SCIENTISTS JOINED AS LIFE MEMBER OF SOCIETY OF KRISHI VIGYAN

3332018. Priti S. Jayswal, Scientist, Agricultural Engineering at Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Junagadh
Agricultural University, Amreli, Gujarat.
3342018. Dilip Kumar Pandey, Programme Coordinator, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Pallamu, Chattisgarh.
3352018. D K Suryawanshi, Scientists, Plant protection,Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Ujjain, Madhya
Pradesh.
3362018. Sanjay Kumar Ray, ACTO, Soil Science, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Wokha, Post Box No. 137,
ICAR Research complex for NEH Region, Nagaland centre, Wokha, Nagaland.
3372018. Usha Sharma, Regional Horticultural Research and Training Station, Mashobra, Dr. Y S
Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry Nauni, Solan Shimla 171007, Himachal
Pradesh.
3382018. Rachna Arora, Assistant Horticulturist, Department of Fruit Science, Punjab Agricultural
University, Ludhiana, Punjab
3392018 Rashmi Limbu, Subject Matter Specialist, Home Science, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Bharsar,
Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand.
3402019. Katayani, Lecturer, Home Science (Family Resource Management), Shri Paramhans
Shikshan Prashikshan Mahavidyalaya, Vidyakund, Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh
3412019. Shalini Gupta, Lecturer, Dr Lohia Mahila Mahavidyalaya Kuchera, Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh.
3422019. C Rajamanickam, Assistant Professor, Horticulture, Agricultural College and Research
Institute, Madurai, Tamil Nadu.
3432019. Babita Verma, Assistant Professor ,Department of Family Resource Management, Faculty
of Home Science, Kamla Nehru Institute of Physical and Social Sciences. Sultanpur, Uttar
Pradesh.
3442019. Anil Kr Ravi, Subject Matter Specialist, Veterinary Science, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Gaya,
Bihar.
3452019. Anil Kumar Swain, Senior Scientist and Head, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Odisha University
of Agriculture and Technology, Bargarh, Odisha.
3462019. Phool Kumari, Scientist, Home Science, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Hamirpur, Uttar Pradesh.
3472019. Dipsika Paramjita, Scientist, Agricultural Engineering, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Puri, Odisha.
3482018. Arvind Kumar Ishar, Senior Scientist & Head, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Rajouri, SKUAST,
Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir,
3492018. Kranti Sharma, Assistant Professor, Kamdhenu and Panchgavya Research Centre, Anjora
Durg, Chhattisgarh.
3502018. Kamal K Pande, Subject Matter Specialist, Horticulture, Krishi Vigyan Kendra (ICAR-
VPKAS), Kafligair, Bageshwar, Uttarakhand.

280
 CONTENTS
Sr. No. Title Page No.
Agronomy
1. Assessment of Premix Broad Spectrum Herbicides for Weed Management in 11-14
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.).
R P S Shaktawat, S P S Somvanshi, S S Bhadoria and H P Singh
2. Effect of Integrated Weed Management on Growth and Yield of 83-87
Kharif Onion (Allium cepa).
Nishith Gupta, K S Bhargav and Moni Singh
3. Performance of Cultivars and Tillage Methods on Growth, Yield and Economics of 178-183
Lentil Under Rice-Lentil System in Garo Hills, Meghalaya.
Tanmay Samajdar, N Arunkumar Singh, Mokidul Islam,
Tarunkr Das and Sagarika Borah
4. Response of Kharif Maize (Zea mays) to Planting Methods and Nitrogen 206-210
Management Approach by Leaf Color Chart.
Bikramjit Singh and Amarinder Singh
5. Weed Management in Spring Maize (Zea mays) through Cultural Practices in Punjab. 257-261
Mandeep Kaur, Gurbax Singh and Amarinder Singh

Agricultural Extension
6. Backward and Forward Linkages Developed By Farmer Producer 28-31
Organisations in Western Maharashtra.
Swati Khandave, Mahammad Shafi Rupanagudi Shaik and Vijaypal S Dedun
7. Constraints Perceived by Tribal Farmers in Adoption of Improved Production 46-50
Technologies of Rapeseed-Mustard in Ranchi District.
Smriti Singh, Anuj Tiwari and R P Singh Ratan
8. Critical Analysis of Farmers’ Footfall at Krishi Vigyan Kendra for Assessment of 51-56
Technological Problems.
Gurdeep Singh, Pritpal Singh, GPS Sodhi and Gurmeet Singh Dhillon
9. Different Modes of Information Sharing for Cashew Nut Production Technologies 57-61
in Ariyalur District of Tamil Nadu.
A Rajkala, G Alagukannan, Y Rajajoslin and S Shobana
10. Grass Root Institutions for Enhancing Wood Productivity: A Study on Functioning of 131-136
Tree Grower Societies in Tamil Nadu.
V Irulandi, T T Renganathan and M Ramasubramanian
11. Impact Assessment of Technological Interventions for Reducing Yield Gaps in Rice 140-143
( Oryza sativa L.) Under Temperate Hill Ecology.
T Mubark and A Shakoor
12. Impact of Skill Development Training on Mushroom Cultivation in 144-148
Kanyakumari District of Tamil Nadu.
K Kavitha, R Latha, S Nazreen Hassan and K Thirukumaran
13. Impact of Soybean Production Technology Dissemination through Front Line 149-152
Demonstrations in Malwa Region of M P.
Hansraj Jatav, R P Sharma D S Tomar and D K Suryawanshi

281
14. Integrated Fish cum Poultry Farming for Self Employment and Household 163-167
Nutritional Security in Arunachal Pradesh.
V K Misra, C P Singh, N D Singh, T S Mishra, N K Mishra,
A N Tripathi and Shashank Singh
15. Perception and Preferences of Farmers for Agricultural Telecasts in 168-173
Namakkal district of Tamil Nadu.
Sree Madhumitha G and Karthikeyan C
16. Problems Encountered by the Tribal Livestock Farmers of Southern Rajasthan. 194-198
Dileep Kumar, M P Verma and Pankaj Lawania
17. Production Technologies of Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum L.) Followed By 199-205
Farmers in District Karimnagar, Telangana.
N Venkateshwar Rao, PK Jain, N Kishor Kumar and M Jagan Mohan Reddy
18. Role Performance and Job Satisfaction among Trainers of Krishi Vigyan 211-216
Kendras in Maharashtra.
Narendra Khode, B P Singh and D M Badukale
19. Study on the Adoption Status of Vocational Training Course on Garment 239-242
Construction and Enrichment among Rural Women.
Manjot Kaur and Kanwaljit Kaur
20. Technological Gap in Adoption of Pulse Production Technologies in 248-250
Lucknow District of Central Plain Zone of Uttar Pradesh.
Deepak Rai, Veenika Singh, Viveka Nand Singh and Ramkewal
21. Use of Smart Phones By Farmers As A Tool For Information Support In Agriculture. 251-256
A Dharanipriya and C. Karthikeyan

Agricultural Economics
22. Doubling Farmers’ Income in Himachal Pradesh: Challenges and Solutions. 62-68
Sanjay Kumar Sharma and B K Sharma
23. Effect of Irrigation Water on Profitability as well as Sustainability of Summer 88-93
Mung bean Versus Spring Maize Cultivation in Kapurthala District of Punjab.
Jatinder Manan, Manoj Sharma, Gobinder Singh and Gurmeet Singh
24. Enhancing Profitability of Buffalo Production System by Rearing Male Calves. 115-120
Inderpreet Kaur and Varinder Pal Singh
25. Evaluation of Bhawantar Bhugtan Yojana in Context to Modal Price of Blackgram. 121-124
Shubhi Patel, Rakesh Singh and Mukesh Kumar
26. Food Security and Income Stability with Soil and Water Conservation Practice in 125-130
Hebburu Sub-Watershed, Tumkur, Karnataka.
Naveena K P, Shivaraj S and Nithin G P
27. Income Inequalities among Farm Households in Hoshiarpur District of Punjab. 153-157
Gaganpreet Singh
28. Standard of Living of National Horticulture Mission Beneficiaries in 222-226
Davanagere District of Karnataka
J Raghuraja, M Madhumathi and S Shashikumar

Agricultural Engineering
29. Assessment of Technical and Financial Feasibility of Self Propelled Paddy Transplanter. 15-19
Ram Pal
282
30. Rolling Stem Applicator - An Eco-Friendly, Low Cost, Input Saving and Drudgery 217-221
Reducing Tool for Managing Sucking Pests of Cotton.
K Ravi Kumar, J Hemantha Kumar, D Srinivas and P Raghu Rami Reddy

Animal Science and Fisheries

31. Adoption Entrepreneurial Activities and Scientific Management Practices by 1-6
Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Livestock Tribal Farmers of Kargil (Ladakh).
Nazir Ahmed, Maria Abbas, Bulbul K H, M I Bhat, Afzal H Akhand,
K A Zargar, Lyaqat Ali and Iram Farooq
32. Augmentation of Fertility in Repeat Breeding Cows Using Modified Prostaglandin 20-23
Protocol under Field Conditions.
S Shinde, R S Patil and R B Negalur
33. Awareness and Participation of Goat Farmers in Various Market Led 24-27
Institutions in Tamil Nadu.
R Ravikumar, P Kumaravel and P N Richard Jagadeesan
34. Backyard Poultry Rearing: An Effective Tool for Enhancement of 32-35
Livelihood of Farm Family.
Sumita Acharya and Monalisa Behera
35. Comparative Study of Composite Fish Culture and Local Practices of Fish 36-39
Culture in Surguja District of Chhattisgarh.
Pradeep Kumar Singh
36. Constraints Analysis of Small Scale Pig Farming in Dhemaji District of Assam. 40-45
Ashim Kumar Sakia, G Gogoi and M Neog
37. Growth Performance and Survivability of Srinidhi birds under 137-139
Farm System of Management.
Maroof Ahmad and Upasana Singh
38. Performance of Different Commercial Layer Feeds on Egg Production in 184-189
Hens During Summer.
Tejbeer Singh, Manoj Sharma and Gurinder Singh
39. Willingness to Participate in Pond Fish Farming by Rural Women in South Tripura. 262-266
Biswajit Debnath

Horticulture
40. Economics of Peach (Prunus persica ) Production under Different Nitrogen 73-77
Regimes through Neem Coated Urea and Calcium Sprays.
Kamal K Pande and D C Dimri
41. Effect of Different Sources and Concentrations of Pre-harvest Calcium and 78-82
Boron Sprays on the Quality and Yield of Apple (Malus x domestica Borkh.).
Ishtiyaq A Khan, Aasima Rafiq and S A Ganie
42. Storage Behavior of Juice Prepared from Nagpur Mandarin Orange. (Citrus reticulata). 227-233
Z A Faizi, V P Kad , J K Dhemre and A M Musmade

Home Science
43. Effectiveness of Training Programmes on Textile Designing and 100-103
Clothing among Rural Women.
Manisha Bhatia and V K Rampal
283
44. Electrical Appliance Usage and Electricity Consumption Pattern at household level. 110-114
V Vijaya Lakshmi and M Milcah Paul
45. Inspirational Cleopatra Dress Designing For Modern Age Girls. 158-162
N Garg and D Kaur
46. Physio and Organoleptic Characteristics of Tomatoes and Ketchup 190-193
Prepared from Different Varieties of Tomato.
Shikha Bathla, Manoj Sharma and Renu Bala
47. Study on Menstruation and Hygiene Practices among Adolescent girls 234-238
in Urban Community.
Deepa Amgoth and R Geetha Reddy

Plant Breeding
48. Assessment of Cluster Bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) Varieties for 7-10
Growth and Yield Characters.
C Rajamanickam

Plant Protection
49. Eco friendly and Economic Farm Level Production Method for Metarhizium anisopliae. 6 9-72
Manu C R, PoornimaYadav P I and Saparia Sathyan
50. Effect of Liquid Bioinoculants on Biocontrol Activities and Growth Promotion of 94-99
Amarathus (Amaranthus cruentus).
H Gurumurthy, M K Shivaprakash and C C Maina

Soil Science
51. Effects of Long-Term Organic and Conventional Farming on Soil 104-109
Physical and Chemical Properties.
Mithlesh, Satnam Singh , Lovepreet Singh and Simerpreet Kaur

Vegetable Science
52. Performance of Ginger (Zingiber officinale ) Varieties under Organic Nutrition. 174-177
Bindu B and Bindu Podikunju
53. Suitability of Kharif Onion Varieties in Mahasamund district of Chhattisgarh. 243-247
Saket Dubey, Satish Verma, Kunal Chandrakar and Ravish Keshari

Short Communication
54. Effect of Crop Geometry on Growth and Yield of Kharif Onion. 267-269
Prakash Mahala, Manpreet Jaidka, Manoj Sharma and Navjot Singh Brar
55. Opinion of Farmers Regarding Effectiveness of Information Dissemination through 270-272
Kisan Suvidha Mobile Application in Surguja District of Chhattisgarh.
Rajni Agashe, Sachin Verma and Pradeep Singh
56. Outcome of Mulching and Phosphatic fertilizer on Germination and Yield of Turmeric. 2 73-275
Jatinder Manan, Manoj Sharma and Amandeep Kaur
57. Qualitative Evaluation of Fodder Trees and Grasses in Hill Region. 276-279
Shaon Kumar Das

284
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 1-6 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00001.1

Adoption of Entrepreneurial Activities and Scientific

Management Practices by Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Livestock
Tribal Farmers of Kargil (Ladakh)
Nazir Ahmed*1, Maria Abbas2, Bulbul K H3, M I Bhat4, Afzal H Akhand5, K A Zargar6 and
Lyaqat Ali4
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kargil-194 301,
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agriculture Sciences and Technology–Kashmir (SKUAST-K)

ABSTRACT
The term training refers to the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competencies as a result of the teaching
of vocational or practical skills. Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kargil organized employment generating and skill
development based training programme in livestock sector and evaluated the impact of the technology
based trainings acquired by the tribal farmers. The study revealed that out of 260 trainees who participated
in the employment generating training programme, 66.53 per cent beneficiaries adopted the technology
whereas, out of 226 trainees who participated in skill development trainings, 69.46 per cent beneficiaries
adopted the technologies. The highest adoption in the said training programme was found to be that of clean
milk production and the least was adopted for vaccination in livestock. A good number of women folk also
participated, to gain the knowledge and adopted the technologies. The study encouraged building capacities
of livestock farmers through informal trainings especially in the areas of diseases management, feeding
management, value addition of milk, deworming, vaccination and poultry farming, pashmina harvesting,
spinning of wool etc. so that they can face challenges of the enterprise, boost their farm size and income.
Key Words: Impact analysis, Kargil, Livestock, Training, Tribal farmers.

INTRODUCTION The region is having very short cropping season

Kargil region of Jammu and Kashmir is located and only single crop is harvested every year. Under
at an altitude of 3000 to 5000 m above mean sea such harsh environmental conditions, livestock is
level. The soil of this region is sandy in nature the major source of livelihood to the inhabitants,
coupled with brown rocks. The annual rainfall in including the nomadic and semi nomadic tribes of
this area is quite low i.e. up to 8-9 cm, while the various regions of Kargil.
temperature varies from 35°C in summer to -40°C The nomadic people of Ladakh rear a variety of
in winter. Snowfall is a very common phenomenon livestock such as sheep, goat, horses, yaks, donkey
in winter. The high wind velocity with a low and poultry, which provide them with various
precipitation rate, low humidity, low oxygen tension goods and services. Sheep plays an important role
and fluctuating temperature makes the climate in the hilly and other inaccessible areas, where it is
inhospitable to crop based livelihood activities. difficult for other livestock to thrive and contribute
Corresponding Author’s Email: animaldr2@gmail.com
1,
Subject Matter Specialist-Krishi Vigyan Kendra-Kargil-SKUAST-K
2
Junior Research Fellow in CWDB Project at Kargil, Ladakh-SKUAST-K
3
Assistant Professor Division of Veterinary Parasitology. F.V.Sc & A.H- SKUAST-K
4
Subject Matter Specialist-Krishi Vigyan Kendra-Budgam-SKUAST-K
5
Assistant Professor Division of Veterinary Extension. F.V.Sc & A.H- SKUAST-K
6
Programme Assistant -Krishi Vigyan Kendra-Kargil-SKUAST-K

1 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 1-6

 Ahmed et al
to the income of poor communities (Nazir et
al, 2017). Agriculture allied activities viz; dairy
farming, mushroom farming and apiculture etc.
provide employment and additional income to
farming families if adopted on scientific lines (Singh
et al, 2016). The livestock sector provides vast
opportunities for self-employment and contributes
to the rural economy by providing milk, meat, wool
etc. (Singh et al, 2016).
Krishi Vigyan Kendra Kargil is engaged in
promotion of improved technology among nomadic
and seim-nomadic tribes. This center has conducted
various extension activities for the upliftment
of rural farmers, farm women and rural youths.
KVK conducts various extension activities such
as, technology week, Kisan Mela, Kisan goshti,
farmers field schools, exposure visits, study trips,
field days, radio talks, TV talks, distribution of
literature in local language, besides, conducts on-
farm trials (OFTs) and front line demonstrations
(FLDs). In many of the training programmes, very
often the focus is on the number of programmes
organized and number of participants rather than the
effectiveness of the programme. Therefore, present
study was conducted to see the impact analysis
for employment generating and skill development
technology based training programme.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted in Kargil district of
Jammu and Kashmir state during the year 2014-15
and 2015-16. For the present study, three blocks of
district Kargil, viz: Shargol (B1), Taisuru (B2) and
Drass (B3) were randomly selected. From each
of the selected block further three villages were
purposively selected where livestock rearing was
practiced since decades. The selected villages were
Nunamchey, Tacha and Kuksty (B1), Panikhar,
Khawos and Youljuk (B2) and (Bhimbat, Holyal and
Olberus (B3), respectively. These nine villages were
selected as participatory villages to carry out various
extension activities for employment generation
and skill development. The disease diagnostic categories of training programes, participation
services and advisory services were provided to the of livestock holder was found to be 66 per cent
2 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 1-6
progressive farmers, farm women and rural youth
engaged in dairy farming, goat farming (Pashmina
goat rearing) and poultry farming. Training to
extension personnel was also provided for transfer
the improved technologies developed by the Sher-
e-Kashmir University of Agriculture Sciences and
Technology–Kashmir (SKUAST-K).
The data were collected from the participants
of training and awareness programmes organized
by KVK, Kargil. Data were collected with the help
of a semi-structured interview schedule through
focus group technique. Total 486 farmers, farm
women, rural youths and extension personal were
involved in the present study. To assess the impact
of extension programs, the adoption of allied
enterprise as income generating occupation among
the active participants assessed.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Distribution of respondents based on
participation in different training programmes
The present study revealed that the participation
of tribal women (52.67%) in awareness programme
in different thematic areas of animal science
discipline was higher than the male (23.45%)
(Table 1). It is because of the reason that least
dominant female folk were the leading participators
of agricultural and livestock production related
activities and about 70 per cent of farm work is
performed by women folk, Nishi Slathia (2003).
Finding of present study was also in agreement with
Hai et al (2011). They reported that women role in
participation in training programme to achieve the
technologies was at higher side as compared to their
counterpart in respect of feeding and management
of their livestock. The frequency distribution of
awareness level was found to be positive in the field
of animal husbandry practice as reported by Bulbul
et al (2014), in Srinagar of Jammu and Kashmir.
The present findings showed that in the
participation from thematic areas for different
 Adoption of Entrepreneurial activities and Scientific Management

Table 1. Distribution of respondents based on participation in different training Programmes.

