Models allow the
consequences of various options for improving air quality to be compared. The results of
dispersion modeling are typically maps showing the concentration of the considered
pollutants throughout the immediate area surrounding the facility point of origin.
Laws and regulations are at the heart of Air Quality Management strategies. The
traditional approach for developing and implementing Air Quality Management strategies
has been the “command and control” approach. This approach has several major features
focusing on the regulation of emissions. The command and control approach usually
involves:
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Under this system, the techniques to be used in areas such as pollution control are
prescribed by government, and compliance with conditions is checked by government
inspectors. The government issues licenses, sets emission standards, and checks
compliance with standards. Non-compliance cases commonly go to court, which considers
mitigating circumstances and sets penalties. New developments or major changes to
sources are usually subject to environmental impact assessment, and new sources may
be subject to tighter performance standards than existing operations.
Many countries have acted to regulate and enforce emissions reductions, so ambient
concentrations of vehicle-related air pollutants – NOx, CO, lead and hydrocarbons – over
the last two decades have declined in most Developed Countries. All countries, however,
which phased out lead as an additive to petrol, have observed a significant decline in
airborne lead concentrations. Legislation that reduces the lead content of petrol has been
implemented in many Developing Countries.
The European Union and the Unites States of America are good examples on the positive
effects of emission standards. Figure 8 depicts the allowable NOx-emissions which
decreased tremendously during the past 40 years. While the USA started already in the
1970s, the EU followed in the 1990s, both reducing NOx emissions by more than 90% for
petrol and diesel cars. Similar standards were developed for LGV and HGV and include as
well other pollutants, such as HC, CO, VOC and SO2.
Figure 8
Emission standards in the EU and the USA
The first European emission standard, called Euro I, was introduced in 1992 and followed
by five other standards that will incrementally decrease vehicle emissions up to 2014.
Additionally to the vehicle emission standards, fuel quality standards were introduced as
well. Both fuel and vehicle emission standards entailed an enormous decrease in vehicle
pollution within the European Union. Figure 9 depicts the tremendous decrease of NOx
emissions.
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Figure 9
NOx emissions from road vehicles in Europe 1992-2003
7500
7000
Euro 1
6500
Euro 2
6000
1000 ton/a
5500
Euro 3
5000
EU (25 countries) Euro 4
4500
EU (15 countries)
4000
3500
1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
Since they were so successful, many Developing Countries introduced the Euro Standards
as well. Table 3 shows some examples from Asian countries that introduced European
emission standards.
Table 3
Emission standards for new LGV
Box 1 describes which health impacts may be achieved if tighter emission standards for
particulate matter were introduced in Jakarta, Indonesia.
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Box 1
Potential health benefits of reducing particulate matter in Jakarta, Indonesia
One recent study illustrated the potential impact on human health of air pollution
reduction, through the use of exposure benefit relationships. An exposure benefit
relationship is the quantitative relationship between the amount of exposure to a
substance and the extent of toxic injury or illness produced. Data from exposure-
response relationships, observed in Developed Countries were applied to local
conditions to assess the annual benefits of reducing airborne pollution to meet both
Indonesian standards and WHO guidelines.
Further reading
Petersen, Rudolf; Walter Hook, Wiebke Zimmer; Uwe R. Fritsche (2008): “Future
Challenges of Transport and Environment”, Discussion Paper for the Symposium, of
the Symposium “Future Challenges of Transport and Environment, 24 and 25 June in
Berlin, Germany.
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Generally, the goal of a motor vehicle pollution control program is to reduce emissions
from motor vehicles in-use to the degree reasonably necessary to achieve healthy air
quality as rapidly as possible or, failing that for reasons of impracticality, to the practical
limits of effective technological, economic, and social feasibility. A comprehensive
strategy to achieve this goal includes four key components (see Figure 10): increasingly
stringent emissions standards for new vehicles, specifications for clean fuels, programs to
assure proper maintenance of in-use vehicles, and transportation planning and demand
management. These emission reduction goals should be achieved in the most cost
effective manner available.
Figure 10
Elements of a comprehensive vehicle pollution control strategy
This Chapter discusses how improved vehicle technologies and fuel quality standards can
improve environmental performance of transport. As depicted in Figure 10, these need to
be accompanied by inspection and maintenance. Additionally, this chapter emphasizes
two and three wheelers which play a major role in many Developing Countries and
contribute enormously to air pollution. Alternative engine technologies, their constraints
and advantages are discussed in the next subchapter. Another solution to air pollution is
EcoDriving, discussed in the last subchapter.
The emission standards implemented by the European Union (Chapter 1.3.2) could only
be achieved through new engine technologies. The state of the art technology for
reducing CO, HC and NOX emissions from vehicles relies on the catalytic converter which
converts large portions of the emissions to carbon dioxide, water vapor, oxygen and
nitrogen; in fact more than 90% of all new petrol fuelled cars contain a catalyst.
3
Walsh and Kolke (2005), GTZ Sourcebook 4a.
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Figure 11 shows how fast the catalytic converters for petrol cars proliferated in Europe.
Catalytic converters for diesel engines are available as well.
Figure 11
Estimated share of petrol cars fitted with catalytic converter (EU)
Figure 12
Catalytic converter for petrol cars
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All modern petrol fuelled vehicles being produced today can operate satisfactorily on
unleaded fuel and approximately 90% of these are equipped with a catalytic converter
that requires the exclusive use of lead-free fuel. There is no longer any doubt that lead is
toxic and prevents the use of clean petrol vehicle technology which can dramatically
reduce CO, HC and NOX emissions.
Another important topic is the reduction of sulphur in fuels, especially diesel. Sulphate
particulate and SOx emissions, both of which are harmful pollutants, are emitted in direct
proportion to the amount of sulphur in diesel fuel. Sulphate PM emissions entail major
adverse health and environmental effects. The EU has limited the sulphur content of
diesel to 350 ppm (EURO 3) in 2000 and reduced the amount to 10 ppm (EURO 5) in
2009. The latter standard implies virtually sulphur free fuels. Table 4 lists other fuel
characteristics that have a negative influence on vehicle emissions.
Table 4
Fuel components influencing vehicle emissions
Two and three-wheelers make up a large share of the vehicle fleet in Asia and have large
environmental impacts. Two-wheelers in Asian cities include mopeds, scooters, and
motorcycles and are used mostly for personal transportation, though in Bangkok and
some other cities – including in Vietnam and Indonesia – motorcycles are also used for
public transportation or paratransit. Three-wheelers in Asia include small taxis such as
auto-rickshaws in India, and Sri Lanka, baby taxis in Bangladesh and tuk-tuks in Thailand
- usually for carrying three passengers - and larger vehicles such as Tempos in
Bangladesh, Nepal and parts of India, which carry as many as a dozen passengers.
Two- and three-wheelers play an important role in the transport market in Asia. India,
China, Vietnam and Indonesia have a very large number of two-wheelers, which are used
4
Adapted from Shah, Iyer, Cherry (2009): GTZ Sourcebook Module 4c.
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mostly for personal transport. Three-wheelers are typically used as short-distance taxis.
More than half of the motor vehicle fleet in China, Thailand and Malaysia consists of two-
wheelers; in Indonesia, Vietnam and Taiwan (China) the figure exceeds two-thirds of the
fleet. Figure 13 illustrates the dominance of two- and three-wheelers in the vehicle fleets
of Dhaka (Bangladesh), Denpasar (Indonesia), and Delhi (India).
Figure 13
Two and three wheelers in Asian cities
Source: Shah, Iyer, Cherry (2009): Two and Three-Wheelers, GTZ Sourcebook Module 4c.
Three-wheel taxis are perceived as less compliant with traffic regulations and more
accident prone than four-wheel vehicles. They are also more visible, because of their
numbers, and contribute to congestion and pollution. For these reasons there is strong
sentiment in some countries, notably Bangladesh, against three-wheelers powered by
two-stroke engines.
Two-stroke petrol engine vehicles are estimated to account for about 60% of the total
vehicle fleet in South Asia. The large number of these vehicles, their age, poor
maintenance, low lubricant quality and excessive lubricant use, and traffic congestion in
large cities make two-stroke engine vehicles a significant source of particulate emissions.
Most designs used total-loss lubrication, with the oil being burnt in the combustion
chamber, causing "blue smoke" and other types of exhaust pollution. The resulting
particulate emissions are extremely damaging to public health.
Two-stroke engines have several advantages over four-stroke engines. These include
lower cost; excellent torque and power; mechanical simplicity (fewer moving parts and
resulting ease of maintenance); lighter and smaller engines; greater operating
smoothness; and lower nitrogen oxide emissions. They also have disadvantages
compared with four-stroke petrol engine vehicles, including higher particulate and
hydrocarbon emissions, lower fuel economy and louder noise.
With the exception of India, Taiwan (China) and Thailand, most countries in Asia have
not yet adopted strong measures to mitigate emissions from two-stroke engines. These
include
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Four-stroke vehicles have significant advantages over two-stroke vehicles. These include:
Four-stroke engine two-wheelers have been on the market for some time. All
motorcycles sold in the United States are of four-stroke design. The additional costs
compared to two stroke engines are easily recovered in fuel savings in less than a year
by operators of four-stroke engine auto-rickshaws. Other environmental friendly
alternatives are engines powered by CNG, LPG or electricity.
Figure 14
Taipei, Taiwan has been a leading city in applying
strict emission standards for motorcycles.
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This chapter deals with inspection and maintenance (I/M) and roadworthiness tests as a
major component of an overall strategy of emission reduction from road transport.
Especially in a situation where no or low fuel quality standards and emission limits are
set for all modes of road transport, an effective I/M or roadworthiness system is one of
the most cost-effective ways of improving both air quality and road safety. Vehicle
inspection programs can improve maintenance levels for vehicles and bring about a
higher turnover of vehicles as well. This is due to the fact that inspection and
maintenance I/M focus on all vehicles currently in use in a vehicle fleet. I/M helps to
ensure that all vehicle owners maintain their vehicles regularly which in turn helps to
ensure that these vehicles comply with emission limits. Even though in a Developing
Country context the specific emission limits of the vehicles in an I/M program could be
high compared to a new car, I/M leads to emission reductions which would not be
possible if the vehicles were not maintained and inspected at all (see Figure 15). A
properly maintained vehicle consumes between 3 and 7% less fuel, and hence leads to a
similar CO2 reduction. Introduction of improved and unleaded petrol combined with
controlled three-way catalytic converter technologies can reduce air pollutants more
dramatically.