Thematic area Distribution of respondents Total
Rural youth Practicing nomadic and
semi-nomadic farmers
Male Female Male Female
(%) (%) (%) (%)
Dairy farming 0.0 5.1 10.0 84.9 21
Sheep and goat farming 5.3 2.6 76.3 15.1 34
Poultry farming 28.2 0.0 10.2 62.6 68
Housing management 0.0 0.0 5.5 94.5 19
Winter management 0.0 0.0 20.8 79.2 22
Disease management 20.0 0.0 70.0 10.0 146
Feed management 0.0 0.0 18.3 81.7 63
Production of quality animal products 0.0 8.0 0.0 92.0 176
Total 74 42 114 256 486
followed by rural youth 26 per cent and field and management was found higher than women. It
extension personal 8 per cent. The application of might be due to unemployment, which creates
new technologies and practices is largely based interest among new generation to start Agri-
on the desire of farmers to improve their socio enterprises on small scale like poultry farming.
economic status and overall economic returns. However, in case of nomadic and semi-nomadic
In backyard poultry farming, however farmers male participation was found more in
participation of women was also found higher disease management and sheep and goat farming.
than their counter parts i.e. 53.38 and 46.62 per The possible reason might be due to the fact that
cent which was in agreement with Motin et al male counterparts have to move with their sheep and
(2014) who reported that women took active part goat in high land pastures for more than 6 months
in poultry farming. Chaturvedani et al (2015) and has to take care of their health related problems.
also found the role of women in backyard poultry Adoption of different entrepreneurial activities
farming has significant importance. It might be due Pashmina is the main source of income of this
to the reason that most of the management practices region, hence Pashmina based skill trainings were
viz., housing, feeding, breeding, heath care and organized to enhance the income of backward tribal
marketing practices were carried out by the women. farmers. It was evident (Table 2) that skill based
The data (Table 1.) shows the distribution of training on harvesting of Pashmina fiber had the
respondents based on participation in different highest impact in terms of adoption. Out of total
training programmes and it was clear that 22 rural youth trained in harvesting of Pashmina
participation of women folk was seen higher in for income generation, more than eighty per cent
almost all trainings programmes. It is because of (81.82%) adopted it as entrepreneurial activity.
the fact that in tribal areas, women folk are more Similarly, 14 (77.78%) trained youth, out of total
active in agriculture and animal husbandry sectors. 18 participants adopted spinning of Pashmina as
Participation of male counterpart of rural youth in an entrepreneurial activity. Near about three fourth
trainings related to poultry farming and diseases (73.53%) trained farmers adopted value addition of

3 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 1-6

 Ahmed et al
Table 2. Adoption of different entrepreneurial activities by trained rural youth of Kargil.
Employment generating and income enhancement
trainings for rural youth of Kargil
Shearing of Pashmina goat as source of income
Harvesting of Pashmina wool
Spinning of wool
Spinning of Pashmina 18
Value addition of milk
Backyard poultry
Total
milk as an income generation activity.
Backyard poultry farming can generate good
amount of money for house hold requirements in
addition to providing balanced food with minimum
inputs available in the rural areas, Bulbul et al (2010).
Skill trainings on backyard poultry farming along
with awareness programs helped in empowering
women of tribal communities. More than one third
(67.65%) participants of skill training programs
adopted back yard poultry farming after acquiring
trainings. Training on back yard poultry empowered
women farmers by providing opportunity for
income generation and thus improving socio-
economic status and livelihood. The study
revealed that out of 150 trainees that participated
in vocational training programs, more than seventy
per cent (71.33%) adopted different entrepreneurial
activities for income generation. Thus, vocational
training programme were instrumental developing
entrepreneurial abilities among rural youth, thus
enhancing their income.
Adoption of scientific management practices by
livestock farmers
Training on feed management, winter
management, housing management, control of
mastitis, management of ecto and endo parasites
was provided to practicing livestock farmers. The
adoption level was found to be highest in clean milk
production (82.9%) followed by feed management
(81.0%) and winter management (72.7%). Findings
4 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 1-6
Number of Adopters Non-adopters
trainees (%) (%)
22 15 (68.18) 07 (31.82)
22 18 (81.82) 04 (18.18)
20 12 (60.00) 08 (40.00)
14 (77.78) 04 (22.22)
34 25 (73.53) 09 (26.47)
34 23(67.65) 11(32.35)
150 107 (71.33) 43 (28.67)
were in agreement with study conducted by (Singh
et al, 2016). Which reported enhancement of
knowledge level of trainees in breed characteristics,
disease management and feed management and
increase in daily income of famers after adoption of
learnt scientific practices.
However, adoption of control measures for
mastitis was found to be low (56.5%). It might
be due to unavailability of veterinary services to
remote areas. Adoption of vaccination in livestock
was lowest (10.0%) as revealed in Table 3. The
high adoption of technologies might be due to
high interest of tribal women as well as knowledge
gained in the training programme organized by the
KVK Kargil. However, low adoption of vaccination
in livestock due to unavailability of vaccines at
nearby places to different livestock farmers.
Adoption of scientific management practices by
sheep and goat farmers
The study also revealed that KVK Kargil played
the major role in transferring and dissemination
of latest agriculture based technology especially
on Pashmina goat farming, management of ecto
and endo parasites, shearing of sheep and its
management. Maximum adoption was in sheep
and goat management (76.4%) followed by disease
management in Pashmina goats (63.6%), housing
management (63.2%) and shearing of sheep
(60.0%). Similar findings were reported by Dubey
(2008) who highlighted the role of KVK in transfer
 Adoption of Entrepreneurial activities and Scientific Management

Table 3. Adoption of scientific management practices by practicing livestock farmers of Kargil.

Skill development trainings for practicing livestock No. of Adopters Non-adopters
farmers of Kargil trainees (%) (%)
Livestock farmers
Feed management in milch cows during winters 21 17 (81.0) 4 (19.0)
Winter management 22 16 (72.7) 6 (27.3)
Mastitis and its control 23 13 (56.5) 10 (43.5)
Management of ecto and endoparsites 23 16 (69.6) 7 (30.4)
De-worming of livestock 21 13 (61.9) 8 (38.1)
Vaccination in livestock 20 2 (10.0) 18 (90.0)
Clean milk production 35 29 (82.9) 6 (17.1)
Goat and sheep farmers
Housing management in Pashmina goats 19 12 (63.2) 7 (36.8)
Disease management in Pashmina goats 33 21 (63.6) 12 (36.4)
Sheep and Goat management 34 27 (79.4) 7 (20.6)

Shearing of sheep 25 15 (60.0) 10 (40.0)

Poultry farmers

Scientific management of poultry birds 34 23 (67.6) 11 (32.4)

Management of common poultry diseases 26 19 (73.1) 7 (26.9)

Total 336 223 (66.4) 113 (33.6)

of technology. Results are also in agreement with CONCLUSION

the findings of Salunkhe (2011), who reported It was concluded that livestock is the backbone
improvement in socio-economic status and of disadvantageous areas like Kargil where crop
knowledge level trained farmers in Allahabad based activities are very low due to harsh climatic
district of Uttar Pradesh. conditions. So it is very important to provide
the opportunities to young generation through
Adoption of scientific management practices by awareness and training on latest technologies in
poultry farmers animal husbandry production and management so
Adoption of scientific management of poultry that they develop more interest towards livestock
birds was found to be 67.6 per cent. Similarly, rearing. KVK, Kargil played the pivotal role in
adoption of management of common poultry employment generation through skill trainings
diseases was 73.1 per cent. Overall adoption of among rural youth of Kargil. The transfer and
various management practices among practicing dissemination of latest recommended technologies
farmers was 66.4 per cent while 33.6 of the in livestock rearing and management helped in
practicing farmers did not adopt recommended raising socio economic status of farmers and farm
practices. women.

5 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 1-6

 Ahmed et al

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level of livestock farmers on improved husbandry
practices in Kashmir valley. Indian Anim, Prod Mgmt
30: 30-34.
Chaturvedani A K, Niranjan Lal, Khalid, Khyalia N K and
Jitendra Pratap (2015). Empowering tribal women through
backyard poultry in Bastar district of Chhattisgarh. J
Krishi Vigyan 3 (Special Issue): 19-22.
Hai A, Akand A H, Shahnaz S and Bulbul K H (2011).
Contribution of farm women towards dairy enterprise in
H Sci 30: 140-146.
Motin G A, Goswami A, Mazumder D and Pal Biswajit
(2014). Backyard poultry farming system: women and its
role. Int Dev Res 4 (5):1122-1124
Singh J P, Swanson B E and Singh K M (2016). Developing
a decentralized, market-driven extension system in India:
The ATMA model. In A W Van de Ban & R K Samanta
(Eds.), Changing Roles of Agricultural Extension in
Asian Nations (pp. 203– 223). B R Publishing, Delhi,
India.
Slathia Nishi (2003). Agriculture: Towards a New Paradigm
of Sustainability. ISBN: 978-93-83083-64-0. Pp 150-157.
Received on 17/01/2019 Accepted on 15/03/2019

6 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 1-6

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 7-10 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00002.3

Assessment of Cluster Bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) Varieties

for Growth and Yield Characters
C Rajamanickam
Agricultural College and Research Institute,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai– 625 104 (Tamil Nadu)

ABSTRACT
Assessment of cluster bean varieties for growth and yield characters was conducted at five different
farmers’ fields at Manjakollai village, Bogalur block and Vazhuthur village of Mandapam blocks of
Ramanathapuram district during the year 2016-17. The aim was to assess the performance of high
yielding cluster bean varieties suitable for Ramanathapuram district namely MDU 1, Pusa Navbahar,
Pusa Sadabahar and local. The experiment was laid out in randomized block design (RBD) with four
treatments with three replications. The observation on plant height (cm), days to 50 per cent flowering
(days), number of fruits per plant, individual fruit weight (g), fruit length (cm), fruit girth (cm), yield per
plant (g), yield per ha (t/ha) and B:C ratio were recorded and analysed statistically. The results revealed
that the highest plant height was recorded in MDU 1 (128.50 cm) and minimum length in local (88.87
cm). In case of days to 50 per cent flowering, Pusa Sadabahar took minimum number days(39.40d)
whereas in local check, the value was 44.85d. It was found that MDU1 recorded the highest number of
fruits/plant (149.70), individual fruit weight (2.98 g), fruit length (13.40 cm), fruit girth (4.63 cm), yield/
plant (211.60 g) and yield/ha (14.20 t/ha). In local variety, all these values were lowest for all these yield
traits. MDU 1 registered the highest benefit to cost ratio of 2.94, whereas local check recorded 1.84. Due
to highest yield of 14.2 t/ha, MDU1 was found to be most suitable under Ramanthapuram condition.
Key Words: Cluster bean, Fruit weight, Local check, MDU1, Pusa Sadabahar,Yield.

INTRODUCTION drought condition, gives higher yield under adverse

Cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.) is
an important arid leguminous crop, highly suitable
for arid and semi-arid regions. It is one of the
important arid crops with tremendous potential
for vegetable purpose (tender pods) and more
specifically for its industrial usage (gum). In India
it is mainly grown in Rajasthan, Haryana, Gujarat,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and
Punjab. India becomes the leading producer of
gaur with 60 pe rcent of the world production
followed by Pakistan with 35 per cent (Rao, 2001).
In Tamil Nadu, cluster bean is cultivated on about
600ha area mainly in Tirunelveli, Thoothukudi,
Madurai, Theni, Dindigul, Namakkal, Coimbatore,
Cuddalore, Ramanathapuram, and Virudhunagar
districts. It is relatively tolerant to saline, alkaline,
Corresponding Author’s Email: rajamanickamctnau@gmail.com
climatic conditions and therefore, preferred by small
and marginal farmers. Ramanathapurm farmers
were unaware about newly released high yielding
varieties and new technologies of cluster bean and
only cultivated Pusa Naubahar, local and private
varieties and getting low yield and low income.
Therefore, the present study was undertaken to
assess the performance of high yielding cluster bean
varieties suitable for Ramanathapuram district.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present experiment was conducted at
five farmers’ fields at Manjakollai and Vazhuthur
villages of Bogalur and Mandapam blocks during
Rabi season of 2016-17. MDU 1 seeds were
purchased from Agricultural College and Research

7 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 7-10

 Rajamanickam
Institute, Madurai whereas, Pusa Naubahar and
Pusa Sadabahar seeds from the Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, New Delhi. The field was
thoroughly ploughed, well decomposed farmyard
manure was applied at the rate of 25t/ha and formed
ridges and furrows. MDU1, Pusa Navbahar, Pusa
Sadabahar and local check were used for this study.
The seeds were sown at a spacing of 60 x 30 cm
on one side of the ridges. The recommended
cultivation practices were followed as per the
crop production guide, 2013. Arka vegetable
special were purchased and applied as foliar
application during 30th and 60th days after sowing.
Regular field visits were made by the team of KVK
scientists. The trial was laid out in randomized
block design (RBD) with four treatments and three
replications and data were analysed statistically
(Panse and Sukhatme,1985).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Vegetative parameters
All characters recorded were significantly
different. The results revealed (Table 1) that among
the four varieties, MDU 1 recorded the highest plant
height of 128.50 cm followed by Pusa Navbahar
(119.22 cm). The lowest plant height was noticed in
local check of 88.87 cm. In the case of days to 50 per
cent flowering, Pusa Sadabahar recorded the lowest
(39.40d) followed by MDU1 (41.25d) whereas local
check found the highest days (44.85 d). According
to Premalakshmi et al (2017), plant height is an
important trait by which growth and vigour of the
plants were measured and recorded the maximum
plant height of 112.00 cm in Virudhunagar local.
Deka et al (2015) reported that 40 - 60d variation in
days to 50 per cent flowering and depends on date
of sowing.
Fruit characters
In cluster bean, fruit length is one of the desirableyield of 12.46 t/ha in kharif season of Assam
characters for vegetable purpose. Regarding fruit
characters, recorded values were significantly Economics
different from each other. MDU 1 recorded the
highest values of the traits viz., number of fruits three improved varieties but local practice was the
8 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 7-10
per plant (149.70), fruit length (13.40 cm), fruit
girth (4.63 cm) and individual fruit weight (2.98
g) followed by Pusa Navbahar (133.20; 11.70 cm;
3.50 cm and 2.78 g). The local check registered the
lowest values in all the fruit characters (89.4; 10.50
cm; 3.26 cm; 1.71 g). Lokesha and Shivsankara
(1990) reported that pod weight strongly associated
with fruit length, fruit weight and total yield. Fruit
yield is determined by the fruit weight and number
of fruits per plant therefore yield is complex
character and dependent on its component traits
and their inheritance any change in these would
reflect on total yield (Premalakshmi et al, 2017).
Regarding incidence of powdery mildew, MDU1
recorded the very low incidence (1 – 3.5 %) where
as local check variety (farmer practice) recorded the
high incidence of 15 – 20 per cent.
Yield characters
MDU1 recorded the highest yield per plant
(211.60 g) followed by Pusa Navbahar (162.58
g), whereas local check recorded the lowest yield
per plant (112.36 g). Similarly, MDU 1 recorded
the highest yield of 14.20 t/ha followed by Pusa
Navbahar (10.58 g/ha) and local check registered
the lowest yield (7.24 t/ha). This might be due to
number of laterals per plant which have facilitated
production of more number of flowers per cluster
thus leading to higher yield. The yield reduction
also might be due to failure of north east monsoon
during the year 2016 -17 and led to severe drought,
as a result, plant growth character values were
reduced. Premalakshmi et al (2017) reported that
Thadayampatti local recorded the highest yield of
plant (321.29 g / plant) whereas Virudhunagar local
registered the highest yield per ha of 15.94 t/ha and
also stated that potential yield was recorded under
Madurai condition (22.5 t/ha). Deka et al (2015)
reported that Pusa Navbahar recorded the highest
condition.
The gross cost of cultivation almost similar for
9
Table 1. Growth and yield characters of cluster bean varieties.
Treatment Plant Days to 50 No. of Individual Fruit Fruit Yield Yield Incidence of
height % flowering fruits per fruit length girth per per ha powdery mildew
(cm) (days) plant weight (g) (cm) (cm) plant (g) (t/ha) disease (%)
MDU-1 128.50 41.25 149.70 2.98 13.40 4.63 211.60 14.20 1- 3.5
Pusa Navbahar 119.22 42.30 133.20 2.78 11.70 3.50 162.58 10.58 5 – 10
Pusa Sadabahar 102.54 39.40 115.60 2.30 10.58 3.42 148.22 9.14 10 – 12
Farmers practice (Local 88.87 44.85 89.40 1.71 09.55 3.16 112.36 7.24 15 - 20
check)
SEd 0.221 0.090 0.478 0.001 0.045 0.002 0.780 0.036
CD (P=0.05%) 0.467 0.197 0.912 0.003 0.102 0.004 1.456 0.089

Table 2. Economics of cluster bean varieties at Ramanathapuram district.

Treatment Yield per ha (t/ha) Gross Cost (Rs.) Gross Income (Rs.) Net Returns (Rs.) B:C ratio
MDU 1 14.20 21,200 66,600 45,400 2.94
Pusa Navbahar 10.58 20,600 47,610 27,010 2.31
Pusa Sadabahar 9.14 19,100 41,130 22,030 2.15

J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 7-10

Assessment of Cluster Bean Varieties

Farmers practice (Local check) 7.24 17,200 32,580 15,380 1.84

 Rajamanickam
lowest gross cost (Table 2). Among the cluster bean
varieties, market preference was high for var. MDU
1 and fetched higher prices. MDU 1 recorded the
highest net profit of Rs. 45,400/ha with the benefit
to cost ratio of 2.94 followed by Pusa Naubahar
(Rs.27,010/-ha, 2.31) while the local check
registered the lowest net profit of Rs. 22, 030/-ha
and B:C ratio of 1.84. It was found that farmers
were very much convinced with the performance
of var. MDU1, fetches higher income, higher yield
and recorded the low incidence of powdery mildew
when compared with Pusa Naubahar and local
check.
CONCLUSION
The findings of the present assessment revealed
that cultivating MDU 1 and Pusa Navbahar in
Ramanathapuram district were more beneficial Rao A O (2001). Status of underutilized crops in Pakistan.
due to their yield contributing characters viz., yield
per plant, yield per ha and net returns with benefit
cost ratio which recorded the more values when
compared to farmers practice variety. Farmers
realised that MDU1 was better choice of variety in
terms of yield and market price. Therefore, MDU
1 was found suitable for Ramanathapuram district
of Tamil Nadu and recommended for large scale
cultivation.
10 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 7-10
REFERENCES
Crop Production Guide for Horticultural Crops (2013).
Directorate of Horticulture and Plantation Crops,
Chennai and Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore.
Deka K K, Milu R D, Bora P and Mazumder N (2015).
Effect of sowing dates and spacing on growth and yield
of cluster bean in subtropical climate of Assam, India.
Indian J Agric Res 49 (3): 250 – 254.
Lokesha R and Shivsankar G (1990). Analysis of genetic
variability and character association in cluster bean.
Mysore J Agrl Sci 24 (3): 318 – 320.
Panse V G and Sukhatme. P V (1985). Statistical Methods for
Agricultural Workers. Second Edition. Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, New Delhi: 356.
Premalakshmi V, Arumugam T, Deepadevi N and
Rameshkumar S (2017). Development of new variety
in clusterbean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.). Int J Curr
Microbiol App Sci 6 (4): 2541 – 2545.
Dept Bot Univ Agri, Faisalabad, p. 1 – 13.
Received on 13/03/2019 Accepted on 10/04/2019
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 11-14 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00003.5

Assessment of Premix Broad Spectrum Herbicides for Weed

Management in Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
R P S Shaktawat, S P S Somvanshi , S S Bhadoria and H P Singh
RVSKVV – Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Agar Malwa 465441 (Madhya Pradesh)

ABSTRACT
The study was conducted at the farmer’s field in village Fatehgarh adopted by KVK Mandsaur (Madhya
Pradesh), during Rabi 2015-16, 2016-17 and 2017-18 to assess the effect of weed management treatments
on weed infestation and wheat yield. The experiment consisted of three treatments namely T1: farmers’
practice (hand weeding at 25 and 45 DAS), T2: sulfosulfuron 75% + metsulfuron methyl 5% @ 32 g
a.i./ha at 25 DAS as post emergence and T3: clodinafop 15% + metsulfuron methyl 1% WP @ 64 g a.i./
ha at 25 DAS as post emergence. Application of clodinafop 15% + metsulfuron methyl 1% WP @ 64 g
a.i./ha resulted in significant reduction in the weed count and weed dry matter as compared to rest of the
treatments. Clodinafop 15% + metsulfuron methyl 1% WP @ 64 g a.i./ha registered 27.87 percent higher
grain yield as compare to farmers’ practice. Further, application of clodinafop 15% + metsulfuron methyl
1% WP @ 64 g a.i./ha as post emergence registered significantly higher net return and B:C as compared to
all other treatments and in addition to increased grain yield of improved technology. The technological gap,
extension gap and technology index existed which were 7.47 q/ha, 10.36 q/ha and 13.58 %, respectively.
Key Words: B:C, Grain yield, Net returns, Weed management