Figure 15
Emission reductions possible through I/M
5
Kolke (2005) GTZ Sourcebook 4b.
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An inspection system should combine I/M emission checks with safety checks, which is
called roadworthiness test. Following an inspection in Germany, a sticker is glued to the
number plate, indicating the next roadworthiness test for this vehicle. To ensure that
vehicle owners do not tamper with emission or safety related parts of their vehicles after
they have passed theI/M and roadworthiness procedure, legislation should consider
random roadside vehicle inspections.
Figure 16
I/M Sticker Germany, road side test, emission test
The I/M test can be divided into two main modules. The first module is the emissions
check; the second is the safety check. Each module consists of two steps: a visual check
and a measurement test, using computer-aided test equipment.
Technical specifications of the environmental tests ensure that the introduction of I/M
and roadworthiness meets the goals of emission reduction, environmental and safety
requirements. The visual environmental check consists of oil losses and the exhaust
system. The visual inspection ensures that there are no leaks at the exhaust and oil
system, and - if applicable - the emissions control system is present. Measured
environmental tests are of:
• Exhaust smoke (diesel engines)
• Exhaust CO/HC/Lambda (petrol engines)
• CO2 (to avoid manipulation and to ensure that the exhaust system has no
leaks)
• Noise
The second module, the safety checks, is also a combination of visual checks and
necessary measurements. Both modules combined—emissions and road safety—and
enforced by trained, responsible personnel, allow an effective roadworthiness test. A list
of the devices to be tested is given in Table 5.
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Table 5
Visual and measured safety tests
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Source: Jakarta,
Third Winner Photo Competition,
Swisscontact 2002.
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Box 2
The new vehicle inspection system in Costa Rica
For many years the authorities in Costa Rica have been discussing the nationwide
introduction of an integrated vehicle inspection system. The background of these
discussions was the perception that the maintenance status of the vehicles on the road
was not acceptable from both a safety and environmental perspective. As a first step
the so-called Ecomarchamo, a decentralised exhaust emission control system, was
introduced, but for several reasons was only a limited success.
Country-wide coverage with a total of 13 inspection stations with 38 test lanes results
in acceptable driving distances for the vehicle owners to reach testing stations. The
appearance of the inspection station demonstrates seriousness and technical
competence.
Natural gas is clean burning, cheap and abundant in many parts of the world. Because
natural gas is mostly methane, natural gas vehicles have much lower non-methane
hydrocarbon emissions than petrol vehicles, but higher emissions of methane. Natural
gas engines cause additional capital costs for the vehicle’s engine and the storage tank
system and further cost for the compression of natural gas, covering investment,
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operation and maintenance of the filling station. To store natural gas, it has to be
compressed to 200 bar at the filling station. The additional costs of natural gas bus fleets
may be estimated at 7% including all costs for additional staff, filling station, etc.
Engine technology for LPG vehicles is very similar to that for natural gas vehicles. As a
fuel for spark-ignition engines, it has many of the same advantages as natural gas, with
the additional advantage of being easier to carry aboard the vehicle. LPG has many of
the same emissions characteristics as natural gas. Using LPG in transport instead of
burning it as a waste gas at the oil fields or in the refinery will immediately result in fossil
fuel savings. The use of LPG results in an energy efficiency for the energy chain of
exploitation, refinery and use, comparable to that of petrol and diesel. Where
compressed natural gas is readily available in a given locality, strong consideration
should be given to replacing diesel buses with CNG buses. Other centrally fuelled fleets
such as refuse trucks or local delivery trucks are also attractive candidates for
replacement.
2.4.3 Methanol
Methanol has many desirable combustion and emissions characteristics, leading to low
NOx emissions and low photochemical reactivity. It is also a liquid, which makes its
storage and handling much simpler than with gaseous fuels. At current and foreseeable
prices, the most economical feedstock for methanol production is natural gas, especially
natural gas found in remote regions where it has no ready market.
2.4.4 Biofuels
Biofuels are a wide range of fuels which are in some way derived from biomass. The term
covers solid biomass, liquid fuels and various biogases. Biofuels are gaining increased
public and scientific attention, driven by factors such as oil price peaks and the need for
increased energy security.
Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils, animal fats or recycled greases. Biodiesel can be
used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a diesel additive to
reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered
vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most
common biofuel in Europe.
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The view that biofuels are a sustainable energy source for transport, which is mainly
based on the fact that they are renewable energies, has widely changed in the last years.
This critical assessment is based on several facts: i) Since the conversion of biofuels from
biomass requires energy, the direct use of biomass is much more efficient. ii) The
scarcity of agricultural land supports the fear that biofuels supersede food production and
thus increase the risk of hunger in Developing Countries. iii) The massive conversion of
tropical rainforests to palm oil plantations, especially as experienced in Indonesia and
Malaysia, has raised concerns about the sustainability of the production. iv) The latter
production would entail monocultures, a negative Greenhouse Gas balance (see Box 3),
and a huge water usage.
Therefore, biomass should be rather used as a renewable source for local energy
production than as fuel for transport or as an export product from Developing Countries.