INTRODUCTION murale, Chenopodium album, Malwa parviflora

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is the second and Convolvulus arvensis. Due to continuous use of
most important cereal crop in India after paddy both herbicides coupled with mono-cropping of wheat,
in terms of area and production. It is cultivated in resistance has been evolved against the particular
an area of 305.97m ha with an annual production of herbicide. Further, due to effective control of any
98.38 MT and productivity of 3216 kg/ha; whereas in single predominating weed, a shift in weed flora in
Madhya Pradesh, it is cultivated in 6421.1 thousand favour of broad-leaved weeds or narrow leaf weeds
hectares of land with an annual production of 21918 was observed. Hence, it is essential to identify
thousand tonnes and productivity of 3413 kg/ha alternative herbicide molecules with broad spectrum
(Anon, 2016). Weeds emerge after germination of activity for sustainable weed management in wheat.
crop and if not controlled in the early stages of crop Therefore, an on farm trial was conducted to check
growth these may cause reduction in yield up to the effectiveness of post-emergence herbicides
10 to 40 per cent depending upon the intensity and in weed control in wheat in Mandsaur district of
kind of weeds present in the field. The wheat fields Madhya Pradesh.
are mostly infected by monocot weeds like Phalaris
minor, Avena fatua, Polypogon monspliensis, MATERIALS AND METHODS
Cyperus rotundus and Cynodon dactylon and broad An experiment was conducted in village
leaves weeds like Rumex retroflexus, Chenopodium Fatehgarh adopted by Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
Corresponding Author’s Email: rpssbkn@yahoo.co.in
1
Scientist, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Hamirpur (UP)
2
Technical Officer, Directorate of Extension Services, RVSKVV, Gwalior
3
Associate Professor, Directorate of Research Services, RVSKVV, Gwalior

11 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 11-14

 Shaktawat et al
Mandsaur in Rabi 2015-16, 2016-17 and 2017-
18. This trial was conducted at 10 farmer’s fields
using HI 1544 variety of wheat. Each treatment
was laid out in 2000 sqm area using randomized
black design technique. The treatments were T1:
farmers’ practice (hand weeding at 25 and 45 DAS),
T2: sulfosulfuron 75% + metsulfuron methyl 5%
@ 32 g a.i./ha at 25 DAS as post emergence and
T3: clodinafop 15% + metsulfuron methyl 1% WP
@ 64 g a.i./ha at 25 DAS as post emergence. All
the herbicides were applied manually by knapsack
sprayer fitted with flat fan nozzle using spray
volume of 500 L/ha. Wheat was sown in the first
week of November and harvested in second week
of March. Recommended package of practices
were followed to raise the crop. The observation on
weed dry matter and weed count were recorded at
60 DAS using quadrate (0.5 m X 0.5 m). Quadrate
was randomly placed at two places in each plot. The
yield data, thus generated in trial were utilized for
calculating the technology index, technology and
extension gap using the following formulae.
i) Technology gap: (Potential yield) - per plant (4.80) which was statistically at par
(Demonstration yield)
ii) Extension gap : (Demonstration yield) - (Farmer
fields yield)
iii) Technology index : (Technology gap/ Potential
yield) x 100
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect on weed dry matter (g) and weed density
(/m2)
Scrutiny of data revealed that post emergence
application of clodinafop 15% + metsulfuron methyl
1% WP @ 64 g a.i./ha resulted in significantly lower
weed dry matter as compared to sulfosulfuron 75%
+ metsulfuron methyl 5% WP @ 32 g a.i./ha and
control. Highest weed dry matter was recorded in
farmers’ practice. Similar results were recorded in
terms of weed density where farmers’ practice had
significantly higher weed infestation in comparison
to herbicide treatments. For instance, clodinafop
15% + metsulfuron methyl 1% WP @ 64 g a.i./ha
12 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 11-14
as post emergence treatment significantly reduced
the weed count from 24 to 4.13 and weed dry matter
recorded at 60 DAS from 23.58 to 3.25 g/m2. The
predominant weed flora controlled by the above
herbicides were narrow leaves weeds like Phalaris
minor, Avena fatua, Cyperus rotundus and Cynodon
dactylon and broad leaves weeds like Rumex
retroflexus, Chenopodium murale, Chenopodium
album, Malwa parviflora and Convolvulus
arvensis. The higher weed control efficiency due to
clodinafop 15% + metsulfuron methyl 1% WP @ 64
g a.i./ha might be due to effective control of grassy
and broad leaves weeds which resulted in decreased
biomass of weeds and thereby increased weed
control efficiency. Similar results were reported by
Kumar et al (2011), Singh et al (2012), Malik et al
(2013), Singh et al (2017), Patel et al (2017) and
Chaudhari et al (2017).
Effect on tillers/plant and wheat grain yield
Analysis of data showed that application of
clodinafop 15% + metsulfuron methyl 1% WP @
64 g a.i./ha resulted in highest number of tillers
with sulfosulfuron 75% + metsulfuron methyl 5%
WP @ 32 g a.i./ha (4.53) but reached the level
of significance as compared to farmers’ practice
(2.47). Results of tillers/plant were in consonance
with Kaur et al (2017) who reported a gradual and
significant reduction in tillers/plant in wheat with
increase in infestation of Malva neglecta from 3 to 12
plants/m2. Combined analysis of yield data depicted
that clodinafop 15% + metsulfuron methyl 1%
WP @ 64 g a.i./ha registered highest grain yield
of wheat (47.53q/ha) which was found 4.85 and
27.87 per cent higher and significantly different
from clodinafop 15% + metsulfuron methyl 5% WP
@ 32 g a.i./ha and farmers’ practice, respectively.
Furthermore, application of clodinafop 15% +
metsulfuron methyl 5% WP @ 32 g a.i./ha also
resulted in significantly higher grain yield (45.33q/
ha) relative to farmers’ practice (37.17q/ha). Similar
results were earlier reported by Kumar et al (2011),
Singh et al (2012), Malik et al (2013), Singh et
 Assessment of Premix Broad Spectrum Herbicides

Table 1. Effect of weed management practices on weed dry matter and weed count at 60 DAS.
Treatment Weed dry matter (g/m2) Weed count (Nos./m2)
2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 Pool 2015- 2016- 2017- Pool
16 17 18
Farmers’ Practice (Hand weeding at 13.80 29.21 27.74 23.58 25.0 22.00 25.00 24.00
25 and 55 DAS)
Sulfosulfuron 75% + metsulfuron 3.06 3.13 6.80 4.33 6.00 7.20 6.80 6.67
methyl 5% @ 32 g a.i./ha at 25 DAS
Clodinafop 15% + metsulfuron 2.35 2.18 5.23 3.25 4.20 4.00 4.40 4.13
methyl 1% WP @ 64 g a.i./ha at 25
DAS
SEm (±) 0.19 0.36 0.27 0.15 0.22 0.19 0.29 0.13
CD 5% 0.55 1.06 0.79 0.42 0.66 0.58 0.89 0.37

Table 2: Effect of weed management treatments on tillers/plant and grain yield of wheat
Treatments Tillers/plant (Nos.) Grain Yield (q/ha)
2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 Pool 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 Pool
Farmers’ Practice (Hand weeding 2.30 2.60 2.50 2.47 37.70 37.00 36.80 37.17
at 25 and 55 DAS)
Sulfosulfuron 75% + metsulfuron 4.00 4.80 4.80 4.53 43.50 45.30 47.20 45.33
methyl 5% @ 32 g a.i./ha at 25
DAS
Clodinafop 15% + metsulfuron 4.20 5.00 5.20 4.80 44.80 48.00 49.80 47.53
methyl 1% WP @ 64 g a.i./ha at
25 DAS
SEm (±) 0.13 0.30 0.22 0.12 0.68 0.66 0.77 0.38
CD 5% 0.38 0.90 0.65 0.34 2.02 1.95 2.28 1.06

Table 3. Effect of weed management treatments on economics of wheat crop.

Treatment Net returns (Rs/ha) B:C
2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 Pool 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 Pool
Farmers’ Practice (Hand 35050 32700 39740 35830 2.63 2.23 2.49 2.45
weeding at 25 and 55 DAS)
Sulfosulfuron 75% + 42750 44980 57460 48397 2.90 2.63 3.08 2.87
metsulfuron methyl 5% @ 32 g
a.i./ha at 25 DAS
Clodinafop 15% + metsulfuron 44700 49300 62140 52047 2.99 2.79 3.25 3.01
methyl 1% WP @ 64 g a.i./ha
at 25 DAS
SEm (±) 1022 1049 1343 622 0.046 0.039 0.050 0.024
CD 5% 3036 3117 4109 1757 0.14 0.12 0.15 0.07

13 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 11-14

 Shaktawat et al

al (2017), Patel et al (2017) and Chaudhari et al REFERENCES

(2017). Anonymous (2018). Annual Report 2017-18. Department of
Economics of wheat crop
Economic analysis of data revealed that
post emergence application of clodinafop 15%
+ metsulfuron methyl 1% WP @ 64 g a.i./ha
recorded significantly higher net return (Rs. 52,047/
ha) which was found to be 7.54 and 45.26 per cent
higher than clodinafop 15% + metsulfuron methyl
5% WP @ 32 g a.i./ha and farmers’ practice,
respectively. Similar results were recorded in terms
of B:C where application of clodinafop 15% +
metsulfuron methyl 1% WP @ 64 g a.i./ha registered
significantly highest B:C (3.01) as compared to rest
of the treatments. Results were in line with Kumar
et al (2011), Singh et al (2012), Malik et al (2013),
Singh et al (2017), Patel et al (2017) and Chaudhari
et al (2017).
CONCLUSION
In spite of increase in grain yield of wheat
through improved technology of weed management
i.e. clodinafop 15% + metsulfuron methyl 1% WP Singh P K, Prasad P, Kumari M and Nayan R (2017). Tillage
@ 64 g a.i./ha applied as post emergence influenced
the technological gap, extension gap and technology
index which were 7.47 q/ha, 10.36 q/ha and 13.58
per cent, respectively. Singh R, Radheyshyam, Singh V K, Kumar J, Yadav S S
Agriculture, Cooperative and Farmers Welfare, Ministry
of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Govt. of India, New
Delhi.
Chaudhari D D, Patel V J, Patel H K, Mishra A, Patel B D and
Patel R B (2017). Assessment of pre-mix broad spectrum
herbicides for weed management in wheat. Indian J Weed
Sci 49 (1): 33-35.
Kaur R, Jaidka M and Kingra P K (2017). Correlation analysis
of growth, yield and yield components of wheat
(Triticum aestivum) under varying weed densities. Indian
J Agril Sci 87 (6): 746-753.
Kumar S, Angiras N N and Rana S S (2011). Bio-efficacy
of clodinafop-propargyl + metsulfuron methyl against
complex weed flora in wheat. Indian J Weed Sci 43(3&4):
195-198.
Malik R S, Yadav A and Ramesh K (2013). Ready-mix
formulation of clodinafop-propargyl + metsulfuron-
methyl against complex weed flora in wheat. Indian J
Weed Science 45(3): 179-182.
Patel B D, Chaudhari D D, Patel V G, Patel H K, Mishra
A and Parmar D J (2017). Influence of broad spectrum
herbicides on yield and complex weed flora of wheat
(Triticum aestivum L.). Res on Crops 18 (3): 433-437.
and post emergence herbicides effect on weed growth
and productivity of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Indian
J Current Microbiol and App Sci 6 (7): 1656-1664.
and Rathi S K (2012). Evaluation of bio-efficacy of
clodinafop-propargyl + metsulfuron-methyl against
weeds in wheat. Indian J Weed Sci 44 (2): 81-83.
Received on 23/02/2019 Accepted on 20/03/2019

14 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 11-14

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 15-19 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00004.7

Assessment of Technical and Financial Feasibility of Self

Propelled Paddy Transplanter
Ram Pal
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Rohtas- 802 212 (Bihar)

ABSTRACT
Assessment of technical and financial feasibility of self propelled paddy transplanter was carried out
at the farm of Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Rohtas, during Kharif 2016 and 2017 seasons with a view to
reduce the drudgery and cost of cultivation in rice transplanting. An eight row self-propelled paddy
transplanter (Model 2ZT-238-8) was used for the purpose. The performance of the paddy transplanter
was found satisfactory. The field capacity, field efficiency and fuel consumption of the transplanter
were 0.1876 ha/hr, 93.73 per cent and 1.06 l/hr, respectively. Cost of mechanical transplanting was
calculated to be only Rs 808/-ha as compared to Rs 3450/-ha in case of manual transplanting provided
the machine is used for their maximum usage of 90 ha in a year. To breakeven with the cost of manual
operation, the mechanical transplanter should be used at least in an area of 14.69 ha/year. Having very
small payback period (1.08 year) and high capacity to withstand the interest rate (27.98%) the machine
was found to be most suitable for rural entrepreneurs interested in agriculture in Rohtas district.
Key Words: Field efficiency, Field capacity, Mechanization, Pay-back period, Paddy transplanter, Rice
cultivation.

INTRODUCTION labour became very scarce and with hike in the

Direct seeding and transplanting are the two
common methods of rice establishment (Kumar et
al, 2016). Transplanting is being done by human and
machine both. Manual paddy transplanting required
about 238 man hour per hectare which is roughly
25 per cent of the total labour requirement of the
crop (Dixit and Khan, 2011). Manual transplanting
is mostly done by women labourers and is highly
tedious and tiresome. For manual transplanting
the workers change their posture very frequently.
This may cause suffering from musculoskeletal
disorder. An ergonomic study on human drudgery
and musculoskeletal disorders shows that manual
rice transplanting directly associated with human
drudgery (pain in neck, both shoulder, upper back,
lower back and thighs) because the labourers were
compelled to adopt bending and sitting posture
during manual uprooting and transplanting (Ojha
and Kwatra, 2012). Due to rapid industrialization
and migration to urban areas, the availability of
Corresponding Author’s Email: rampalag97@gmail.com
wages of labour, manual transplanting found costly
leading to reduced profits to farmers. Saikia et al
(2018) reported that improved rice production
technologies are still not popular among farmers.
Under such circumstances a less expensive
and labour- saving method of rice transplanting
without yield loss is the urgent need of the hour.
The mechanical transplanting of rice has been
considered the most promising option, as it saves
labour, ensures timely transplanting and attains
optimum plant density that contributes to high
productivity. The time, labour and money saved
with the transplanter over the manual method were
72.07 per cent , 33.33 per cent and Rs. 1009/-
, respectively for one hectare (Dixit et al, 2007).
The cost of transplanting by self-propelled paddy
transplanter was estimated to be Rs 1372/-ha (if
250 hr run) as compared to Rs 2500/- per ha with
custom hiring cost of transplanting The break-even
point of the self-propelled rice transplanter was

15 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 15-19

 Ram Pal
45 ha and payback period was found to be 0.98 yr
(Kumar et al, 2014). The problem of labour, low
rice proactivity and high production cost also exists
in Rohtas district of Bihar (Pal et al, 2017). Rohtas
has the distinction of highest rice productivity,
assured canal irrigated area, number of modern rice
mills, mechanized district and highest food security
index in Bihar state. Keeping the benefits of
mechanical transplanter in view, the present study
was undertaken to assess the technical and financial
feasibility of an eight row self propelled paddy
transplanter (Model 2ZT-238-8) in Rohtas district
for sustaining rice production and technology
demonstration at large scale.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was carried out at the demonstration
farm of Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Rohtas during the
Kharif 2015 and Kharif 2016. An eight row self
propelled paddy transplanter (Model 2ZT-238-8)
was used for assessment. The technical specification
of machine is given in Table 1.
Growing of suitable mat nursery is the key
feature for successful operation of machine in field.
The field was prepared well and leveled 60 cm wide
strips were made in such a way that it was bounded
by 30 cm wide and 15 cm deep channel to drain out
excess water and nursery management. Nearly 100
Table 1. Specification and working features.
Sr. No. Particular
1. Model
2. Name of Company
3. External dimensions L x W x H (mm)
4. Engine
5. Row spacing (mm)
6. Hill to hill spacing (mm)
7. Frequency of transplanting
8. Working speed (km/hr)
9. Field capacity (ha/hr)
10. Weight (kg)
11. Cost (Rs`)
16 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 15-19
m2 area is required for raising nursery of one hectare
on prevalent seed rate of 25 kg/ha. Polythene sheet
of 60 cm wide and 50 µ thickness was spread over
level strips. Iron frames of size 198.5 x 55 x 2.5
cm having eight compartments (50 x 22 x 2.5 cm)
was place on the plastic sheet with small holes in it
as proper spacing. Thereafter, well pulverized soil
was fill uniformly in all compartments and gently
compacted up to a thickness of 2 cm. Water was
sprinkled over it by a hand sprayer and allowed to
soak for some time. Sprouted seeds were spread
uniformly over the mat at a rate of 60-65g per mat.
The seed was cover with a thin layer of 2-4 mm of
soil. Thereafter, frame was removed for further use.
To protect the seeds from birds and maintain proper
moisture it was also covered with straw. Water
was applied by hand sprayer thrice a day till the
complete emergence of seedling. After fourth day,
the straw was removed and water was applied by
flooding so as to keep the mat soil wet throughout
its growths period.
The field were prepared one day before going for
transplanting by Rotavator and kept for hardening
the soil so that the traction would be better when the
machine put for operation. Operating data like depth
of planting, number of plant per hill, number of
missing hills, number of floating hills, float sinkage,
field capacity and efficiency, fuel consumption
Description
2ZT-238-8
VST Tillers & Tractors Ltd. Banglore, India
2410 x 2131 x 1300
4-HP air cooled diesel engine
238 mm
140 & 170 (adjustable)
263 per minuets
1.57 to 1.97
0.13 to 0.20
320
2,25,000
 Assessment of Self Propelled Paddy Transplanter
Table 2.Technical Performance of Transplanter.
Sr. No. Particular Year Average
2016 2017
1. Depth of planting, mm 34.26 22.12 28.19
2. Number of plant per hill 8.54 4.86 6.70
3. Missing hills,% 0.89 0.51 0.70
4. Floating hills, % 2.05 1.23 1.64
5. Damaged hills, % 0.34 nil 0.17
6. Buried hills,% nil nil
7. Float sinkage, mm 34.56 21.34 17.95
8. Field capacity, m2/hr 1785 1964 1875.5
9. Efficiency, % 89.25 98.20 93.73
10. Fuel consumption, l/hr 1.26 0.86 1.06

etc were recorded during operation of machine. ha/h and field efficiency was 66.6%. The average
Financial analysis such as Net Present Value fuel consumption was 0.46 l/h). The observed field
(NPV), Internal Rate of Return (IRR), Benefit–Cost capacity was better than the theoretical one. Very
Ratio (BCR) and Payback Period were calculated less floating hills, missing hills and buried hill
by following the standard methods and prevailing increase the adoption of machine. Hence machine is
rates in the district. technically feasible in Rohtas for rice transplanting.
The rate of mechanical transplanting of one
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION hectare was nearly 4.26 times cheaper than the
Technical performance of machine were manual transplanting (Table 3). Working life of
measured and evaluated during the operation machine was considered as ten years. Similar trend
and just after the transplanting (Table 2). As the was also reported by Kumar et al (2014) (The cost
machine was riding type, number of buried hills of transplanting by self-propelled rice transplanter
were nil and damaged hills were almost negligible, was estimated to be Rs 1372/- ha (if 250 hr run) as
these both parameters were higher in walk behind compared to Rs 2500/-ha with custom hiring cost of
type of machines. Due to use of rotavator and transplanting)
providing enough time for settlement of puddle
soil the efficiency of machine was recorded very Financial feasibility of the machine was analyzed
satisfactory. Float provided in the machine works as on the basis of five parameters viz, payback period,
leveler and help in significant reduction in number internal rate of return, net present worth, benefit and
of missing and floating hills. cost ratio and breakeven point and given in Table 4.
The observed payback period (1.08 yr) was shorter
Technical performance of machine was better than reported by other researchers (Kumar et al,
than earlier study of Kumar et al ( 2014) (The 2014; Guru et al, 2018 ). The short payback period
number of seedling per hill varied from 2.3 to 2.8, and break even point (14.69 ha) with higher benefit
number of hills per square meter varied from 27 to cost ratio (2.17) and capacity to withstand higher
32, number of missing hills per square meter varied volatility in market( 27.98%) ensures the financial
from 1 to 2, number of floating hills per square meter feasibility of mechanical transplanter in Rohtas
varied from 1 to 5, effective field capacity was 0.16 district.

17 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 15-19

 Ram Pal

Table 3. Financial analysis of paddy transplanter.