Box 3
Greenhouse Gas emissions caused by the production of biofuels
Biofuels are by no means neutral in their GHG emissions. The plant takes up CO2
during its growth which is again released when burning the biofuel, e.g. in a vehicle.
CO2 plant uptake and fuel burning neutralize each other. However, the process of
planting, harvesting, transport and transformation leads to GHG emissions in the life-
cycle of producing biofuels. These need to be compared with the life-cycle emissions of
conventional fuels to establish the GHG reduction due to usage of biofuels (well-to-
wheel analysis). GHG life-cycle emissions of biofuels are crop, location and case
specific. Emissions related to crop production include:
Transport emissions include those associated with the transport of the agricultural
input to the biofuel refinery and the transport of the (blended) biofuel to the gas-
station. Biofuel production related emissions include:
Energy used for the refinery of the biofuel (electricity and fossil fuel);
Methane emissions resulting from waste-water treatment facilities of the refinery;
Upstream emissions resulting from the usage of methanol.
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The biggest constraint is the storage of electrical energy, since the batteries do not allow
for travel over longer distances. Therefore they are presently used for short distances for
delivery in towns or recreation areas. Improved batteries might serve as well as energy
storage when vehicles are parked. However, the technology is not developed to a level
that allows widespread commercial usage. Hybrid vehicles, combining electric and fuel
driven engines and using the advantages of both technologies and thus producing less
pollution are becoming increasingly popular in the Developed World.
Hydrogen is usually used as compressed hydrogen with 200 bar or liquefied hydrogen at
-252°C. Hydrogen is a secondary energy, which means that it has to be produced from
other fossil or non-fossil energy sources. Total fuel life cycle, however, shows that using
other fossil primary energy for the production of hydrogen does not result in a net CO2
advantage.
A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts a source fuel into an electrical current.
Fuel cells can operate virtually continuously as long as the necessary flows are
maintained. Fuel cells are different from conventional electrochemical cell batteries in
that they consume reactant from an external source, which must be replenished.
Hydrogen, methanol and even petrol are discussed as fuels for fuel cell vehicles.
Presently hydrogen and fuel cell technologies are far from ready for a widespread
commercial use in Developed Countries.
2.5 EcoDriving6
The term EcoDriving encompasses driving styles and vehicle maintenance that focuses at
reducing variable costs, environmental pollution, and increasing road safety.
A change in the driving style has a number of positive effects on the environment,
economy and safety:
6
Adapted from Breithaupt, Eberz (2005) Sourcebook Module 4f.
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There is no doubt that economical driving leads to considerable energy savings, reduces
operating costs for vehicles and leads to a reduction of Greenhouse Gas emissions.
Experiences worldwide show that cost reductions of up to 25% can be achieved. On
average, reductions of 10 to 20% are realistic.
The basic rule for a defensive driving style is to react accordingly. The “normal” working
procedure of a vehicle driver is as follows:
Table 6 shows the strong effects of aggressive and gentle driving styles. Gentle driving
may save up to 47l/100km or 46% on a heavy bus compared to an aggressive style.
Table 6
Fuel consumption at different driving styles
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If the driver has to stop and wait for a longer time (e.g. at a railway crossing), it is
recommended to switch off the engine. This is not only better for the environment but it
also saves fuel. A rule of thumb is to switch off the engine when the vehicle has to stand
still for more than a minute. To drive economically means to drive at a constant road
speed as often as possible - although this might be difficult to realize in urban traffic.
The driver should avoid braking when it is possible to ease off the accelerator in good
time and allow for coasting. Coasting means releasing the accelerator pedal and using
the engine as a brake, e.g. when approaching red lights or the end of a traffic jam.
Box 4
EcoDriving example from a GTZ pilot project in Santiago de Chile
Eleven drivers of urban public transport buses in Santiago de Chile have been trained
during one week on EcoDriving. The training was based on a manual developed by
GTZ in a corresponding project in Argentina. The results were quite impressive. Fuel
consumption decreased by between 8 and 32% with an average of nearly 20%. At the
same time, braking could be reduced between 3 and more than 50%. The average
reduction of braking is more than 25%.
The effect on exhaust gas emissions also was considerable. For the Santiago bus fleet
emission factors have been developed. Based on these data it was possible to
calculate the difference in exhaust gas emissions as an effect of EcoDriving. NOx, CO,
PM and HC was reduced by more than a quarter.
Regular maintenance is important for all engines – both old and new ones – in order to
ensure economical operation. Well maintained vehicles, properly adjusted engines, and
appropriate tyre pressure is essential for low energy consumption and environmental
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protection. When the pressure of all tyres of a vehicle is too low by 15-20% fuel
consumption increases by 5-8%.
Walsh and Kolke (2005), Cleaner Fuels and Vehicle Technologies, GTZ Sourcebook
Module 4a
Shah, Iyer, Cherry (2009): Two and Three-Wheelers, GTZ Sourcebook Module 4c
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7
3. Transport Noise and its Abatement
This chapter provides an overview on transport noise and the measures to abate the
effects on human beings. First of all, technical features of transport noise are explained,
especially how it is measured. In the second subchapter the health effects of transport
noise are discussed before abatement measures are shortly described.
Noise is unwanted sound. Sound has a range of different physical characteristics, but
only becomes noise when it has an undesirable physiological or psychological effect on
people. Environmental noise refers to noise that can affect our surroundings, and
includes construction noise, machinery noise, transportation noise, as well as domestic
noise. Sound may be described in terms of amplitude, frequency, and time pattern.
Frequency, perceived as pitch, is determined by the rate at which sound makes the air
vibrate. Time pattern refers to a sound’s pattern of time and level, which can be
continuous, intermittent, fluctuating, or impulsive. Continuous sound is a constant level
of sound for a relatively long period, such as the sound of a waterfall, whereas
intermittent sound is sound produced for short periods, such as the ringing of a
telephone. Fluctuating sound varies in level over time, such as the loudness of traffic
sounds in a busy intersection, and impulsive sound is sound produced in an extremely
short span of time, such as a gunshot.
Figure 17
Sound levels measured in dB(A)
7
Adapted from Source: GTZ et al (2005): Noise and its abatement, GTZ Sourcebook Module 5c.
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i) The A-weighted sound level (dB(A)) is the most common measure of expressing
noise. The A-weighted sound level measures sound on a scale that closely mirrors
the way it is heard by people, by giving more weight to the frequencies that
people hear more easily, within 1 – 6 kHz. Due to the logarithmic scale, a 3dB(A)
increase in sound levels represents a doubling in noise. To get an impression of
dB(A) Figure 17 provides a graphic scale of transport-oriented sound levels.
ii) The emissions of a source and consequently the reception levels are usually not
constant. For moving sources such as road traffic noise, the noise level is
constantly changing with the number, type, and speed of the vehicles which
produce the noise. The equivalent acoustic level (Leq) is the sound level of a stable
noise which contains the same energy as a variable noise over the same period. It
represents the mean of the acoustic energy perceived during the period of
observation. The equivalent acoustic level of noise during the period 8:00 AM to
8:00 PM is written as Leq (8:00 AM – 8:00 PM) or Leq (12 h).
iii) When the occurrence of sound is relevant, such as in residential areas, the Day-
Evening Night Sound Level (Lden) is used. This A-weighted equivalent sound level
covers a 24-hour period with an extra 10dB weighting added on the equivalent
sound levels occurring during night-time hours (10 PM – 7 AM). Nocturnal noise
levels are generally lower than during the day. For example, the nocturnal Leq
(12:00 AM – 6:00 AM) is typically 10dB
Figure 18
Daytime traffic noise in a German town
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Transport noise has various physical and psychological effects on human beings. They
range from disturbance and annoyance to premature death. The first are related to
communication, concentration, stress and sleeping disorder. Disturbances and stress may
entail other, more serious effects, such as high blood pressure, mental health and heart
attacks. Studies about the effects of night-time traffic noise on public health conclude
that noise during night-times causes stress and thus increases the risk of gastro-
intestinal (stomach, bowels) and cardio-vascular (heart and blood circulation) diseases.
The risk of cardiac infarctions increases by 20% if persons are exposed to outdoor
transport noise above 65 dB(A). Noise has not only been documented to affect adults,
but correlations have been found with children as well as with foetuses of pregnant
women. Noisy environments causing speech interference in classrooms may have serious
ramifications on a child’s education, especially if this occurs during the language
acquisition development stage.
Various noise abatement measures have been applied in Developed Cities and are ready
for implementation in the Developing World as well.
Setting noise standards for urban area is an appropriate way of limiting noise emissions.
An example of German noise standards is given in Table 7, where threshold levels for
areas with different land use for day and a night time are defined. If these levels are
exceeded, the municipality is required to implement noise reducing measures (see
below). It should be noted that noise standards are only applicable for a defined
measurement method which specifies the location of measurement devices and the
duration of measurement.
Table 7
German threshold values for harmful effects of road and rail noise
Hospital areas 57 47
Sensitive housing 59 49
General housing 59 49
Mixed areas 64 54
Industrial Areas 69 59
The control of vehicles can reduce noise emissions at the source. For example, vehicles
can be designed with engine encapsulation, i.e. enclosures for the engine, or fans that
turn off when not needed, and better mufflers. Quieter vehicles can bring a substantial
reduction in traffic noise along those roads and streets where no other corrective
measures are possible. Unfortunately, due to limitations in technology, these regulations
for new vehicles and state and local regulations for maintenance of vehicles can only
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partially reduce the noise created by traffic. The best that can be expected is a 5 to 10
dB(A) decrease depending on the current emission levels. In Developing Countries where
usually no noise regulations on vehicles exist, it is recommended to introduce such
regulations at least for new cars to be allowed to enter traffic.
In some countries (e.g. European Union) in addition to the limits for propulsion noise,
emission limits for tires have been introduced. The reduction potential for low noise tires
is considered to be up to 5 dB(A).
Urban planning may take into account transport noise as a criterion for future land use
development. Prudent land use control can help to prevent many future traffic noise
problems along highways bordered by vacant land which may one day be developed. E.
g. less noise-sensitive commercial buildings may be placed next to a major traffic artery,
with residences further away. Open space can be left as a buffer zone between
residences and a street.