Sr. No. Particular Amount (Rs)
(A) Fixed cost
1. Depreciation ( Considering 50,000 as salvage value) 17,500
2. Interest @12% of average cost 16,500
3. Insurance and taxes @2% of average cost 2,750
4. Housing cost @ 1.5 of average cost 2,063
Total fixed cost(Rs/annum) 38,813
(B) Operating costs (Rs)
1. Fuel, HSD 1.06 l/hr
2. Lubricating @ 5% of fuel 0.053 l/hr
3. Maintenance cost 5% of fuel 0.053 l/hr
4. Labour charge
1. Driver, 1 250/8 hr
2. Labour, 3 450 /8 hr
Total Operating cost (Rs/hr) 151.63
5. (Suppose machine works for 12 hr daily for 40 d long duration of a season) No. 480
of working hours
(C) Annual operating cost (480 x 151.63) 72,784
Total Annual operating cost(A+C) 1,11,595
(D ) Annual Return
1. Area covered in a year 90 ha
2 Annual return (@ Rs 3450/ha manual transplanting cost) 3,60,000
Net profit( D-A-C) 2,48,405
Table 4. Summary of financial parameters of should raise the seedling in his own supervision
paddy transplanter. and offer the transplanting service on custom hiring
Sr. No. Particular Value
basis.
1. Payback period 1.08 yr
CONCLUSION
2 Break-even point 14.69 ha
Mechanical paddy transplanter is a feasible
3. Benefit cost ratio 2.17 option to get rid of labor shortage and increasing
4. IRR 27.98 % rice production cost as well as timely completion
5. NPV + ve(1044307) of transplanting. The performance of the paddy
The mat type nursery production technique was transplanter was found satisfactory. The field
not followed properly by farmers and it affected capacity, field efficiency and fuel consumption of
the performance of the machine. About 40 per the transplanter were 0.1876 ha/hr, 93.73 per cent
cent of the total energy requirement in mechanical and 1.06 l/hr, respectively. Cost of mechanical
transplanting was required in mat nursery transplanting was Rs 808/-ha as compared to Rs
preparation while energy share for traditional 3450/-ha in case of manual transplanting. Lower
nursery under manual transplanting was only 11 per breakeven (14.69 ha/yr), very small payback period
cent (Baruah et al, 2001). Hence, machine owner (1.08 yr) and high capacity to withstand the interest

18 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 15-19

 Assessment of Self Propelled Paddy Transplanter
rate (27.98%) the machine further ensure the Kumar(2018) Mechanical transplanting of rice in India:
suitability of machine in Rohtas district. However, status, technological gaps and future thrust. Oryza 55
(1):100-106
the adoption is slower due to poor response from
stakeholders because of the cumbersome process of Kumar A, Nayak A K, Mohanty S and Das B S (2016).
Greenhouse gas emission from direct seeded paddy fields
growing paddy nursery in trays and mats. Providing under different soil water potentials in Eastern India.
proper hands on training to the stakeholders about Agric Ecosyst Environ 228: 111- 123
procedure of nursery raising and handling of Kumar Rakesh, Sharma V and Singh S (2014) Comparative
transplanter would enhance the adoption rate of the performance of mechanical transplanting and direct
present available transplanter. seeding of rice. Scientific J Agril Engg 2 : 23-31
Manjunatha M V, Masthana Reddy B G, Shashidhar S D, Joshi
REFERENCES V R (2009). Studies on the performance of self- propelled
Baruah D C, Goswami N G and Saikia R (2001). Manual rice transplaner and its effect on crop yield. Karnataka J
transplanting vs. mechanical transplanting of paddy: a Agric Sci 22(2): 385-387.
techno-economic analysis in Assam. J Agril Engg 38(3): Ojha P and Kwatra S (2012). An ergonomic study on
66-72 human drudgery and musculoskeletal disorders by rice
Dixit A, Khurana R, Singh J and Singh G (2007). Comparative transplanting. Stud Home Com Sci 6(1): 15-20
performance of different paddy transplanter developed in Ram Pal, Alok Bharti, Devendra Mandal, Ruby Saha and Ajay
India - A review. Agril Rev 28(4):262- 269 Kumar( 2017) Mechanical Rice Transplanter: A Tool for
Dixit J and Khan J N (2011). Comparative field evaluation of Copping Climate Change. Paper presented in National
self-propelled paddy transplanter with hand transplanting Conference on Climate Change and Agricultural
in valley lands of Kashmir region. Agril Mech in Asia, Production held at BAU, Sabour from 6-8 April-2017 pg
Africa, and Latin America 42(2): 14-18 311
Goel A K, Behera D and Swain S. (2007). Effect of Saikia P, Deka Manoshi Baruah and Das Manju Dutta (2018).
sedimentation period on performance of a rice Technological empowerment of rural women of Assam
transplanter. The CIGR Ejournal, Manuscript PM 07034, on improved practices of rice production system through
Vol. X. 1-14. intervention. J Krishi Vigyan 7 (1):209-212.
Guru P K, N K Chhuneja, A Dixit, P Tiwari and Anjani Received on 28/01/2019 Accepted on 15/03/2019

19 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 15-19

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 20-23 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00044.8

Augmentation of Fertility in Repeat Breeding Cows Using

Modified Prostaglandin Protocol under Field Conditions
S Shinde, R S Patil and R B Negalur
University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad
ICAR-Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Indi (Vijayapur-II) -586 209 (Karnataka)

ABSTRACT
Reproductive inefficiency of cattle due to repeat breeding syndrome is an expensive hitch in profitable
dairy production and the incidence of repeat breeding is around 20-25 per cent in Uttara Kannada district
of Karnataka. Present study was carried out on 30 repeat breeding cows to study the efficacy of a modified
prostaglandin (PG) protocol on conception rate and its impact on estrus duration. Repeat breeding cows
were selected after following proper criteria like more than three artificial inseminations with regular
oestrous cycles without any signs of pregnancy. Cows were randomly assigned to two treatment groups.
All selected animals were initially fed a dewormer and mineral mixture. Group I cows (n = 10) did not
receive any treatment and served as control however, Group II cows (n = 20) were injected with double dose
prostaglandin (20 µg Dinoprostone, Pragma®) at 11d intervals and treated with GnRH (0.02mg, Receptal®)
at the time of insemination. Further, the pregnancy status was diagnosed at 45 to 60 d after insemination.
The Group II animals showed proper heat signs and pregnancy rates (75.0%) were significantly (p<0.05)
higher compared to Group I cows (30.0%). Further, 85per cent of cows treated with PG have shown the
estrus duration between 24-48h compared to untreated cows (50%). Hence, use of modified PG protocol
with GnRH could be appropriate method to improve fertility in repeat breeding cows under field conditions.
Key Words: Conception rate, Cows, Insemination, Prostaglandin, Repeat Breeding.

INTRODUCTION reduced calving, lactations during the life span

The breeding efficiency of dairy animals is
directly related to the prosperity of dairy industry.
Repeat breeding is one of the important reproductive
disorders in dairy cattle and results in higher
economic losses in dairy herds (Katagiri, 2011). The
incidences of repeat breeding have been reported
varying from herd to herd however, it ranged from
5 to 30 per cent (Yusuf et al, 2010). The variable
incidence may be attributed to the heterogeneity or
multi factorial causes of repeat breedng syndrome
and the effect of locality and season (Ali et al, 2009).
However, major causes of sub-fertility caused by
repeat breeding can be divided into two categories:
fertilization failure and embryonic death (Amiridis
et al, 2009). Any deviation or prolongation in
the breeding rhythm results in a progressive
economic loss due to widening of the dry period,
Corresponding Author’s Email: sshinde639vet@gmail.com
of the animal, increasing culling and replacement
cost, wasting semen and insemination cost and
loosing genetic gain through increased generation
interval (El-Khadrawy et al, 2011; Osman-Ergene,
2012)
Low pregnancy rate in repeat breeding cow with
delayed or an ovulatory condition may be attributed
to hormonal imbalance together with uterine
infection. Further, the synchrony between embryo
survival and maternal environment is essential to
restore normal fertility in repeat breeding animals. It
can be maintained by correlation of adequate luteal
function either by exogenous supplementation of
progesterone or stimulations of steroidogenesis
by use of leutinizing hormone. Administration of
GnRH or hCG at the time of insemination favours
LH surge, which results in improved pregnancy

20 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 20-23

 Shinde et al
rate (Methwe et al, 2013). However, response to mineral mixture (Minfa Gold®) for one month. All
such therapy has been reported different in different selected repeat breeding cows were treated with
animals (Sharma et al, 2003). During the last few 4g Cephalexin (Lixen®) intrauterine to check the
years, several studies have been attempted to treat infection if present in any animals. Group I cows
infertility in cows by using controlled internal were not treated hormonally and insemination
drug release (CIDR), hormonal treatments such was carried in consequent estrus cycles. However,
as gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH), Group II cows were injected with double dose
gonadotropins (GnRH), estrogen and prostaglandin 20 µg Dinoprostone (Pragma®) at 11d intervals
F (PGF2a) (Metwelly, 2006). Further, some of and treated with 0.02mg GnRH (Receptal®) at
these hormones used for induction of lactation the time of artificial insemination. Animals were
in repeat breeding cows which later showed examined per rectum 45 to 60d post insemination
better reproductive performance (Sharma, 2018). for pregnancy status. Further, most of the repeat
However, the most frequent use of these hormones breeding cows selected for the study were showing
in different combinations serves as an ultimate goal an abrupt estrus period (extending up to 5d). Hence,
for improving the reproductive efficiency in cows. heat duration was also noted in all treated animals
Likewise, numerous protocols are used in cow e.g., to confirm the effect of treatment in bringing the
double dose PGF2alpha at 11 days intervals and cows in physiological normal estrus duration. All
GnRH injection the time of insemination. the data were statistically analyzed by SPSS 16.0
Under the field conditions, very fewer trials were using two way ANOVA and Chi-Square test.
conducted for the management of repeat breeding.
Hence in the present study, efforts were made to RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
evaluate efficacy of double dose PG protocol with The conception rate and effect of treatment on
combination of GnRH in enhancement of fertility in duration of estrus has been depicted in Tables 1 and
repeat breeding dairy cows under field conditions. 2. The conception rate was significantly (p<0.05)
higher in Group II (75.0%) cows compared to
MATERIALS AND METHODS Group I (30.0%) cows (Table 1) (χ2= 3.33, P =
0.017). The action of PGF2a in cow with respect
Selection of experimental animals
to control and manipulation of reproductive cycle,
A total of 30 healthy cyclic crossbred (Friesian
involves regression of corpus luteum. Further,
x Jersey) repeat breeder cows from different
it was reported that the prostaglandin correct
villages of Sirsi and Yallapur taluka were selected
uterine milieu and increases the conception rate
randomly. Cows that were cycling normally, with
by preventing early embryonic mortality. Further,
no clinical abnormalities and failed to conceive
administration of GnRH 48–60h after prostaglandin
after at least two successive inseminations were
will advance the timing of the LH surge and
selected. Age of these cows ranged from 3 to 10 yr
putatively advance the timing of ovulation. Similar
and their lactation number varied from 1 to 7. These
to the present study, Ramana et al (2013) and
cows were divided into two groups with 10 in first
Ghuman et al (2012) reported conception rate of
group (Group I) and 20 in second group (Group
67.0, 73.3 and 66.7 percent, respectively in repeat
II). Normalcy of genitalia of all the animals was
breeding cows treated by an injection GnRH at
confirmed through rectal palpation.
the time of insemination after pre-synchronization
Treatment and post treatment monitoring with PGF2α, which were almost nearer to the
All selected cows were initially dewormed observations of the present study. However,
with 3g Fenbendazole (Fentas Plus® ). Further, Vijayarajan et al (2009) reported conception rate of
all selected cows were fed with 40g chelated 40.0 and 56.0 percent, respectively in repeat breeder

21 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 20-23

 Augmentation of Fertility in Repeat Breeding
Table 1. Number of animals conceived.
Treatment No. of animals conceived Conception rate (%) Chi square value
Group I (n=10) 3 30a χ2 = 3.333
Group II (n=20) 15 75.00b (P=0.017)
Different superscripts in coloumn (a,b) differ significantly (p<0.05)
cows which was lower compared to present study. CONCLUSION
The higher conception rate obtained in the present The overall Pregnancy rate in treatment groups
study may be due to the favourable uterine milieu (75.0%) was higher compared to control group
and nullifying the effect of sub clinical endo metritis (30.0%). Further, most of the animals showed
and delayed ovulation. Further, GnRH administered normal estrus period and it certainly correlated with
at the time of insemination may modify the function higher conception rate in repeat breeding cows.
of pre ovulatory ovarian follicle, thus ensuring From the enhanced conception rate observed in
ovulation or it may also recruits good quality luteal repeat breeding cows treated with a combination of
cells which result into increased progesterone PGF 2α and GnRH, it can be concluded that this
level and increased conception rate Justolin et al therapeutic regimen can be successfully employed
(2010). The present study helped in evaluating the for improving the reproductive performance in
effectiveness of PGF2α to that of GnRH to improve repeat breeding cows under field conditions.
conception rate following timed insemination (72h)
after treatment with luteolytic dose of PGF2α and REFERENCES
to develop a management strategy to improve the Ali A, Abdel-Razek A K, Derar R, Abdel-Rheem H A and
conception rate of repeat breeding cross bred cows. Shehata S H (2009). Forms of reproductive disorders
in cattle and buffaloes in middle Egypt. Reprod Domest
The effect of treatment on estrus duration in Anim 44 (4): 580-85.
different group of cows has been depicted in (Table Amiridis G S, Tsiligiani T H, Dovolou E, Rekkas C, Vouzara
2). In present study, 85 per cent of cows treated with D and Menegatos I (2009). Combined administration of
PG have shown the estrus duration between 24-48h. gonadotrophic releasing hormone, preogesterone and
However, among untreated cows (Group I) only meloxicam is an effective treatment for the repeat breeder
cow. Theriogenology 72: 542-548.
50 per cent cows showed estrus duration between
24-48h and remaining cows showed abrupt estrus El-Khadrawy H H, Ahmed W M, Emtenan and Hanafi M
(2011). Observations on repeat breeding in farm animals
duration extending more than 48h. Therefore, results with emphasis on its control. J Reprod Fert 2(1):01-07.
indicates double dose PG will certainly brings the
Ghuman S P S, Honparkhe M and Jagir Singh (2012). Impact
animals under normal estrus. Further, Mughal et al of initiating a PGF 2α–GnRH fixed-time AI protocol at
(1998) reported two-prostaglandin injection given the late luteal phase on reproductive performance of
11d apart with insemination performed during a repeat breeder crossbred dairy cattle. Indian J Anim Sci
restricted period following the second treatment 82(8): 830-833.
reduces the time required for oestrus detection or Justolin P, Morelli P, Reis M, Sá Filho O, Aragon F, Veras
eliminates abrupt oestrus period. M, Soriano S and Vasconcelos J L (2010). Effects of
treatments with hCG or GnRH on serum progesterone
Table 2. Duration of heat signs in different group of cows.
Treatment Up to 18-24 h 24-48 h >48 h
Group I (n=10) 1 (10%) 4 (40%) 5 (50%)
Group II (n=20) 11 (55%) 6 (30%) 3 (15%)

22 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 20-23

 Shinde et al
(P4) and conception rates (CR) in lactating dairy cows
submitted to timed artificial insemination (AI) or embryo
transfer (ET). J Dairy Sci 93: 675-683.
Katagiri S (2011). A new approach to repeat breeding in
cows: treatments targeting the endometrial growth factor
cytokine network. Thai J Vet Med Suppl 41: 51-53.
Mathew R, Aravinda M, Ghosh K N, Kurien M O and Harshan
H M (2013). Comparison of human placental extract,
hCG and GnRH analogue on fertility of repeat breeding
in cattle. Indian Vet J 90(4): 57-59.
Metwelly K K (2006). Treatment of ovarian inactivity in
postpartum buffalo-cows with special reference to its
economic evaluation. Assiut Vet Med J 52: 214-225.
Mughal D H, Aleen M, Saeed M A and Khah A
H (1998). Comparison of two methods of estrus
synchronization in Sahiwal cows. Int J Anim Sci 13: 223-
226.
Osman-Ergene (2012). Progesterone concentrations and
pregnancy rates of repeat breeder cows following
post insemination PRID and GnRH treatments. Turkish
J Vet Anim Sci 36(3): 283-288.
Ramana V K, Sadasiva Rao K, Supriya K and Rajanna N
(2013). Effect of prostaglandin on estrus response and
conception rate in lactating Ongole cows. Vet World 6(7):
413-415.
23 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 20-23
Sharma M (2018). Effect of hormonal treatment on induction
of milk in crossbred cattle. Int J Live Stock Res 8 (9):
305-311. doi: 10.5455/ijlr.20170725044226
Sharma A, Vasista N N, Singh M and Kumar P (2011). Effect of
timed insemination and gonadotropin releasing hormone
administration on conception in pre-synchronized repeat
breeder cows. Indian J Anim Sci 81(9): 938-939.
Sharma A, Jindal R, Singh N and Singh R V (2003). Effect
of progesterone supplementation on conception rate and
hormonal profile in repeat breeding buffaloes. Indian J
Anim Sci 73 (7): 773-774.
Vijayarajan A, Chandrahassan C and Napolean E (2009).
Efficacy of Gonadotropin releasing hormone and
prostaglandin F2α in repeat breeding buffaloes. Indian
Ve. J 86: 368-370.
Yusuf M, Nakao T, Ranasinghe R M S B K, Gautam G,
Long S T, Yoshida C, Koike K and Hayashi A (2010).
Reproductive performance of repeat breeders in dairy
herds. Theriogenology 73: 1220-1229.
Received on 11/02/2019 Accepted on 25/03/2019
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 24-27 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00058.8

Awareness and Participation of Goat Farmers in Various Market

Led Institutions in Tamil Nadu
R Ravikumar1, P Kumaravel2 and P N Richard Jagadeesan3
Department of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry Extension Education,
Madras Veterinary College, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University
Chennai – 600 007 (Tamil Nadu)

ABSTRACT
The present study was conducted to assess the level of awareness and participation of goat farmers in various
market-led institutions in Tiruchirappalli and Salem districts of Tamil Nadu. A sample size of 120 goat farmers
(60 farmers from each district) who were actively involved in goat rearing selected randomly for the study.
A well structured, pre-tested interview schedule was employed for the data collection. The study revealed
that 61.67 per cent of respondents were aware about farmer interest groups (FIG’s) and only 1.67 per cent
of farmer producer organizations (FPO’s). All the selected respondents were aware of farmers’ shandy and
almost (98.33%) un-organized goat markets. The limited awareness with respect to FPO’s was due to the
fact that the farmers were not apprised of the significance of FPO’s by rural banks and other Government
agencies. Further, the data also revealed that majority (98.33 %) of goat farmers had no participation in Farmer
interest groups while about 50.83 per cent of respondents had partial participation in weekly bazaar for goats.
Key Words: Awareness, Goat farmers, Market-led institutions, Participation, Tamil Nadu.

INTRODUCTION farming is carried out as a traditional business by

Goat farming is one of the fastest growing
businesses in India as the demand for goat meat is
increasing. Most of the people are showing interest
to raise the goats or start commercial goat farming
(Kumar, 2007). The advantage of goats is that
they can be raised along with other livestock. The
initial investment needed for goat farming is low.
Due to small body size and docile nature, housing
requirements and management problems with
goats are less. Goat is a multi functional animal
and plays a significant role in the economy and
nutrition of landless, small and marginal farmers in
the country. Goat rearing is an enterprise which has
been practiced by a large section of population in
rural areas. In pastoral and agricultural subsistence
societies in India, goats are kept as a source of
additional income and as an insurance against
disasters. Because of these characteristics, goat
majority of small and marginal farmers in India.
With regard to marketing, majority of farmers
feel that marketing of sheep is traditionally a male
dominated activity and a negligible percentage of
farm women were involved jointly in purchase and
sale of sheep. However, no female was found to be
performing this activity independently (Meena and
Dudi, 2015).Goat farming is very profitable if done
in a planned way. Farmers face various hurdles
in rearing goats which varies from production to
marketing constraints. Among these constraints,
marketing of goats becomes the major hurdle for the
farmers as they don’t fetch proper price and profit
from selling their goats. There is no proper price
fixing agency similar to poultry and the marketing
of goats is mostly unorganised (Ravikumar and
Kumaravel, 2017). This study was carried out to
delineate the number of market-led institutions that

Corresponding Author’s Email: kumaravelpap@gmail.com

1
Post-Graduate student, 2Professor, Directorate of Research, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai – 600 051
3
Professor, VUTRC, Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University.