Managing traffic can reduce noise problems. For example, trucks can be prohibited from
certain streets and roads, or they may be permitted to use particular streets and roads
only during daytime. Traffic lights can be changed to smooth out the flow of traffic and to
eliminate the need for frequent stops and starts. Lower speed limits can contribute to
noise reduction; about a 30 km/h reduction in speed is necessary for a noticeable
decrease in noise levels. Use of horns can be banned in certain locations, e.g. around
hospitals.
The application of a bituminous surface layer over worn concrete roadways is effective in
reducing road/tire noise. The use of open-graded asphalt may also be effective in
reducing road/tire noise in sensitive areas. However, these measures come only into
effect with higher speeds. When planning new roads, road design should avoid steep
grades and sharp corners to reduce noise resulting from acceleration, braking, gear
changes, and use of engine brakes by heavy trucks at critical locations.
Noise barriers are among the most common mitigation measures used. They are most
effective, if they break the line of sight between the noise source and the receptors being
protected, and if they are thick enough to absorb or reflect the noise received (see
Figure 19). For a noise barrier to work, it must be high enough and long enough to block
the view of a road. Noise barriers do very little good for homes on a hillside overlooking a
road or for buildings which rise above the barrier. Openings in noise walls for driveway
connections or intersecting streets reduce the effectiveness of barriers. Vegetation, if
high enough, wide enough, and dense enough (cannot be seen through), can decrease
street traffic noise considerably. A 200-foot width of dense vegetation can reduce noise
by 10 decibels, which cuts the loudness of traffic noise by half.
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Figure 19
Effects of noise barriers
Source: GTZ et al. (2005): Noise and its abatement, GTZ Sourcebook Module 5c
Building facade insulation, such as double window glazing, is an option usually adopted
as a last resort in order to dampen noise indoor noise.
A successful mitigation plan will often incorporate several of the measures. A busy road
passing by a high-rise building, for example, may require specialized surfacing, a barrier
or screen to reduce traffic noise at lower levels, and facade insulation for the upper floors
of the building. The relative costs and effectiveness of some of the measures outlined
above are compared in Table 8.
Table 8
Indicative comparison of various noise mitigation measures
Source: GTZ et al. (2005): Noise and its abatement, GTZ Sourcebook Module 5c
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GTZ et al. (2005): Noise and its abatement, GTZ Sourcebook Module 5c
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This chapter answers the question how much the transport sector contributes to Climate
Change and provides an overview which strategies may be applied to reduce Green
House Gas Emissions (GHG). This last chapter provides some insights which international
financial mechanisms to tackle Climate Change are available: The clean Development
Mechanism CDM and the Global Environmental Facility GEF.
It is now generally agreed that a global Climate Change is occurring. It also appears that
the poorer countries stand to suffer most as a consequence of this change, with
estimated costs in the range of 5 to 9% of gross domestic product (GDP) for some of the
poorer countries— several times greater than the relative effect in industrialized
countries. In addressing the impacts of Climate Change through sustainable transport
instruments, cities are also able to benefit from a range of co-benefits, including
improved air quality, reduced noise from traffic, increased road safety, and a range of
social and economic benefits.
Figure 20
Expected surface warming at the end of the 21st century
Source: IPCC
The effects of Climate Change include wide-spread melting of glaciers and ice caps, rising
sea levels and changes in rainfall patterns that are likely to lead to increased drought in
some regions. Heat-waves and extreme high temperatures are also very likely to become
more common. Extreme weather events, including hurricanes and typhoons, may
become more intense, although it is not yet clear as to whether or not the frequency of
these events will increase. It is expected that these trends will continue over the coming
decades. Due to the relatively long period of time between emission and the effects in
the atmosphere, there are no easy solutions. However, if action is taken now, there is
still a chance to limit the worst effects beyond the middle of the century.
Effects will vary greatly in different areas of the world. It is expected that effects will be
stronger in the south, in Developing Countries, whose geography and lack of resources to
adapt make them more vulnerable. Recent examples include the increase in flooding in
Bangladesh (Box 5) and the desertification in China.
8
Adapted from Dalkmann and Brannigan (2007): Transport and Climate Change, GTZ Sourcebook Module 5e.
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Box 5
Climate change effects – Bangladesh
Bangladesh is vulnerable due to low lying land, high risk of cyclones, dependency on
agriculture and the poverty of its inhabitants. Severe floods used to occur once every
twenty years. They are now occurring every five to seven years, taking place in 1987,
1988, 1995, 1998, 2004, and 2007. Floods in 2004 were some of the most severe in
decades, leaving 1,000 people dead and 30 million people homeless. It is estimated
that the floods caused £4 billion of damage. A 45cm sea level rise would reduce
Bangladesh’s land area by 11% and force 5.5 million people to migrate. A 100 cm rise
would remove 20% of the land area, causing 15 million people to migrate. Rainfall is
predicted to increase by 10 to 15% by 2030 and the higher temperatures increase the
frequency and intensity of cyclones.
Figure 21
Flooded dwellings in Bangladesh
Carbon dioxide (CO2) represents the largest proportion of the basket of Greenhouse Gas
(GHG) emissions covered by the Kyoto protocol. Over the past three decades, carbon
dioxide emissions from transport have risen faster than those from all other sectors and
are projected to rise more rapidly in the future. It is estimated that the transport sector
is responsible for about 25 percent of emissions of the gases contributing to global
warming in industrialized countries, but only about one-half this amount in Developing
Cities. From 1990 to 2004, the carbon dioxide emissions from the world’s transport
sector have risen by 36,5%. For the same period, road transport emissions have risen by
29% in industrialized countries and 61% in the other countries (mainly Developing
Countries or countries in transition).
Figure 22 shows the projected increase in transportation CO2 emissions by world region
for 2050. At present industrialized countries are the main sources of transport emissions.
However, the proportion of emissions being produced in Developing Countries is
increasing rapidly, particularly in countries such as China, India, and Indonesia. World
CO2 emissions from the transport sector are projected to increase by 140% from 2000 to
2050, with the biggest increase in developing countries.
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Module 5 Energy and Environment
Figure 22
Transportation vehicle CO2 emissions by region
The majority of transport fuel emissions (76%) are from road transport. Light Duty
Vehicles (LDVs) - i.e., four-wheeled vehicles, including cars, sports utility vehicles
(SUVs), small passenger vans (up to 8 seats), and personal pickup trucks - are the most
important source. Air travel produces around 12% of transport CO2 emissions and its
share is growing rapidly.
Various transport modes contribute to global warming by more than their direct
emissions of CO2, e.g. via the upstream CO2 emissions from oil refineries, electricity used
by electric trains, and for aviation the enhanced climate forcing as a result of contrails
and other effects. In developing countries, particularly China, India, Latin America, and
other Asian countries, a rapid rise in two-wheeled vehicles is predicted. Between 2000
and 2050, two-wheeler fuel consumption is projected to increase by more than eight
times, this increases the proportion of road vehicle fuel use attributed to two-wheelers
from 2% to 3%.
Figure 23
Global transport fuel use by mode
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Module 5 Energy and Environment
With the signing of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, the first legally binding international
agreement to reduce Greenhouse Gas emissions was established. As of May 2007, a total
of 175 parties have ratified the agreement, covering over 60% of global emissions.
Industrialized countries who sign up to the treaty are legally bound to reduce worldwide
emissions of six Greenhouse Gases by an average of 5,2% below their 1990 levels by the
period 2008 to 2012. The Kyoto Protocol also includes mechanisms which allow
industrialized countries to meet their targets by reducing emissions elsewhere, either
through purchasing carbon credits as in the EU Emissions Trading Scheme or by funding
projects in developing countries using the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM, Chapter
4.3.1) or Joint Implementation.
Although controversy continues over the optimal Greenhouse Gas reduction strategy, and
the distribution of action between industrialized and developing countries, it is accepted
that some mitigating strategy is called for in all countries. Despite this, GHG mitigation
has a negative connotation in many developing countries, where exhortations to limit
GHG emissions are perceived as a denial of the right to develop the services and lifestyle
being enjoyed by industrialized countries. To avert this outcome requires a combination
of transportation policy reforms in the short term and technological changes in the longer
term.
Transport is proving to be one of the most difficult sectors in which to reduce Greenhouse
Gas emissions as there are numerous small emission sources (i.e., vehicles) and,
additionally, there is a seemingly close relationship with economic development.
Leapfrogging may be a particularly important element of reducing Greenhouse Gases
from transport in developing countries, i.e., bypassing the use of inferior, less efficient,
more expensive or more polluting technologies and moving to more advanced ones. To
achieve the above reduction targets in the transport sector, there are three primary ways
to reduce Greenhouse Gas emissions from transport (see Figure 24):
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Figure 24
Strategy responses to Climate Change
Figure 24 lists a number of strategies and instruments that that have already been
discussed in the previous Modules of this course which all have the goal to reduce CO2
emissions of transport. A variety of sustainable transport instruments can be
incorporated within these strategies. They can be categorized into Planning, Regulatory,
Economic, Information, and Technology Instruments. There are four main outcomes
related to strategy implementation that will determine the effect on carbon emissions:
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vehicles, such as buses or rail. Although there are emissions associated with
both bus and rail, the high occupancy levels that can be achieved means that
the emissions of Greenhouse Gases per passenger km is less than being the
sole occupant of a private vehicle (see Table 9). Strategies to improve the
energy efficiency and technology of vehicles also apply to public transport
vehicles, so emissions can be reduced further. These questions are discussed
in Module 3.
• Individual motorized transport is made more efficient: Where private cars and
other low occupancy vehicles continue to be used, the strategy to improve
energy efficiency and technology of vehicles can help to reduce emissions.
These issues are treated in Chapter 1 and 2 of this Module.
Table 9
Greenhouse gas emissions of selected transport systems
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Table 10
Sustainable transport instruments: meeting local priorities
From these strategies, a number of measures may be derived, that aim at mitigating
Climate Change effects, but have as well other local impacts such as safety, equity or air
pollution (Table 10). Thus, applying these measures will have global as well as local
effects. The European Union has adopted a proposal to reduce CO2 emissions of new
passenger cars as explained in Box 6.
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Box 6
EU legislation to reduce CO2 emissions from light duty vehicles
In 2007, the European Commission adopted a proposal for legislation to reduce the
average CO2 emissions of new passenger cars which account for about 12% of the
European Union's carbon emissions. The Commission's proposal will reduce the
average emissions of CO2 from new passenger cars in the EU from around 160 grams
per kilometre to 130 grams per kilometre in 2012. That will translate into a 19%
reduction of CO2 emissions. The emission limit value does not apply to each vehicle
individually but to the average of all vehicles built by a manufacturer registered in the
EU in one calendar year.