24 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 24-27

 Ravikumar et al
exist currently and the awareness and participation respondents were divided into low, medium and
of goat farmers in these market-led institutions was high awareness categories by mean and standard
assessed through this study. deviation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Participation of goat farmers in various

Tiruchirappalli and Salem districts of Tamil
Nadu state were purposively selected for this
study (based on 19th Livestock census, GOI, 2012)
owing to the presence of high goat population in
Tamil Nadu. Thuraiyur and Thalaivasal blocks
were selected purposively from Tiruchirappalli
and Salem districts respectively as it contains the
highest number of goat population. The blocks were
selected based on the blockwise goat population
data of the district available at the office of the Joint
Director of Animal Husbandry of these two districts.
Keerambur and Naduvalur village panchayats
located in Thuraiyur block of Tiruchirappalli
district and Navakkurichi and Kattukottai village
panchayats located in Thalaivasal block of Salem
district were selected for the study. The village
panchayats were selected randomly after consulting
the local Veterinary Assistant Surgeons about the
presence of large number of goat population and the
involvement of middlemen in marketing of goats
in these selected villages. Thirty goat farmers were
drawn from each of the selected villages by random
sampling technique, thus making the sample size of
120 from the study area. The data were collected by
using a pre-tested interview schedule.
market-led institutions
The term participation in this study denotes
the active involvement by the goat farmers in
various market-led institutions. There were five
existing market-led institutions in goat farming.
Every individual market-led institution was having
(equally) 5 components. Totally there were 25
components. The extent of participation by the
respondent in each component was measured by
assigning an unit score of one and zero respectively.
The respondent who obtained 5 scores for his/her
involvement in an individual market-led institution
was reckoned to have full participation and the
respondent who had involved/participated in 1
to 4 components of a market-led institution was
considered as to have partial participation and finally
the respondent who doesn’t have any involvement in
any of the 5 components of a market-led institution
was reckoned to have no participation. Further, the
total scores of each respondent in all the five market-
led institutions were summed up and a final total
score for all the 120 respondents was obtained. The
respondents were classified into categories namely
low, medium and high participation by obtaining
mean and Standard deviation (SD).

Awareness of goat farmers about various RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

market-led institutions
There were five existing market-led institutions
in goat farming. The awareness about each market-
led institution by the respondents was measured by
Yes or No questions and a score of one and zero was
assigned respectively. Similar scoring technique
was followed by De et al (2014). Awareness about
various market-led institutions by the respondents
was expressed in frequency and percentage.
Further, the overall awareness about the market-led
institutions was measured by totalling the scores
obtained in each market-led institution and the
Overall awareness level of goat farmers about
various market-led institutions
It could be observed that majority of the
respondents had medium level (77.50 %) of
awareness about various market-led institutions
followed by 21.67 per cent of respondents with low
level of awareness and a meagre 0.83 per cent of
respondents with high level of awareness (Table 1).
It could be seen from the Table 2, that 61.67 per
cent of respondents were aware of farmer interest
groups. Only 1.67 per cent of respondents were

25 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 24-27

 Awareness and Participation of Goat Farmers
Table 1. Overall awareness level of goat farmers about market-led institutions. N =120
Awareness level Number of Respondents Percentage
Low 26 21.67
Medium 93 77.50
High 1 0.83
Table 2. Distribution of respondents according to their awareness about individual market-led
institutions. N=120
Sr. Market-led institution Awareness
No Aware Not aware
Number of Percentage Number of Percentage
farmers farmers
1. Farmer interest groups 74 61.67 46 38.33
2. Farmer Producer organisations 2 1.67 118 98.33
3. Uzhavar Sandhai (Farmers shandy) 120 100 0 0
4. Weekly bazaar for goats 120 100 0 0
5. Unorganised goat market 118 98.33 2 1.67

aware of farmer producer organisations (FPO’s). followed by 43.33 per cent with medium level
This low level of awareness was due to the non- of participation and a meagre 0.83 per cent of
existence of FPO‘s in the study area as the farmers respondents were having high level of participation
were not apprised of the significance of FPO’s by in market-led institutions.
rural banks and other Government agencies. All Table 3. Overall level of participation of Goat
the selected respondents were aware of Uzhavar farmers in various market-led institutions.
Sandhai (Farmers shandy) initiated by the
Government for marketing agricultural and allied (N=120)
produce and products and weekly bazaar for goats Participation Frequency Percentage
as were available in their districts. Almost all of the Low 67 55.83
respondents (98.33 %) were aware of unorganised
Medium 52 43.33
goat market as majority of the farmers, middlemen
and traders. High 1 0.83

Participation of goat farmers in various Extent of Participation of goat farmers in

market-led institutions
Participation of goat farmers in various market-
led institutions refers to their involvement in
various market led institutions, which will reduce
the exploitation by middlemen in fixing the price of
the produce of farmers.
It was evident (Table 3) that more than half
(55.83 %) of the respondents had low level of
participation in various market-led institutions
individual market-led institutions
It was observed that only a meagre 1.67 per cent
of goat farmers had participation in farmer interest
group while a majority (98.33 %) of goat farmers
had no participation. The lack of participation was
due to the non-existence of such groups in the study
area. None of the goat farmers had participation in
Farmer Producer Organisation (FPO’s) and Uzhavar
sandhai (Table 4). It was noticed that only rabbits,

26 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 24-27

 Ravikumar et al
Table 4 .Participation of Goat farmers in individual market-led institutions. N=120
Sr. Market-led institu- Full participation Partial participation No participation
No. tions No. of Percentage No. of Percentage No. of Percentage
farmers farmers farmers
1. Farmer interest 2 1.67 0 0 118 98.33
groups
2. Farmer producer 0 0 0 0 120 100

3. Uzhavar sandhai 0 0 0 0 120 100

(Farmers’s handy)
4. Weekly bazaar for 35 29.17 61 50.83 24 20
goats
5. Unorganised goat 21 17.5 27 22.50 72 60
market
backyard chickens and their eggs were marketed the selected respondents were aware of Farmers’
at Uzhavar sandhai which were focussed only on shandy and almost all of the respondents were
marketing of vegetables and fruits. aware of unorganized goat markets. In addition,
About 50.83 per cent of respondents had partial majority of the goat farmers, though were aware of
participation in weekly bazaar for goats followed farmer groups but had very limited participation,
by 29.17 per cent of respondents with high while about 50.83 per cent of respondents had
participation and 20 per cent of respondents with partial participation in local weekly bazaar for
no participation in weekly bazaar for goats. About marketing their goats. This implied that farmers
60 per cent of respondents had no participation in need remunerative marketing facility for marketing
unorganised goat markets. This was because of their goats at their doorsteps.
the absence of unorganised goat markets in nearby
places of the study area in Tiruchirappalli district REFERENCES
Anonymous (2012). Statistics, B. A. H. 19th Livestock
and also due to voluntary non-participation of the census. Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and
goat farmers. 22.50 per cent of respondents had Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India.
partial participation followed by 17.50 per cent of De A, Goswami A, and Mazumdar D (2014). Demographic
respondents with high participation in unorganised profile and distribution of livestock farmers according
markets. The reason for partial participation in to knowledge and awareness level in Institute Village
weekly bazaars was that the farmers felt that they Linkage Programme. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci 3(7)
had to transport their produce (goats) through mini : 378-384
vans to the weekly bazaars for goats and hence they Kumar S (2007). Commercial goat farming in India: An
preferred to sell their goats to middlemen in the emerging agri-business opportunity.  Agril Eco Res Rev
20: 503-520.
local area itself.
Meena M L and Dudi A (2015). Role performance in sheep
farming activities in western Rajasthan : A gender
CONCLUSION perspective. J Krishi Vigyan 3(2) : 89-92.
The study revealed that majority of respondents
Ravikumar R and Kumaravel P (2017). Constraint analysis of
were aware of Farmer interest groups (FIG’s) goat farmers in Tamil Nadu, India. Int J Curr Microbiol
and meager number of respondents were aware App Sci 6 (9): 594-599.
of Farmer Producer Organizations (FPO’s). All Received on 4/02/2019 Accepted on 15/03/2019

27 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 24-27

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 28-31 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00045.X

Backward and Forward Linkages Developed by Farmer

Producer Organisations in Western Maharashtra
Swati Khandave 1, Mahammad Shafi Rupanagudi Shaik 2 and Vijaypal S Dedun3
College of Agriculture, Pune – 411 005 ( Maharashtra)

ABSTRACT
In the present study, an attempt was made to find out the forward and backward linkages developed by
farmer organizations especially for vegetable production and marketing. Based on maximum number of
farmer produce organizations (FPOs), Pune district from western Maharashtra was purposively selected.
Three tahsils viz., Khed, Junner and Purander and total eleven FPOs engaged in production and marketing
of vegetables were selected. From selected FPOs, ten per cent respondents were randomly selected,
constituting a total sample size of 200 respondents and asked to indicate their response regarding source
of assistance/ guidance for getting finance, procuring inputs, seed production, post-harvest, value addition
etc. These functional relationships with other stakeholders were considered as linkage under the study.
The responses were recorded using frequency and percentage. The results of study revealed that member
farmers had developed backward linkages with SAU and KVKs scientists for technical guidance, and
with cooperatives for getting loans. FPO members had developed forward linkages with marketing board
for marketing, whereas, linkages with private sector were developed for storage, processing and value
addition. The findings revealed that small and marginal farmers can have strong forward and backward
linkages with both private and public sectors that can lead to their overall economic development.
Key Words: FPO, Backward, Forward Linkages, Vegetables.

INTRODUCTION benefited by organizing themselves into functional

Indian agriculture is hampered mainly by groups in the form of self-help groups, co-operatives,
climate change, fragmentation of land, uncertainty associations, companies and by linking with markets.
of market, weak linkages among the stakeholders. Linking primary producers with global and national
Although, India ranks second in vegetable production markets through fresh food retail chains is seen as
after China, very little attention is paid to grading, one of the emerging agricultural marketing practices
sorting and storage. Poor handling during loading, in India to improve small producers’ livelihood.
unloading and transport results in post harvest losses (Singhal et al, 2011). It has been emphasized that
to the tune of 30-40 per cent of the total production. attempts to strengthen Indian agriculture must
Farmers’ indebtedness and lack of storage facilities address not only farm production (farmers) but also
were major reasons for selling most of produce by processing, marketing, trade, and distribution and
farmers immediately after harvesting (Narender, moreover linking farmers to markets was essential.
2011). The agri-business need to be diversified to This throws a light on developing linkages among
yield value added remunerations to the farmers and the various stakeholders in agriculture.
the end users of the produce (Robita, 2011). Considering the importance of marketing
In the prevailing situation, farmers will be linkages in enhancing farmers’ income, the present
*
Corresponding Author’s Email: swatim912@gmail.com
1
Associate Professor, College of Agriculture, Pune, Maharashtra - 411005
2
Ph. D. scholar, Dept of Agri. Extn. and Communication, B. A.C.A., A.A.U., Anand, Gujarat – 388001
3
Ph. D. scholar, Dept of Extn. Education, C. P. C. A., S. D. A.U., Sardarkrushinagar, Gujarat - 385506

28 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 28-31

 Khandave et al
Table 1. Activity wise backward linkages developed by the members VPOs. (N = 200)
Sr.
Activity Agency
No.
Agricultural
A Procurement of input Input agencies FPCs SAUs
department
1 Seeds/seedlings 40(20.0%) 16(8.0%) 20(10.0%) 28(14.0%)

2 Fertilizers/bio-fertilizers 48(24.0%) 20(10.0%) 38(19.0%) 42(21.0%)

3 Plant protection chemicals 62(31.0%) 20(10.0%) 54(27.0%) 0

4 Equipments and machinery 84(42.0%) 0 0 0

University Agricultural KVK

B Technical guidance Other FPCS
Scientists department scientists

5 Improved variety 82(41.0%) 46(23.0%) 72(36.0%) 0

6 Production technology 38(19.0%) 86(43.0%) 76(38.0%) 0

7 Marketing of produce 33(16.5%) 138(69.0%) 14(7.0%) 0

C Financial Assistance Private bank Cooperative Banks Cooperative societies
8 Loan 10(5.0%) 58(29.0%) 125(62.5%)
Agricultural Public insurance
Private insurance company
Department company
9 Insurance
124(62.0%) 44(22.0%) 26(13.0%)

study on working relationships of farmer producers organizations engaged in vegetable production,

organizations (FPOs) with other partners was
undertaken with the objective to study the backward
and forward linkages developed by the vegetable
producer organisations (VPOs) for enhanced
production levels and improved marketing of
vegetables.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This study area was purposively selected based
on maximum number of FPOs. Considering area
under vegetable production and number of FPOs
working in vegetable production and marketing,
three talukas viz., Khed, Junner and Purander
of Pune district were selected. Futher, based on
maximum number of members of farmers producer
vegetable producer organization (VPOs) were
selected. Total eleven VPOs were purposively
selected and 10 per cent group members (from
each selected VPO) were randomly selected, thus,
comprising total sample size of 200 farmers.
Vegetable producer organization linkages
with different agencies viz., State Agricultural
University (SAUs), State Agriculture Department,
Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK), other FPOs, Banks,
Insurance companies etc. were considered in order to
study the backward and forward linkages developed
for production and marketing of vegetables. The
respondents were asked to record their response
for each agency from where they sought assistance/

29 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 28-31

 Linkages Developed by Farmer Producer Organisations
Table 2. Distribution of respondents as per the forward linkages developed     for marketing.
(N = 200)
Sr. No. Activity Agency

Private storage centre Govt. storage Centre Other FPCs

1 Storage
48(24.0%) 26(13.0%) 0
Private processing Govt. processing
Processing and value SHGs
2 company centre
addition
62(31.0%) 0 34(17.0%)
Marketing board APMCs SHGs
3 Marketing
56(28.0%) 0 0

guidance for getting finance, procuring inputs, seed the respondents (41.0%) had developed linkage
production, post-harvest, value addition etc. The with university scientists, 36.0 per cent had
responses were recorded and data were analysed linkage with KVK scientists for use of improved
using frequency and percentage. variety, and farmers might have felt SAUs,
KVKs as credible source to solve their technical
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION problems. Similar results were recorded by Nikam
The data (Table 1) regarding development of (2012). Whereas, for getting guidance regarding
backward linkages revealed that for procurement production technology 43.0 per cent had linkage
of seed and seedlings one fifth (20.0%) members with agriculture department and 38.0 per cent
had linkage with input agencies, followed by SAUs had developed linkage with KVK scientists. For
(14.0%), Farmer Producer Companies (FPCs) marketing purpose majority (69.0%) of members
(10.0%) and agriculture department (8.0%). For had linkage with state department of agriculture.
getting fertilizers nearly one fourth (24.0%) had Data pertaining to linkages developed for financial
linkage with input agency followed by SAUs assistance especially for taking loan and insurance,
(21.0%) whereas, 19.0 per cent stated that they get about same percentage of respondents (62.5 and
fertilizers from input malls established by other 62.0) had linked with co operative societies and
farmers organization. In case of purchase of plant agriculture department, respectively.
protection chemicals, 31.0 per cent had linkage
with input agency followed by FPOs (27.0%) and Forward linkages developed for marketing
10.0 per cent linked with agriculture department An attempt was made to study the forward
For purchase of equipments and machinery 42.0 linkages developed by VPOs for marketing of
per cent members had linkage with input dealers. vegetables. The data pertaining to activity-wise
It means that farmers linked with input dealers and forward linkages developed (Table 2).
Data pertaining to forward linkages revealed
preferred for serving their various needs than other
that 24.0 per cent had preferred private storage
stakes. This might be due to that their services are
centers followed by 13.0 per cent had linkage with
available directly in the villages and can avail them
government storage centre whereas no member had
as per their convenience. Similar findings were
recorded by Patel (2011). linkage with other FPCs for storing the farm produce.
Data pertaining to linkages developed for For processing and value addition 31.0 per cent had
technical guidance revealed that majority of developed linkage with private processing company
whereas 28.0 per cent had linkage with marketing

30 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 28-31

 Khandave et al
board for marketing of produce. No member had to establish linkages with other stakeholders by
developed forward linkages for custom and labour expanding activities of organizations. Further study
hiring with other FPCs. Thus, it can be inferred that can conclude that functional linkages with business
forward linkages were developed in selected area partners will lead for development of value chain
only, might be due to that the organizations would through FPOs.
be in developing stage and need time for expanding
their business activities to develop functional REFERENCES
relationships with other agencies. Kumar N (2012). A critical analysis of agricultural regulated
markets: A case study of Western Uttar Pradesh. Int J
Trade and Com 1(1):70-89.
CONCLUSION
It may be concluded that farmers had developed Robita S (2011). Agricultural marketing and its impact in
North East India with special reference to Manipur. Agric
backward linkages for purchase of inputs, finance Eco Res Rev 25:151-154.
and technical guidance regarding vegetable
Singhal N, Singh S and Dindsh, P K (2011). Linking small
production with input dealers, Co-operatives, farmers to emerging agricultural marketing systems
SAUs/KVKS respectively. Also forward linkages in India: The case study of a fresh food retail chain in
were developed for storage, processing, value Punjab. Agric Eco Res Rev 24:155-159.
addition with private sectors. There is wide scope Received on 07/02/2019 Accepted on 30/03/2019

31 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 28-31

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 32-35 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00006.0

Backyard Poultry Rearing: An Effective Tool for Enhancement of

Livelihood of Farm Family
Sumita Acharya and Monalisa Behera
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Angul 759 122 (Odisha)

ABSTRACT
In the present study, a total of four different poultry breeds such as Vanaraja, RIR, Black Rock and Pallishree
were evaluated for its suitability under rural backyard poultry rearing system. Out of these four, two
breeds were dual purpose (Vanraja and RIR) and two were colour synthetic broiler breed (Black Rock and
Pallishree). It was evident that the colour synthetic broiler variety Palishree birds attained the highest body
weight of 3.09 kg in 16 wk period compared to that of other breeds, however the egg production potential
was found to be highest in case of RIR breed i.e. 194 eggs/bird/yr and Vanaraja birds were performed
well as dual purpose breed. Hence, it may be concluded that Rhode Island Red birds were best suited
under the local agro-climatic condition for better egg production, Vanaraja birds serve better as a dual
purpose and Pallishree birds for meat purpose. The backyard poultry system with improved birds provides
a solution to food security to the rural masses thus, paving a way for sustainable livestock production.
Key Words: Backyard, Birds, Broilers, Eggs, Livelihood, Meat, Poultry.