A so-called limit value curve implies that heavier cars are allowed higher emissions
than lighter cars while preserving the overall fleet average. The curve is set in such a
way that a fleet average for all new cars of 130 grams of CO2 per kilometre is
achieved. From 2012, a manufacturer will be required to ensure that the average
emissions of all new cars which it manufactures and which are registered in the
Community are below the average of the permitted emissions for those cars as given
by the curve. That curve is set in such a way that heavier cars will have to improve
more than lighter cars compared to today, but that manufacturers will still be able to
make cars with emissions above the limit value curve provided these are balanced by
cars which are below the curve. Manufacturers' progress will be monitored each year
by the Member States on the basis of new car registration data.
This decision of the EU Commission has been criticised by environmental groups. The
limits are too low compared to the initial proposals. Long term goals are missing, that
comply with the Kyoto goals: 80 g/km by 2020 and 60 by 2025. The standards punish
carmakers that make their vehicles lighter, one of the most important methods of
reducing CO2 and fuel consumption.
In addition to these funding options, Climate Change funding mechanisms exist which
can provide additional funding if the planned investment will help mitigate Greenhouse
Gas emissions. This section presents two major financial mechanisms that support
Climate Change mitigation projects: the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and the
Global Environment Facility (GEF).
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4.3.1 Clean Development Mechanism in the Transport Sector9 What is the CDM?
The CDM allows industrialized countries with a Greenhouse Gas reduction commitment
under the Kyoto Protocol to invest in emission reducing projects in developing countries.
These are usually alternatives to what is considered to be more costly emission
reductions in their own country. While CDM is becoming a popular tool in other sectors
like renewable energy and energy efficiency, there are only few transport projects in the
pipeline. One key bottleneck is the need for a reliable method to prove a reduction in
CO2.
CDM projects provide additional funds for investments in developing countries and can
lead to better infrastructure and technology. Investments using this mechanism should
lead to sustainable development as projects are assessed for their impact on reducing
Greenhouse Gas emissions.
For industrialized countries, the benefits of getting involved in the CDM are that they will
be able to implement Greenhouse Gas emissions at lower costs than in their own
countries. For the host country (i.e. a developing country), benefits include financial
assistance in the implementation of sustainable transport projects, and realization of the
associated wider co-benefits (safety, accessibility, mobility etc.).
Eligibility of projects
For a project to be eligible it has to reduce net Greenhouse Gas emissions, either through
reduction of emissions or sequestration. This reduction has to be ‘real, measurable and
additional’. There are a variety of requirements that projects should adhere to, and
processes to be undertaken in order to gain funding.
• Baseline: The baseline for CDM projects must be calculated. The baseline
refers to the scenario representing the Greenhouse Gas emissions that would
occur in the absence of the proposed project activity. In doing so, the possible
alternatives to the project should be identified and discussed.
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The Global Environment Facility (GEF) was set up to fund projects and programmes
aimed to protect the global environment. In principle, the GEF only provides co-funding;
this means that a significant contribution to the financing of the project needs to come
from other sources. Such financing can either come from the national government or
from other donor agencies. The financing may be also achieved by providing ‘in-kind’
resources (e.g. preparation of the transport planning administration), credits, and loans.
Projects can include biodiversity, Climate Change, international waters, land degradation,
the ozone layer and persistent organic pollutants. The GEF is directly linked to the
relevant environmental conventions. With regard to Climate Change, the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is the relevant international
convention, and GEF co-funding is available for developing countries which have ratified
the UNFCCC and want to promote Climate Change mitigation projects. Eligible areas of
activity are: renewable energy, energy efficiency, and sustainable transport.
By using the GEF, developing countries and cities can mobilize additional funding to
implement projects that are their core interest. In the transport sector, co-funding from
the GEF can, for example, be used to improve public transport or promote non-motorized
transport. To be eligible for GEF funding, projects must have a benefit for the global
environment and fulfill specific formal criteria.
In 2007, new policies were introduced for the GEF and submitted to the GEF council in
June 2007. While the GEF initially supported mainly technological solutions, the new
strategic programme will have a stronger focus on ‘non-technology’ options such as
planning, modal shift and the promotion of better managed public transport systems.
GEF support can be given to promote transport modes with lower carbon intensity. This
covers public transport, public rapid transit (including BRT) as well as non-motorized
transport. Priority will be given to countries with rapidly growing small and medium
cities.
There are a great variety of projects that can be financed by GEF, and the application
process differs depending on the type of project. The most work intensive preparation is
needed for full-sized projects, which include projects in excess of US$1 million. Other
options include enabling activity or medium-sized projects. For all types of projects it is
possible to apply first for a project preparation grant (PPG) to get initial funding (up to
US$25,000) to prepare the project proposal. This includes holding workshops to increase
stakeholder participation within the project and to strengthen the focus of the proposal.
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Dalkmann and Brannigan (2007): Transport and Climate Change, GTZ Sourcebook
Module 5e
Grütter (2007): The CDM in the Transport Sector, GTZ Sourcebook Module 5d
Grütter (2006): The CDM in the Transport Sector, GTZ Sourcebook Module 5d
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