INTRODUCTION women and unemployed youth, and bridge the

The secondary agriculture plays a vital role
in the economic development of the farming
community of the district. In this sector mostly
enterprises like poultry, dairy, goatry, mushroom
and fishery in particular serve as an additional
livelihood option for the rural community in all
the blocks of the district. The major livestock
resources of the district are cattle, goat and poultry
(chicken & duck) which act as an important
source of additional income for the farm women.
Backyard farming has over the years contributed to
a great extent to the agrarian economy of different
countries. In the same way, rural backyard poultry
production plays a vital role in the rapidly growing
economy. It provides livelihood security to the
family in addition to securing the availability of
food. Unemployed youth and women can also earn
an income through poultry farming (Padhi, 2016).
It require hardly any infrastructure set-up and
besides supplementary and steady generation, rural
backyard poultry can improve food sufficiency,
can also unleash human productivity, encourage
gap between demand for production of eggs and
meat (Priyadarshini, 2016). The role of backyard
poultry farming in sustaining and enhancing poor
peoples’ livelihoods in developing countries is well
recognized (Ahuja et al, 2008). However, back
yard poultry farming is the cornerstone of poultry
farming in the district but its growth is limited due
to high seasonal mortality, low productivity and sub
optimal management (Rawat et al, 2016). Hence,
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Angul is promoting backyard
poultry farming in semi intensive system with
improved rural type birds. The study was carried out
to know the economic impact of backyard poultry
farming in different agro-ecological situations of
Angul district of Odisha in order to understand the
role backyard poultry farming in sustaining poor
people’s livelihoods, its contribution to income,
household nutrition, and empowerment.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present study was based on the front line
demonstrations (FLD) conducted by KVK on

Corresponding Author’s Email:sumitaacharya75@gmail.com

32 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 32-35

 Acharya and Behera
promoting backyard poultry in Angul district. The
respondents of the study were the farm women
who were involved in backyard poultry rearing in
operational villages. Primary data were collected
from the participating communities and secondary
data pertaining to the demonstrations were collected
from the Annual Reports of KVK and Veterinary
department. The data were collected from 40
respondents of 6 villages comprising from 3 blocks
through a pre-tested structured interview schedule
and were subjected to statistical analysis. The data
for the study was analyzed in 2018 by considering the
works from 2013-14 to 2017-18. The observations
were recorded for other parameters viz. total egg
production, average live body weight of birds and
B: C ratio.
Table 1. FLDs conducted by KVK on backyard poultry.
Year Problem Intervention
diagnosed
2013-14 Low income from Demonstration on
Desi breed Backyard rearing of
poulry for farm women
var.Vanaraja
2014-15 Low egg production Demonstration on
in Vanaraja birds Dual purpose high
and high mortality yielding backyard
due to disease poultry rearing var.
incidence RIR
2015-16 Low egg production Demonstration on
in Deshi birds and colour synthetic meat
high mortality due type backyard poultry
to disease incidence var. BlackRock
2016-17 Low egg production Demonstration on
in Deshi birds and backyard poultry var.
high mortality due Pallishree
to disease incidence
2017-18 Low egg production Demonstration on
in Banaraja birds backyard poultry var.
and high mortality Pallishree
due to disease
incidence
33 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 32-35
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
In operational villages of KVK, a total of 860
poultry birds were provided among 40 beneficiaries
and household wise backyard poultry distribution,
mortality from backyard poultry farming system are
depicted in Table 1. Utmost care was taken during
the backyard poultry farming by the farm women
but there were reports of mortality due to attack by
wild animals and diseases like Coccidiosis, Marek’s
disease, RD and IBD.
For the purpose of egg and meat production,
different improved birds were reared in small
numbers (20-26) under proper brooding and feed
management up to 6 wk and later released in free
range after 6 wk of age. It was observed that when
the chicks distributed after 28-30d after proper
Characteristics of No. of Duration
Technology / Variety / trials of study
Product / Enterprise (month)
Dual purpose poultry bird, 10 18
weigh in 5 m to 2.5-3kg/bird
and egg laying was 150-180
eggs/yr.
Rearing of dual purpose 10 18
high yielding poultry breed
weighing between 2-2.5 kg
and laying more than 200 large
brown shelled eggs.
Weight gain in 7 wk-1.2 kg 10 4
Egg/bird/annum-120 eggs
Weight gain in 7 wk-2 kg 5 4
Eggs/bird/annum-95 eggs
Weight gain in 7 wk-2 kg 5 4
Eggs/bird/annum-95 nos
 Backyard Poultry Rearing
Table2. Interventions undertaken by KVK.
Year Poultry Number of Number of poultry Age of chicks at the Mortality
Breed Beneficiaries chicks distributed time of distribution (%)
2013-14 Vanaraja 10 200 28 d 5
2014-15 RIR 10 260 28 d 8
2015-16 Blackrock 10 200 Day old 10
2016-17 Pallishree 5 100 Day old 10
2017-18 Pallishree 5 100 30 d old 5
brooding and vaccination, the mortality rate was eggs/bird/yr and Vanaraja birds were performed
less than the day old (Table 2). Low cost brooding well as dual purpose breed. It was also studied that
materials like metal or wooden material, electric a low mortality percentage was obtained in case
bulbs, guard for the purpose of brooding were of Pallishree birds in compared to other breeds. In
not used by the beneficiaries and thus, scientific a study, Singh et al (2018) reported that rural and
management with proper vaccination are very tribal areas of Jammu province can rear Vanaraja
essential to reduce mortality. and Gramapriya birds for their livelihood and
In the present study, four different poultry breeds nutritional security. Likewise, Khawaja et al,(2012)
such as Vanaraja, RIR, BlackRock, Pallishree were reported that RIR chickens performed better than
subjected for a comparative study under rural Fayoumi and Desi chickens.
backyard poultry. It was noticed that all the breeds It was found that the backyard poultry production
performed better than that of local chicken, however system in Angul district was traditional and poorly
there were variation in performances between these remunerative. Therefore, the present intervention of
four breeds. It was demonstrated that the colour dual purpose improved breed and colour synthetic
synthetic broiler variety Pallishree birds attained broiler birds under balanced feeding management
the highest body weight in 16 wk period compared laid more number of eggs and meat production in
to that of other breeds; however the egg production turn which improved the livelihood security among
potential of this chicken variety was poor (Table 3). the tribal people.
Hence, a farm family can rear these birds for meat As most of the poor and marginal farmers of
purpose, so that they can maintain three batches/ tribal blocks of Angul distict have very limited
cycles of birds and earn more compared to other capital assets and depend on backyard poultry
breeds. Similarly, the egg production potential was farming for their livelihoods, growth of the rural
found to be highest in case of RIR breed i.e. 194 poultry sector can definitely contribute to poverty
Table 3. Results of the interventions on semi intensive backyard poultry rearing system.
Year Breed Av. wt. of birds in 16 wk / % Change in Av. Annual Egg
bird(kg) weight Production/bird(No.)
FP RP
2013-14 Vanaraja 0.65±0.021 1.4 ±0.017 115 48 152
2014-15 RIR 1.4±0.036 1.6 ±0.023 14 170 194
2015-16 BlackRock 0.65± 0.021 1.6± 0.013 146 - -
2016-17 Pallishree 1.2±0.017 2.75±0.024 129 - -
2017-18 Pallishree 1.85± 0.026 3.09± 0.027 67 - -
FP : Farmer Practices RR : Recommended Practices
34 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 32-35
 Acharya and Behera
Table 4. Economic analysis of the Interventions.
Year Breed Cost (Rs./Bird) Gross Return Net Return (Rs./ B:C Ratio
(Rs./Bird) Bird)
Demo Local Demo Local Demo Local Demo Local
2013-14 Vanaraja 120 40 395 85 275 45 3.29 2.12
2014-15 RIR 330 330 1186 1030 856 700 3.59 3.12
2015-16 Black Rock 36 24 208 76 172 52 5.77 3.16
2016-17 Pallishree 78 76 392 153 314 77 5.01 2.01
2017-18 Pallishree 133 137 471 261 338 128 3.54 1.93

alleviation and act as ATM at the time of need. It REFERENCES

can not only give employment to them but can also Ahuja V, Dhawan M, Punjabi M and Maarse L ( 2008).
play an important role in women empowerment. Poultry based livelihoods of rural poor: Case of Kuroiler
in West Bengal: National Dairy Development Board of
The threats in backyard poultry farming include Indian and Food and Agriculture Organization of the
outbreak of diseases, predators, theft and shortage United Nations, pp 57.
of feed and housing problems at night. The farmer Khawaja T, Khan S H ,Mukhtar N ,Ali M A, Ahmed T
also must be given training on rearing of backyard and Ghafar A (2012). Comparative study of growth
poultry to equip them with relevant skills to merge performance, egg production, egg characteristics and
scientific methods in poultry management for haemato-biochemical parameters of Desi, Fayoumi and
improving their productivity. Thakur et al (2016) Rhode Island Red chicken: J Applied Anim Res 40(4):
273-283
concluded that capacity building of farmers was
an effective tool to augment poultry production Padhi M K (2016).Importance of indigenous breeds of
chicken for rural economy and their improvements for
and such trainings should be organized at regular higher production performance. Scientifica http://dx.doi.
interval to sustain the enterprise. org/10.1155/2016/2604685
Priyadarshini V (2016). Backyard poultry farming: A means
CONCLUSION of sustainable livelihood for the rural tribal people of
It may be concluded that backyard poultry Keonjhar district, Odisha: Int J Home Sci Ext Communi
farming is an effective tool to strengthen the Manage 3 (1): 21-25.
livelihood of resource poor farmers and landless Rath P K ,Mandal K D and Panda P (2015). Backyard poultry
labourers in rural area with low-cost initial farming in India: A call for skill upliftment. Res J Recent
Sci 4 :1-5.
investment. It provides eggs and meat for family
consumption and additional income to the rural Rawat S K, Gupta R and Narain S (2016). Study on the
performance of backyard poultry production reared by
households. Improved variety and crosses of local rural woman in Mahoba: Indian Res J Ext Edu 15(4):24-
birds with superior germ plasm are well adapted 28.
to local agro-climatic condition and should be Singh P, Kachroo D, Thakur N P, Khajuria, V, Kumar P,
incorporated in the farming system. Rhode Island Kumar M and Kour G (2018). Comparative performance
Red birds were best suited with the local agro- of Vanaraja, Gramapriya and Indigenous Desi Bird under
climatic condition for better egg production, backyard system of rearing in Jammu province, India. Int
Vanaraja birds serve better as a dual purpose, and J Curr Microbiol App Sci 7(2): 101-105.
Pallishree birds performed well under backyard for Thakur R, Sankhyan V and Dogra P K (2016). Productive and
meat purpose. Flocks vaccinated against Marek’s, reproductive performance of Vanaraja birds reared by
tribal community of Dhemaji District of Assam: J Krishi
Newcastle disease and Gumboro disease should be Vigyan 4(2) : 99-100.
practiced for better performance.
Received on 01/02/2019 Accepted on 20/03/2019

35 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 32-35

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 36-39 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00007.2

Comparative Study of Composite Fish Culture and Local

Practices of Fish Culture in Surguja District of Chhattisgarh
Pradeep Kumar Singh
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Mungeli
Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur 492 001(Chhattisgarh)

ABSTRACT
A multilocational trial on composite fish culture (CFC) was carried out to evaluate growth, yield and economic
analysis of fish culture during three successive years 2014-2016 in Surguja district of Chhattisgarh, India. The
study revealed that growth of Silver carp and Catla is better than that of other fish species in composite fish
culture (CFC). Fish yield was more in CFC than the traditional fish farming system in all locations under study
with the highest harvest of 42.0q/ha. An increment of fish harvest up to 164 per cent was recorded by adopting
CFC. Gross profit to the tune of Rs. 4.22 lakh and Rs. 2.55lakh/ha were recorded from CFC and local practice
with a net profit of Rs. 2. 95 lakh and Rs. 1.5 lakh/ha and benefit-cost ratio of 2.36 and 1.83, respectively.
Key Words: Benefit: Cost ratio, Composite Fish Culture, Yield.

INTRODUCTION pond so that all its ecological niches are utilized by

Fishery in Chhattisgarh is mostly based on
culture in Rural tanks. There is a large cultivable
fresh water area in Chhatisgarh in the form of ponds,
tanks and reservoirs etc., of which only small part
is utilized for fish culture. According to the census
(2015-16), the fishery production in Surguja District
covers an area of 745 ha. There is a tremendous gap
between the demand of 325t/annum and supply of
120 t/ annum of fish in the district.
The fish growers of the state traditionally growing
different varieties of fishes in poly culture method
were species ratio and water quality management
is not been practiced. Fishes are fed with locally
available feed materials like rice bran, mustard oil
cake, groundnut oil cake etc. In this practice, proper
stocking density and selection of compatible species
is also not maintained. There are many fish culture
technologies available and the Composite Fish
Culture (CFC) system is the most sustainable for
this region. In this system, distinctive compatible
species of Indian and Exotic carps of different
feeding habits are stocked and cultured in the same
the fishes. Present investigation was an attempt to
quantify the yield advantages of CFC over the local
traditional fish culture system. Effort has also been
made to find out economic sustainability of CFC in
the study area for logical analysis and adoption by
the fish growing community of the district.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The study was carried out during the years
2014-2016. The experiment was carried out in
Ajirma, Batwahi, Bangalipara (Ambikapur)
and Mahaveerpur villages of Surguja District,
Chhattisgarh geographically located between 23° 37’
25’’ and 24° 6’ 17’’ north latitudes and between 81°
34’40’’ and 84° 4’40’’ east longitudes. Fingerlings
of Catla (Catla catla), Rohu (Labeo rohita), Mrigala
(Cirrhinus mrigala), Grass Carp (Ctenopharyngodon
idella), Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and Silver
carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) were stocked
in a ratio 2 Catla: 2 Rohu: 1.5 Mrigal: 2 Silver carp:
1 Grass carp: 1.5 Common carp (Mahapatra et al,
2006) @ 7000 fingerlings/ ha.

Corresponding Author’s Email: singhpk_aqua@yahoo.co.in

36 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 36-39

 Singh P K
The management practices in composite
fish farming can be categorized as pre-stocking,
stocking and post-stocking management. The
major steps followed in pre-stocking management
were aquatic weed clearance by manual effort,
eradication of predatory and weed fish by repeated
netting, manuring by using cow dung 1000 kg/
ha/ month and liming with quick lime @ 2000 kg/
ha/yr for regulating pH of pond water. One third
quantity of total amount of lime was applied as
initial dose and rest was applied in seven split
doses after checking pH of the pond water. In
stocking management, transportation of fingerling
is one of the most important steps. In the present
investigation, transportation of fingerlings was done
in the early morning hours with oxygen packing
from Darima Government Fish Hatchery located
at Surguja District, Chhattisgarh. Acclimatization
of the fingerlings was also done by putting the
Oxyzen packed polythene bags in pond water for
15 min followed by addition of excess water in
the same bag and releasing the fishes slowly in the
pond for reducing the stress related to temperature
fluctuation. Supplementary feeding of Mustard
oil cake and rice bran with a mixing ratio of 1:1
in addition of vitamin – mineral mixture was done
@ 2-3% of body weight of fishes. Manuring was
also done once in a month to maintain water quality
of the ponds. Sampling for checking the health and
growth were also done once in two months.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Present study revealed that CFC has many
advantages over local practice of fish culture.
Talukdar and Sontaki (2005) described various
advantages of CFC. Different fish species viz. Silver
carp, Catla, Mrigala, Grass Carp, Common carp and
Rohu harvested from Ajirma, Batwahi, Bangalipara
(Ambikapur) and Mahaveerpur villages of Surguja
District showed that growth of silver carp and catla
was better than other fish species in CFC. Silver
carp and Catla was recorded to grow faster with an
average size of 930g and 845g, respectively in eight
months of culture period. This might be attributed to
37 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 36-39
balance feeding to the fishes as well as manuring of
pond in CFC and consequently optimum production
of phytoplankton and zooplankton which were basic
food for silver carp and catla, respectively (Amir et
al, 2013).
In all the locations under study congenial water
temperature for fish growth was observed from
April to October. Monsoon rainfall during June to
September favoured fish culture in the District. It
was noted that, the fish yield was more in CFC than
traditional fish farming system in all locations under
study. Average fish yield recorded in CFC was 38.3
q/ha, 37.3 q/ha and 40.2 q/ha during 2014, 2015
and 2016, respectively as compared to 23.35 q/ha,
23.88q/ha and 24.63q/ha during the aforesaid period
(Table 1). This might be attributed to pre-stocking,
stocking and post-stocking management practices.
Gradual increase in fish productivity in CFC over
local practice might be due to the residual effect
of incorporation of inputs viz. lime, manure and
feeding materials in the same pond over the years.
Similar observations were also made by Manjappa
et al( 2017) and Kund et al( 2010). An increment of
fish harvest to the tune of 164 , 156 and 163per cent
was recorded by adopting composite fish farming in
the year 2014, 2015 and 2016, respectively (Table
1).
Economic analysis of fish farming in CFC
and local practice was made to evaluate the
sustainability of CFC. Average total cost of
production over the period of 2014-2016 was Rs.
1.15lakh and Rs. 84,667 in CFC and local practice,
respectively (Table 2). Variation in the cost of
production in different years was due to variation
in cost of inputs. More cost of production in CFC
as compared to the local practice is due to balance
feeding, manuring, liming and using chemicals in
the former system. Mean yield of fishes obtained
from these two systems were 38.6 q/ha and 23.95q/
ha. Gross profit to the tune of Rs. 3.86lakh and Rs.
2. 39lakh /ha were recorded from CFC and local
practice with a net profit of Rs. 2.71lakh and Rs.
1.54lakh/ ha, respectively. This gave an average
benefit-cost ratio of 2.36 in CFC and 1.83.
 Comparative Study of Composite Fish Culture
Table 1. Average yield (q/ha) of fishes in CFC and local practice of fish farming.
Year Ajirma Mahaveerpur Batwahi Bangali Para (Ambikapaur) Av. yield
Average yield (q/ha) of fishes in CFC
2014 39.4 38.5 36.6 38.6 38.3 (164%*)
2015 39.2 36.45 35.2 38.45 37.3 (156%*)
2016 42.2 38.2 38.6 41.6 40.2 (163%*)
Average yield (q/ha) of fishes in local practice
2014 23.25 22.45 22.5 25.2 23.35
2015 25.8 23.2 22.9 23.6 23.88
2016 25.5 24.6 23.8 24.6 24.63
Note: *Fish yield Increase in CFC over local practice (%)

Table 2: Economics of fish farming in CFC and local practice during the study period.
Parameter CFC Local practice
2014 2015 2016 Av. 2014 2015 2016 Av.
Total Cost of production (Rs.Lakh/ha) 1.15 1.1 1.2 1.15 0.8 0.85 0.89 0.84
Mean yield of fishes (q/ha) 38.3 37.3 40.2 38.6 23.35 23.88 24.63 23.95
Gross profit (Rs. Lakh /ha) 3.83 3.73 4.02 3.86 2.33 2.38 2.46 2.39
Net returns(Rs. Lakh /ha) 2.68 2.63 2.82 2.71 1.53 1.53 1.57 1.54
Benefit Cost Ratio 2.33 2.39 2.35 2.36 1.92 1.81 1.77 1.83
Sale price of fish per kg @ Rs.100/-.

Total cost of production includes cost of labour REFERENCES

for pond preparation and management, fertilization Anantha P N, Sahoo P R, Dash A K, Pati B K, Jayashankar P
application, liming, netting etc and material cost and Singh S R K (2014). A study on community based
aquaculture promoted by KVK-Khordha, Odisha, India.
like fish fingerlings, feed, fertilizer, lime etc. in the Current World Environ 9 (3), 947-951
local practice. The result reflects that production
Chouhan Pushpa (2015). Comparative study of fish production
of fishes and profitability was more than double and earning from fish culture in two years in Barwani
in CFC over the local practice which is because of district, MP, India. Res J Anim Vety and Fishery Sci 3
adoption of good management practices. Anantha (7): 5-8
et al (2014), Chouhan (2015) and Singh (2007) also Imrana Amir, M Afzal, Tahir Hussain, Asmara Iram, Sumara
reported that those farmers, who have a tendency to Naz and Fakhra Saif (2013). Effect of varying species
maximize their earnings, have higher adoption of ratios of Silver carp (Hypophathalmicthys molitrix) and
Composite Fish Farming System. Mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala) at constant density on pond
fisheries in Composite fish culture. J Agril and Biol Sci 8
(8): 616-620
CONCLUSION Kund G C, Mishra R and Sethi P K (2010). An economic
Results showed that CFC could be a beneficial analysis of composite fish culture ponds in Sundergarh
venture for optimum utilization of land and water district, Orissa. Asian J Anim Sci 5 (2): 139-141
resources of Surguja District of Chhattisgarh. Mahapatra BK, Vinod K, Mandal BK, Bujarbaruah KM
Adoption of this technique will open avenues for (2006). Composite Fish Culture. Technical Bull. No. 20,
self-employment, supplement the income of the ICAR-RC NEH, Barapani, Meghalaya: 1-11
farmers and enhance fish production.
38 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 36-39
 Singh P K
Manjappa N , Patil Ravidragouda and Pavadi Prakasha
(2017). Potential use of village tanks and farm ponds
for aquaculture in Karnataka, India – A case. Int J Res
Applied, Natural and Social Sci. 5 (10), 45-50
Singh Kehar (2007). Economics and determinants of fish
production and its effects on family income inequality in
West Tripura District of Tripura. Indian J Agri Econ 62
(1): 113-125
Talukdar P K and Sontaki B S (2005). Correlates of adoption
of composite fish culture practices by Fish farmers of
Assam, India. The J Agril Sci 1 (1):12-18.
Received on 04/02/2019 Accepted on 16/03/2019

39 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 36-39

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 40-45 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00008.4

Constraints Analysis of Small Scale Pig Farming in

Dhemaji District of Assam
Ashim Kumar Saikia1, G Gogoi2 and M Neog3
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Demaji,
Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat 785 001 (Assam)

ABSTRACT
A study on the major constraints faced by the small scale pig farmers was conducted in 5 development blocks
of Dhemaji district of Assam. A total of 125 farmer respondents comprising 25 farmers from each block were
randomly selected based on their experience on pig farming. A schedule enlisting different constraints under
five major heads viz. breeding, feeding, healthcare, marketing and miscellaneous including management
were prepared. The low productivity of indigenous pig was the major breeding constraint with highest mean
score (73.9 ) followed by non availability of improved pig breed (70.4). The lack of knowledge of feeding
balanced ration was the most important constraints with a mean score of 76.1 and ranked first among the
different feeding constraints. Mortality of pigs due to unidentified contagious diseases was the most important
healthcare constraint faced by the small scale pig farmers of the district with a mean score of 70.0. Non
existence of organized market facility was marked as the major constraint (mean score 76.0) in marketing of
pigs. Shortage of operating capital and inadequate access to credit institution were identified as the highest
constraints among miscellaneous constraints studied need to be address to increase the income of farm family.
Key Words: Breeding, Constraint, Feeding, Healthcare, Marketing, Pig farming, Productivity.

INTRODUCTION in the neighboring district of Assam and Arunachal

Pig rearing is one of the major animal husbandry
activities with a great potential to cater the income
of the rural households of Assam in general and of
Dhemaji district in particular. The report of the 19th
Livestock Census revealed that with 1.636 million
pig population Assam ranked 1st position among the
states of India and contributing about 16 per cent
of country’s total pig population (Anon, 2014). The
Dhemaji district ranked 4th among the districts of
Assam in terms of pig population and it is the resident
of different tribal communities viz. Mising, Sonowal
Kachri, Deuri, Boro, Hazong, Rabha, Lalung, Adi
and they have been rearing pig in backyard system
traditionally. Most of the people of the district
relish pork and other pork products during almost
all of their festive occasions. Dhemaji district fulfils
the part of the demand of piglets and mature pigs
Pradesh. In spite of these advantages and great
scope, the pig farming has not come up to fulfill the
increasing demand due to some constraints faced
by the pig farmers of the district. Thakur et al
(2016) concluded that capacity building of farmers
was an effective tool and therefore , trainings
should be organized at regular interval to sustain
the enterprise. Considering these points, a study
was carried out to analyze the major constraints of
small scale pig farming in Dhemaji district.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
For the present study, 5 development blocks
of Dhemaji district viz, Dhemaji, Bordalani,
Machkhowa, Sissiborgaon and MSTD Jonai were
considered. The study was conducted during
July, 2015 to June, 2016. A total of 125 farmers

Corresponding Author’s E mail: ashimkumar.saikia@gmail.com

1
SMS (Animal Science, 2 Sr. Scientist & Head (i/c), Krishi Vigyan Kendra Dhemaji
3
Associate Director of Extension Education, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat

40 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 40-45

 Saikia et al
comprising 25 numbers from each block were
randomly selected. The minimum 3 yr experience in
pig farming with 3-4 numbers of pigs was the basic
criteria in selection of farmers as respondent. A
schedule was prepared enlisting different probable
constraints in 5 major areas viz, breeding, feeding,
healthcare, marketing and miscellaneous including
cost, social acceptance etc. The respondents were
asked to rank the constraints from 1 to 8 under each
head according to the severity of the constraints
faced by them. Rank 1 denoted the most severe
while rank 8 denoted the least severe of particular
constraint. The collected data were tabulated and
analyzed statistically by using Garrett’s Ranking
Technique. The assigned ranks given by the
participant farmers were counted into per cent
position value by using the following formula given
by Garrett and Woodworth (1969),
Per cent posi- 100(Rij-0.50)
tion= Nj
Where, Rij= Rank given by the ith factor by
the jth individual
Nj= Number of factor ranked by the jth individual.
The per cent position was then converted into
scores by referring the table given by Garrett and
Woodworth (1969). For each factor the scores of
the individual respondents were added together
and divided by the total number of respondents for
whom scores were added. The mean scores were
calculated by dividing the total score by the number
Table 1. Breeding constraints in pig farming.
Sr. Parameter
No.
1 Low productivity of indigenous animals
2 Non-availability of improved breeds
3 Non-availability of improved pedigree boar for natural service
4 Higher cost of natural service by improved boar
5 Inability to rear improved boar for breeding
6 Non-availability of AI service
7 Lack of knowledge in detecting heat
8 Lack of knowledge about producing improved pig breed by crossbreeding
41 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 40-45
of respondents. Overall ranking was obtained by
assigning ranks in the descending order of the mean
score.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Breeding constraints
The results of the breeding constraints faced
by the farmers (Table 1) indicated that the highest
mean score (73.91) was observed in case of low
productivity of indigenous animals and was ranked
1st followed by non-availability of improved breeds
(70.40), non-availability of improved pedigree boar
for natural service (59.54), higher cost of natural
service by improved boar (50.08), inability to rear
improved boar for breeding (49.94), non-availability
of AI service (39.13), lack of knowledge in detecting
heat (30.72) and lack of knowledge about producing
improved pig breed by crossbreeding (25.28).
The major constraints of pig farmers in respect of
breeding in the district were low productivity of
indigenous pigs and non-availability of improved
breeds, which might be due to poor germ plasms
of the indigenous breeds and non existence of
organized breeding farm at both government and
private level. Rajkumar and Kavithaa (2014)
observed that the non-availability of improved
breeding buck was the major constraints faced by
the farm women in goat farming in Erode district of
Tamil Nadu. In case of dairy farming in Vidarbha
region, Nagrale et al (2015) also reported that low
productivity of animals was the prime constraints
Garrett’s Garrett’s
mean score rank
73.91 1st
70.40 2nd
59.54 3rd
50.08 4th
49.94 5th
39.13 6th
30.72 7th
25.28 8th
 Analysis of Small Scale Pig Farming
faced by dairy farmers of that area.
Feeding constraints
It was found that lack of knowledge on feeding
balanced ration was the most important constraints
with a mean Garrett’s score of 76.10 and was ranked
first (Table 2). However, Rajkumar and Kavithaa
(2014) reported that lack of knowledge of feeding
balanced ration was the third most important
constraints perceived by the farm women in goat
farming in Erode district of Tamil Nadu. Non-
availability of balanced commercial pig feeds with
a mean score 67.50 (2nd rank), higher cost of pig
feeds (63.40), lack of knowledge of feeding mineral
mixture (50.50), lack of knowledge of feeding green
roughages (47.40), inadequate knowledge about the
quality of concentrate feeds to be fed to various age
group of animals (43.30), inadequate knowledge
about feeding of traditional locally available feeds
(33.10) and lack of knowledge about ‘steaming
up’ operation (22.40) were some other important
constraints faced by the pig farmers of Dhemaji
district. The result of this study was supported by
the findings of Tochhawng and Rewant (2013),
who reported that high cost of feed was one of
the major constraints faced by the pig farmers in
Aizawl district of Mizoram. Johari et al (2014)
also revealed that high cost of computed feed was
the major hindrance in pig rearing in Dima Hasao
district of Assam.
Healthcare constraints
It was found that higher mortality of pigs due
to unidentified contagious diseases was the most
important constraint faced by the small scale pig
farmers of the district with a mean score of 70.00
and was ranked first, inadequate veterinary services
with a mean score of 63.50 was the second most
important constraint followed by lack of knowledge
about the important diseases of pigs (62.00), higher
mortality of piglets before weaning (47.50), non-
availability of vaccines against most harmful
diseases of pigs (47.10), lack of knowledge about
the bio-security in pig farm (37.90), inadequate
knowledge about de-worming of pigs (29.20) and
non-availability of important medicines (25.60).
Therefore, the results of the study indicated that the
pig farmers were required to be trained about health
care management of pigs. Some other workers
like Ashalatha and Prabhakar (2010) also reported
that lack of knowledge of identifying infectious
and contagious diseases, improper cleaning of pig
shed, non-availability of timely veterinary facilities
were some of the major constraints for adopting
scientific pig farming. Singh et al (2016) also
reported that distant location of veterinary hospitals
from farmers’ house in both KVK-adopted and
non-adopted villages of Rewa district of Madhya
Pradesh were one of the major constraints in pig
rearing.

Table 2. Feeding constraints in pig farming.

Sr. No. Parameter Garrett’s Garrett’s
mean score rank
1 Lack of knowledge of feeding balanced ration 76.10 1st
2 Non-availability of balanced commercial pig feeds 67.50 2nd
3 Higher cost of pig feeds 63.40 3rd
4 Lack of knowledge of feeding mineral mixture 50.50 4th
5 Lack of knowledge of feeding green roughages 47.40 5th
6 Inadequate knowledge about the quality of concentrate feeds to be fed to 43.30 6th
various age group of animals
7 Inadequate knowledge about feeding o traditional locally available feeds 33.10 7th
8 Short of knowledge about ‘steaming up’ operation 22.40 8th

42 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 40-45

 Saikia et al
Table 3. Health care constraints in pig farming.
Sr. No. Parameter Garrett’s Garrett’s
mean score rank
1 Higher mortality of pigs due to unidentified contagious diseases 70.00 1st
2 Inadequate veterinary services 63.50 2nd
3 Lack of knowledge about the important diseases of pigs 62.00 3rd
4 Higher mortality of piglets before weaning 47.50 4th
5 Non-availability of vaccines against most harmful diseases of pigs 47.10 5th
6 Lack of knowledge about the bio-security in pig farm 37.90 6th
7 Inadequate knowledge about de-worming of pigs 29.20 7th
8 Non-availability of important medicines 25.60 8th

Marketing constraints diseases like measly pork etc. in human (38.24),

It was observed that lack of organized unauthorized supply of pork and its products from
marketing facility with the mean score of 76.00 neighboring states (30.92) and high cost of pork in
was the most important marketing constraints faced comparison to other meat (24.80).
by the pig farmers of the district and ranked first Miscellaneous constraints
among the marketing factors. Islam et al (2016) Lack of operating capital and inadequate access
and Islam and Nath (2015) also reported that lack to credit facility with a mean score of 100.40 topped
of organized marketing facilities was the major the list of miscellaneous constraints among the
marketing constraints faced by the small scale pig farmers and ranked first. Kannan et al (2008)
pig and poultry farmers respectively in Sivsagar reported that lack of financial support was the main
district of Assam. Exploitation of farmers by constraints in pig rearing as faced by the farmers
middleman during marketing of pig, piglets etc. in different climatic zones of Kerala. Islam et al
with a mean score of 68.62 was found to be the (2016) also reported that lack of operating capital
2nd most important marketing factor faced by the and inadequate access to credit facility is the major
pig farmers of the study area and was followed by constraint faced by the pig farmers and ranked
unhygienic practices in slaughtering of pig (61.47), first in Sivsagar district of Assam. Higher cost of
seasonal demand of pork and its products (53.49), hired labour with a mean score of 66.90 became the
social taboos (45.46), consumption of pork causes 2nd most important constraints followed by social

Table 4. Marketing constraints in pig farming.

Sr. No. Parameter Garrett’s Garrett’s
mean score rank
1 Lack of organized marketing facility 76.00 1st
2 Exploitation of farmers by middleman during marketing of pig, piglets etc. 68.62 2nd
3 Unhygienic practices in slaughtering of pig 61.47 3rd
4 Seasonal demand of pork and its products 53.49 4th
5 Social taboos 45.46 5th
6 Consumption of pork causes diseases like measly pork etc. in human 38.24 6th
7 Unauthorized supply of pork and its products from neighboring states 30.92 7th
8 High cost of pork in comparison to other meat 24.80 8th

43 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 40-45

 Analysis of Small Scale Pig Farming
Table 5. Miscellaneous constraints in pig farming.
Sr. No. Parameter Garrett’s Garrett’s
mean score rank
1 Lack of operating capital and inadequate access to credit facility 100.40 1st
2 Higher cost of hired labour 66.90 2nd
3 Social un-acceptance of pig farmers 62.21 3rd
4 Traditional system of rearing 49.80 4th
5 Disposal of piggery wastes 47.50 5th
6 Transportation of live pigs 42.70 6th
7 Weighing of live pigs at farmers level 23.60 7th
8 Handling of live pigs for treatment, castration, weighing etc. 6.000 8th

un-acceptance of pig farmers (62.21), traditional forward for providing credit facilities with proper
system of rearing (49.80), disposal of piggery subsidies to develop entrepreneurs in piggery in a
wastes (47.50), transportation of live pigs (42.70), massive way.
handling of live pigs for treatment, castration,
weighing etc. (23.60) and weighing of live pigs at ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
farmers level (6.00) etc. The authors are thankful to the Directorate of
Extension Education, AAU, Jorhat and the ATARI,
CONCLUSION Zone- VI, Guwahati for providing the facilities
The study revealed that the major constraints to carry out the programme. Necessary supports
of small scale pig production in Dhemaji district received from the staffs of KVK, Dhemaji are also
were less awareness regarding scientific breeding, highly acknowledged. Authors are also thankful to
feeding, healthcare management etc. In addition, all the farmers who provided required data during
high cost of feeds or feed ingredients, non- study period.
availability of improved pig germ plasm, vaccine
and medicines, un-organized marketing facilities REFERENCES
and improper veterinary facilities in rural areas were Anonymous (2014). 19th Livestock Census 2012 All India
some other serious constraints faced by the small pig Report. Ministry of Agriculture. Department of Animal
Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, Krishi Bhawan, New
farmers. To address these constraints of the small Delhi, India
scale pig farmers of the district, the government
Ashalatha P and Prabhakar K (2010). Pig production system
or other organization should take initiatives for in the state of Andhra Pradesh and constraints faced by
providing trainings and to create some minimum farmers- a survey report. Indian J Field Vet 5(4):17-20
infrastructure facilities like breeding farms for Garrett E H and Woodworth R S (1969). Statistics in
making improved pigs available for the farmers. Psychology and Education. Pp. 329. Vakils, Feffers and
Vocational training programme on modern scientific Simons Pvt. Ltd., Bombay (M. S.) INDIA
pig farming with exposure visit should be taken Islam R and Nath P (2015). Constraints perceived by the
extensively by concerned organizations. Production broiler farmers of Sivasagar district of Assam. Indian Res
of raw materials and establishment of feed mills J Extn Edu 15(1):112-113.
at Government Departmental level may be other Islam R, Nath P and Bharali A (2016). Constraints perceived
some steps that can be initiated. Government and by the small scale pig farmers in Sivasagar district of
Assam: An analysis. The Asian J of Anim Sci 11(1): 73-77
different financial institute like banks should come

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 Saikia et al
Johari Monosri, Saharia K K, Bora L, Roychoudhury R,
Khuman L S and Talukdar J (2014). Problems faced by
pig farmers in Dima Hasao District of Assam. J Krishi
Vigyan 2(2): 59-63
Kannak A, Xavier F, Raja T V and Murugan M (2008).
Awareness and needs of pig farmers in Kerala. J Veterin
and Anim Sci 39:36-39.
Kumar H D, Tiwari R and Roy R (2014). Socio-economic
factors and their influence in the production performance
of commercial pig farms in India. Asian J Anim Sci 9(1):
68-73
Lavanya A, Raju G G, Suresh J and Devi K S (2014).
Constraints analysis of swine farming under Rashtriya
Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) in Andhra Pradesh State.
Indian J Vety & Anim Sci Res 43(1):19-27.
Nagrale B G, Datta K K and Chauhan A K (2015). An analysis
of constraints faced by dairy farmers in Vidarbha region
of Maharashtra. Indian J Dairy Sci 68(4):390-394.
Rajkumar N V and Kavithaa N V (2014). Constraints in goat
farming perceived by farm women in Erode district of
tamilnadu. Int J Sci Environ & Technol 3(1):116-122.
Singh D, Lal N, Khode N V and Yadav R (2016). Constraints
faced by livestock owners in adoption of Animal
Husbandry Practices in KVK- adopted and non-adopted
villages in Rewa district of Madhya Pradesh. J Krishi
Vigyan 5(1): 10-13
Thakur R, Sankhyan V and Dogra P K (2016), Capacity
building : An effective tool for augmenting poultry
production in Himachal Pradesh.
Received on 05/10/2018 Accepted on 10/02/1019

45 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 40-45

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 46-50 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00009.6

Constraints Perceived by Tribal Farmers in Adoption of

Improved Production Technologies of Rapeseed-Mustard in
Ranchi District
Smriti Singh1, Anuj Tiwari2 and R P Singh Ratan3
Department of Agricultural Extension,
Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology,
Kanpur 208 002 (Uttar Pradesh)

ABSTRACT
Oilseeds constitute a major portion of human diet. In developing countries, most of the farmers have
small landholdings, limited resources and excess family labour. This makes technological up-gradation
in agriculture more imperative. The present study was undertaken to get insight into the constraints
faced by tribal farmers in adoption of improved production technologies of rapeseed-mustard, which
strictly control their adoption behaviour. Study was conducted in purposively selected Nagri and
Ormanjhi blocks of Ranchi District. Four villages were randomly selected from each of these two blocks.
Twenty five tribal farmers from each village were selected randomly consisting of the total sample of
100 respondents. The data were collected from each respondent through pre-tested structured interview
schedule and appropriate statistical procedures were employed to analyze the data. Constraints were
grouped into six categories, namely, ecological, technological, infrastructural, extension-related, economic
and socio-cultural. The study concluded that undulated topography and gravelly soil equipped with
poor fertility, dearth of short duration varieties of rice suitable for up and mid land and dearth of less
water requiring varieties, lack of soil testing facility, inadequate technical know-how among farmers
about improved practices, high cost of inputs and free grazing of cattle were experienced to be important
constraints which hampered the adoption of improved rapeseed-mustard production technologies.
Key Words: Adoption, Constraints, Farmers, Technologies, Tribal.

INTRODUCTION and sunflower account for a major chunk of the

India being the land of multitudinous output. In Jharkhand, rapeseed and mustard are
culture and people is a repository of about 645 produced mainly under rainfed and resource-scarce
tribal communities. Among all states and union conditions. The contribution of rapeseed-mustard
territories, Jharkhand ranks 6th in tribal population cultivation to the livelihood security of the small
(Anon, 2001). The tribal population of Jharkhand and marginal tribal farmers is substantial in the state.
is 7.08 million constituting 26.30 per cent of the The tribal farmers grow this crop by use of their
total population of the state. Oilseed crops play age-old practices mainly as a mixed corp. There are
second important role in Jharkhand agricultural numerous constraints that lead to low-adoption of
economy next to food grains in terms of area and improved practices of rapeseed-mustard. Keeping
production. Rapeseed-mustard, soybean, groundnut in view the above facts, the present study was
Corresponding Author’s Email: smritisingh1199@gmail.com
Ph.D Scholar, Department of Agricultural Communication, Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar, Uttara-
khand.
Ph.D Scholar, Department of Agricultural Extension, Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad, Uttar
Pradesh.
Former Director Extension Education, Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi

46 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 46-50

 Singh et al
conducted to find out the major constraints which by very low and unpredicted rainfall during winter
hinder the adoption of recommended package of months (18%) and low water holding capacity
practices of rapeseed-mustard. of soil (7%) in adoption of improved rapeseed-
mustard production technologies. Since the area
MATERIALS AND METHODS comes under Chotanagpur plateau, it has undulated
The study was conducted in purposively selected topography and there is problem of low water
Ranchi district of Jharkhand, during the year 2016- holding capacity. Fertility status of soil is poor due
17, as the rapeseed-mustard production technologies to heavy erosion in upland soils.
were popularized in the villages of selected blocks of Technological constraints
the district under BAU-DRMR project and also the
easy accessibility for a student researcher. In order It was noticed that a very few varieties suitable
to select the villages two blocks, namely Ormanjhi for late sown conditions and less water requiring
and Nagri were purposively selected. Two villages was perceived as the most important technological
from each of two blocks were selected randomly. impediment in adoption of improved rapeseed-
Likewise from all four villages namely, Rukka mustard production technologies (38%) followed
and Getalsud in Ormajhi block and Panchdiha by high fertilizer requirement by HYVs (35%),
and Chipra in Nagri block, a sample of 100 tribal dearth of short duration varieties of rice suitable for
respondents was selected for data collection. The up and mid land to have next crop of mustard (22%),
constraints were conceptualized as impediments low efficacy of plant protection chemicals (14%)
or obstacles faced in adopting the recommended were also perceived as important technological
package of practices of rapeseed-mustard as per constraints in the way of adoption of improved
the guidelines of BAU-DRMR project. In order to rapeseed-mustard production technologies. In the
measure the constraints, a schedule was developed adopted villages farmers usually take rapeseed-
by enlisting all the possible constraints being were mustard after harvesting of long duration rice
faced by the farmers in adoption of recommended varieties, which hinders timely sowing of rapeseed-
package of practices of Rapeseed-Mustard. The mustard.
constraints were grouped into six categories, namely, Infrastructural constraints
ecological, technological, extension-related, Majority of the respondents perceived lack
infrastructural, economic and socio-cultural. Each of soil testing facility as the most important
category was further divided into several relevant infrastructural constraint in adoption of improved
items. The total score obtained by the respondents rapeseed-mustard production technologies,
for each statement was calculated and percentage followed by unavailability of quality inputs at proper
was obtained. On the basis of percentage, rank was time and price (39%), lack of timely availability of
assigned to different items under various categories institutional credit facility (33%), lack of adequate
groups of constraints. Thereafter, data were irrigation facility (26%) and lack of improved
tabulated, analyzed and inferences were drawn in agricultural implements and tools were assigned
light of the objective. 2nd , 3rd, 4th and 5th rank respectively.
These findings were similar to those of Singh
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
et al (2013) who found that constraints faced by
Ecological constraints tribal respondents were because of agricultural
The data (Table 1) indicated that the respondents department did not provide proper guidance
were confronted with undulated topography, gravelly when required and much difficulty in purchasing
soil equipped with poor fertility was perceived as agricultural inputs from market and cooperative
the most important ecological constraint followed

47 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 46-50

 Constraints Perceived by Tribal Farmers
Table 1. Different constraints perceived by the respondents in adoption of improved rapeseed-
mustard production technologies. N=100
Sr . No. Constraint Percentage Rank
A Ecological constraints
1. Undulated topography, gravelly soil equipped with poor fertility 89 I
2. Very low and unpredicted rainfall during winter months 18 II
3. Low water holding capacity of soil 7 III
B Technological constraints
4. A very few varieties suitable for late sown conditions and dearth of less 38 I
water requiring varieties
5. High fertilizer requirement by HYVs 35 II
6. Dearth of short duration varieties of rice suitable for up and mid land 22 III

7. Low efficacy of plant protection chemicals 14 IV

C Infrastructural constraints
8. Lack of soil testing facility 58 I
9. Unavailability of quality inputs at proper time and price 39 II
10. Lack of timely availability of institutional credit facility 33 III
11. Lack of adequate irrigation facility 26 IV
12. Lack of improved agricultural implements and tools 15 V
D Extension-related
13. Inadequate technical know-how about improved practices 57 I
14. Inadequate advice/guidance and low credibility of the change agents 31 II

15. Lack of adequate and updated information 23 III

16. Unconvincing results of demonstrations 15 IV

E Economical constraints
17. High cost of inputs 56 I
18. Lack of capital 30 II
19. Low price of the produce 22 III
F Socio-cultural constraints
20. Free grazing of cattle during winter season 72 I
21. Oil is less used in local people’s food habit 29 II
22. Superstitions and taboos in the way of adoption of new technologies 19 III
23. Lack of innovativeness among farmers 11 IV

48 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 46-50

 Singh et al
societies, credit facilities and service provided by socio-cultural constraint in adoption of improved
bank was not timely and there had been a tendency rapeseed-mustard production technologies followed
of delay in credit disbursals, insufficient supply of by less use of oil in the local people’s food habit,
electricity for cultivation of crop, etc. superstitions and taboos in the way of adoption of
new technologies and lack of innovativeness among
Extension-related constraints farmers were perceived as second, third and fourth
All the listed extension-related constraints were important socio-cultural impediments, respectively
faced by the respondents. Inadequate technical in adoption of rapeseed-mustard production
know-how about improved practices (57%) was technologies..
assigned the first rank among extension-related
constraints followed by inadequate advice/guidance CONCLUSION
and low credibility of the change agents (31%) The findings lead to conclude that a number
due to their irregular visit, lack of adequate and of constraints were found to be hindering the
up dated information (23%) due to poor coverage adoption of improved rapeseed-mustard production
of mass media of communication, unconvincing technologies by the farmers. Undulated topography,
results of demonstrations (15%) due to poorly gravelly soil equipped with poor fertility, dearth of
organized demonstrations, The prime reason of short duration varieties of rice suitable for up and
facing these constraints was due to large number of mid land and dearth of less water requiring varieties,
vacant positions (more than 50%) of grassroot level lack of soil testing facility, inadequate technical
extension workers in agriculture department and know-how about improved practices, high cost of
technical staff working in the field is not available inputs and free grazing of cattle were perceived
when needed and is not devoted to the professional to be important constraints which hampered the
work. adoption of improved rapeseed-mustard production
Economic constraints technologies.
Majority of the respondents were confronted Therefore, it is suggested to intensify the
with the constraint of lack of capital and as such it was
extension efforts to increase the knowledge level
rated as the most important constraint in adoption of
and adoption of recommended rapeseed-mustard
improved rapeseed-mustard technologies followed technologies. Apart from this, credit facility should
by high cost of inputs and low price of the produce.be provided at proper time and most required
These findings were in accordance with Singh inputs should be supplied at proper time. There
et al (2013) who reported that high cost of inputs, is an inevitable need to focus the technological
lack of capital and poor purchasing power of the constraints, particularly to evolve suitable
farmers were the major constraints in adoption technologies to overcome the limitations.
of recommended technologies for various crops.
Majority of tribal farmers are small and marginal REFERENCES
Asiwal B L , Singh S and Sharma N K (2013). Adoption
with scattered and fragmented land holdings and
gap and constraints in adoption of improved mustard
they come under below poverty line so thus find production technology in semi arid region of Rajasthan.
it difficult to purchase HYVs of seed and other Indian J Ext Edu & Rural Dev 21:105-108.
technologically advanced inputs Daipuria O P, Badodiya S K, Tambi S B,  Garg S K (2010).
Constraints experienced by tribal farmers in adoption of
Socio-cultural constraints improved cotton production technology. Res on Crops 11
A perusal of Table 1 made it clear that free (1):195-197.
grazing of cattle during winter season was the major

49 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 46-50

 Constraints Perceived by Tribal Farmers
Devi U and Sabharwal K (2014). Communication source Singh B and Chauhan T R (2012). Constraints in adoption
utilization pattern and constraints faced by farm women in of mungbean production technology. Annals Arid Zone
getting technical information about chickpea cultivation. 51(2):115-121.
J Krishi Vigyan 2(2):14-18. Singh N, Lal H and Narolia G P (2013). Constraints in adoption
Krishnamurthy A T, Meti S K, Sathish H S and Nagesh (2016). of recommended technology of mustard cultivation. Agri
Constraints perceived and suggestions offered by the Update 8(4):616-619.
farmers in adoption of improved production technologies Singh B D (2018). Constraints and shifting of area of chickpea
of tomato. Int J Sci and Nature 7 (1):112-115. cultivation in Tal area of Patna district in Bihar. J Krishi
Patodiya R S and Sharma S K (2014). Constraints in adoption Vigyan 6(2):17-21.
of improved gram production technology in Rajasthan.
Received on 23/02/2019 Accepted on 20/03/2019
Indian J Ext Edu Rural Dev 22:180-184.
Singh P, Singh K and Lakhera J P (2009&2010).Constraints
in rapeseed and mustard cultivation in respect of soil
technology among small farmers. Rajasthan J Ext Edu
17&18:121-123

50 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 46-50

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 51-56 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00010.2

Critical Analysis of Farmers’ Footfall at Krishi Vigyan Kendra

for Assessment of Technological Problems
Gurdeep Singh, Pritpal Singh, GPS Sodhi and Gurmeet Singh Dhillon
Punjab Agricultural University, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Khokhar Khurd, Mansa 151 505 (Punjab)

ABSTRACT
Identifying location specific problems of the farmers is of utmost importance. A new approach involving
a critical and quantitative analyses of farmers’ footfall at Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) was applied for
assessing the technological problems of the farmers in south-western Punjab. Of the total farmers’ footfall
for scientific advisory, 11.3 per cent of farmers approached for weed management and ~21.9 per cent
for different nutrient management problems. Farmers’ footfall for insect-pest and disease management
was highest and comprised ~56.5 per cent of total annual footfall for scientific advisory. About 10.7 per
cent total footfall for scientific advisory was related to the infestation of whitefly in Bt-Cotton only. For
disease/physiological disorder (para-wilt in Bt-cotton and sheath blight in rice) management farmers’
footfall was mainly observed during July to October. Annually ~10 farmers (0.9% of total footfall for
scientific advisory) approach KVK for phyto-toxicity/ injury induced on plants due to faulty spray practice.
Key Words: Advisory, Farmers’ footfall, Insect-pest, Management, Nutrient, Weed management.

INTRODUCTION discussions, field observations and analysis of

Identification of location specific technological
problems to assess training needs help organizations
to accomplish their goals and objectives in efficient
and effective manner. Insect-pest attack, disease
infestation, nutrient deficiencies, weed infestation
and chemical toxicity are major causes for yield
decline. Even at farms having similar production
situations, yield variation is due to difference
in management practices followed (Singh et al,
2017). Assessment of region specific problems help
identifying training needs and enables accurate
assessment of the level of existing situation
based on opinion of individuals. Training bridges
technological gap through scientific knowledge and
skills of trainees by encouraging them to build and
enhance their capabilities (Lynton and Pareek, 1990).
For an effective and efficient execution of trainings,
each training program must be started after a needs
assessment (Davis et al, 2007). Information for
training need assessment and problem identification
is generally gathered through surveys, individual
interviews/counseling’s, questionnaires, group
Corresponding Author’s Email: gurdeepsingh@pau.edu
existing secondary data (Pholonngoe and Richard,
1995). In this study, a different method of farmers’
footfall at Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) was used
as a diagnostic tool to prioritize technological
problems faced by farmers of the district. Since
KVKs are farmers’ training institutes at district
level, problem diagnosis and prioritization thereof
is crucial for preparing action plan of short-,
vocational- and in-service trainings in view existing
problems in agriculture. The present study was
therefore, conducted to use the existing long-term
database of farmers’ footfall at KVKs for assessment
of technological problems and training needs of
farming community, and for effective execution of
training plan to disseminate the innovative scientific
knowledge.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Details of study area
Mansa district is the south-western parts of
Punjab (India) and this area is usually arid and
sub-tropical with hot and dry summers and cold

51 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 51-56

 Singh et al
winters. The district extends between longitudes of
29º 59´ and latitude of 75º 23´ (212 m above mean
sea level) and having a total geographical area of
~2.2 lakh ha. Mansa district ranges in agro-eco-
sub-region (AES)-1, AES-2 and AES-3. Soils in the
region are light textured (sandy loam to loamy sand
texture) with low soil organic carbon. Tube-well
and canal water are the main source of irrigation as
annual rainfall ranges between 300-450 mm. There
has been a problem of sodicity with pH>8.5 (Singh
et al, 2017). The rainfall (~80-85%) is mainly
received during monsoon season from mid of July
to end of September month.
Crops and cropping systems
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and mustard
are the main rabi season crops while Bt-Cotton
(Gossypium hirsutum L.) and rice (Oryza sativa L.)
are the main summer season crops. Gram, barley,
summer moong and guar are other minor crops in
the district.
Data collection and analysis
The data used in the present study pertains to
five years period from 2014-2018. Data on farmer’s
visit to KVK were recorded in visitor register
maintained at KVK office. The data on date of
visit, reason for visit and address of the visiting
farmer was used for identification of problems and
assessment of training needs. Data analysis was
done in Microsoft Excel spread sheets. Data were
analyzed month-wise and problem-wise to identify
major problems or training needs at peak period of
problem.
cent were related to insect-pest attack, followed by
21.9 per cent to nutrient deficiency, 15.9 per cent to
diseases, 11.3 per cent to weeds and 9.3 per cent to
physiological disorder (Table 1).
Weeds related technological problems
Footfalls related to weeds problem constituted
11.3 per cent of total crop related problems. Highest
proportion of farmers’ footfall (21.8%) occurred in
the months of December-January (Table 1), and
was concerned to management of Phalaris minor in
wheat. During these months, farmers approached for
their grass and broad leaf weeds related problems in
wheat. Of the total annual footfall for weed related
problems, ~49 per cent footfall was related to
Phalaris minor and Chenopodium album in wheat
alone (Table 2). In rice, Cyperus rotundus(deela)
plus motha were the major weeds in the area, for
which farmer’s footfall comprised 12.9 per cent of
total footfall for weed related problems. In cotton,
Trianthem amonogyna (itsit) and Dactyloctenium
aegyptiacum (madhana/makra) were major weeds

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Distribution pattern of farmers’ footfall for
scientific advisory services
Farmers’ footfall was bifurcated among six
major advisory services viz. weed management,
nutrient management, insect management, disease
management, chemical toxicity and physiological
disorders. Analysis showed that of the total
agriculture associated technical problems, 40.5 per
Figure 1. Nutrient deficiency wise distribution (%
of total nutrient management related problems) of
farmers’ footfall in field, fruit and vegetable crops
[distribution is based on 5 years (2014-2018) long-
term average]

52 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 51-56

 Critical Analysis of Farmers’ Footfall at Krishi Vigyan Kendra
that together comprised ~17 per cent of total weed
related footfall. Farmer’s footfall for weed related
problems in rice and cotton was confined mainly in
the month of June.
Insect-pests and physiological disorders in
kharif season crops
Farmers’ footfall for insect-pest management
was highest between second fortnight of July and
first fortnight of August and comprised ~40.5 per
cent of total annual footfall related to scientific
advisory (Table 1). and physiological disorder in
Bt cotton.assid (2.9%), thrips (2.0%) and CuCLD
(1.9%) were the other major insect pest, diseasesOf
the total footfall for insect-pest and physiological
disorders related problems, 22.9 per cent were
related to Bt-Cotton and 21.8 per cent to rice (Table
3). Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) was major insect in
cotton and account for 46.6 per cent total footfall
related to insect-pest related footfall during the
kharif season and 10.7 per cent of total scientific
advisory related footfall during the season. A
considerable loss in seed cotton yield due to severe
whitefly infestation and even complete crop failure
at some fields has been observed in the study area
during 2015 and 2016. Farmer’s footfall for para-
wilt related problem in Bt-cotton comprised 14.3 per
cent of total insect-pest and physiological disorders
related problems in cotton and 3.3 per cent of
total scientific advisory related footfall. Similarly,
farmer’s footfall for jassid (Amrasca biguttula),
thrips (Thrips tabaci) and leaf curl disease (LCV)
comprised 2.9, 2.0 and 1.9 per cent of total insect-
pest related problems, respectively.
Near about 1/5th farmer’s footfall (17.6
%) were related to problem of plant hoppers
(Nilaparvata lugens) in rice, that constitute 3.8
per cent of total footfall for scientific advisory
related problems. Footfall related to problem of
leaf folder (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis) and stem
borer (Scirpophaga incertulas) constituted 14.2
and 11.7 per cent of total rice related insect-pest
and physiological disorders related problems,
respectively. Sheath blight and false smut were
53 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 51-56
major disease problem in rice, for which total
footfall comprised 2.0 and 1.7 per cent of total
footfall for scientific advisory related problems.
Farmer’s footfall for foot rot and neck blast, major
diseases of basmati comprised 1.3 and 0.9 per cent
of total scientific advisory related footfall. Footfall
related to poor grain filling and discoloration of
panicle attributed to physiological problems of
rice, constituted 1.4 and 1.2 per cent, respectively
of the total footfall for scientific advisory related
problems in kharif season.
Rabi season crops
Table 4 illustrates that of the total rabi season
footfall related to insect-pest and physiological
disorders related problems, 22.9 in kharif season
footfall was related to pink stem borer (Sesamia
inference) attack in wheat. Aphid (Aphis gossypii)
was the second major insect-pest, accounting for
15.6 in total rabi season footfall related to insect-
pest and physiological disorders related problems.
About 14.6 per cent footfall was related to aphid
(Aphis gossypii) attack in mustard crop. For rodent
attack related problem in wheat, proportion of
farmer’s approached KVK was 8.3 per cent of total
rabi season footfall. Footfall related to yellow rust in
wheat and white rust in mustard comprised 11.5 per
cent of total insect-pest and physiological disorders
related problems. As a share of total footfall for
scientific advisory related problems, footfall for
insect-pest related problems in rabi crops was 8.8
per cent.
Nutrient management
About 21.9 per cent of total footfall related to
scientific advisory related problems occurred for
different nutrient management related problems
(Table 1). Highest farmers’ footfall for different
nutrient management problems occurred in the
month of June and December. It could be ascribed
to deficiency of iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) in rice
nursery and transplanted crop in June. In the study
region, soils under cotton-wheat cropping system
are light in texture, compared with soils under
rice-wheat cropping system. In light textured,
 Singh et al
Table 1. Month-wise distribution of farmers’ footfall for different scientific advisory services.
Month Scientific advisory
Weed Nutrient Insect-pest Disease Chemical Physiological
management management management management toxicity disorders
January 21 (12.3) ¶ 32 (18.7) 9 (5.3) 3 (1.8) 1 (0.6) 3 (1.8)
February 6 (3.3) 28 (15.5) 31 (17.1) 20 (11.0) 1 (0.6) 6 (3.3)
March 3 (1.3) 10 (4.5) 32 (14.3) 9 (4.0) -- 10 (4.5)
April 4 (1.3) 1 (0.3) 19 (6.0) 18 (5.7) -- 11 (3.5)
May 8 (1.3) 16 (2.6) 28 (4.5) 2 (0.3) -- 14 (2.2)
June 29 (7.6) 54 (14.1) 59 (15.4) 9 (2.3) 1 (0.3) 5 (1.3)
July 15 (5.6) 25 (9.3) 79 (29.3) 27 (10.0) 4 (1.5) 3 (1.1)
August 6 (2.5) 12 (5.1) 76 (32.2) 37 (15.7) 1 (0.4) 13 (5.5)
September 1(0.5) -- 47 (21.3) 18 (8.1) 1 (0.5) 9 (4.1)
October 1 (0.4) -- 39 (15.8) 28 (11.3) -- 8 (3.2)
November 4 (1.3) 24 (8.1) 7 (2.3) 3 (1.0) -- 16 (5.4)
December 26 (9.5) 38 (13.8) 18 (6.5) 1 (0.4) 1 (0.4) 4 (1.5)
Annual 124 240 444 175 10 102
¶
Values in the parentheses indicate percent of total farmers’ footfall at Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Mansa

Table 2. Farmer’s annual footfall for weed management related problems in major field crops.
Weeds Footfall Per cent of total Per cent of total footfall for
(No.) weed related footfall scientific advisory
Phalaris minor 42 33.9 3.8
Chenopodium album 19 15.3 1.7
Trianthem partulacastrum 12 9.7 1.1
Poa annua 2 1.6 0.2
Fumari aparviflora 4 3.2 0.4
Cyperus rotundus 16 12.9 1.5
Rumex spp 8 6.5 0.7
Eleusine aegypticum 5 4.0 0.5
Arachne racemosa 9 7.3 0.8
Other 7 5.6 0.6
Total 124 - 11.3
calcareous and are low organic carbon soils the total farmer’s footfall for nutrient management
micro-nutrients particularly Fe and Zn deficiency related problems, highest footfall occurred for
is adversely affecting the crop production in the Manganese (Mn, 50.8%) deficiency in rabi (wheat
study area (Singh et al, 2017). In kharif 2017 and and barseem), followed by iron (Fe, 30.4%) in rice,
2018, several farmers faced moderate to severe Fe groundnut, fodder maize and fruit crops, and the
deficiency in rice nursery. Figure 1 illustrates that of lowest for zinc (Zn, 18.8%).

54 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 51-56

 Critical Analysis of Farmers’ Footfall at Krishi Vigyan Kendra
Table 3. Footfall for insect-pest and physiological disorders problems in major kharif crops.
Paddy/basmati Footfall Per cent of Per cent Bt-Cotton Footfalls Per cent of Per cent
(No.) total insect- of total (No.) total insect- of total
pest related footfall for pest related footfall for
to kharif scientific to kharif scientific
crops advisory crops advisory
Plant hoppers 42 17.6 3.8 Whitefly 117 46.6 10.7
Leaf folder 34 14.2 3.1 Para-wilt 36 14.3 3.3
Stem borer 28 11.7 2.6 Jassid 32 12.7 2.9
Sheath blight 22 9.2 2.0 Thrips 22 8.8 2.0
False smut 19 7.9 1.7 CLCuV 21 8.4 1.9
Burning of leaf 15 6.3 1.4 BLB 7 2.8 0.6
tips
Problem in grain 15 6.3 1.4 Mealy bug 6 2.4 0.5
filling
Foot rot 14 5.9 1.3 Others 10 4.0 0.9
Discoloration of 13 5.4 1.2
panicles
Termite 12 5.0 1.1
Neck blast 10 4.2 0.9
Others 15 6.3 1.4
Total 239 100.0 21.8 Total 251 - 22.9

Table 4. Footfall for insect-pest and physiological disorders related problems in rabi crops.
Wheat and mustard Footfall (No.) Per cent of total insect- Per cent of total footfall
pest related to rabi crops for scientific advisory
Pink stem borer in wheat 22 22.9 2.0
Aphid in wheat 15 15.6 1.4
Aphid in mustard 14 14.6 1.3
Termite in wheat 11 11.5 1.0
Rodent problem in wheat 8 8.3 0.7
Yellow rust in wheat 6 6.3 0.5
White rust in raya mustard 5 5.2 0.5
Hairy caterpillar in mustard 4 4.2 0.4
Others 11 11.5 1.0
Total 96 - 8.8
Table 5. Footfalls related to problems in horticulture and other important crops of Mansa district.
Footfall related to Footfall (No.) Per cent of total footfall for scientific advisory
Problems in fruits and vegetable crops 66 6.0
Problems in other important crops 53 4.8
Problems with honey bees 16 1.5

55 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 51-56

 Singh et al
In December, ~13.8 per cent of total footfall
was ascribed to severe Mn deficiency in wheat and
barseem (Table 1). Manganese deficiency in wheat
has been observed immediately after first irrigation
to wheat. In wheat sown on light textured soils, Mn
deficiency has also been observed at ear emergence
stage in end February to first week of March. This
has been the probable reason for high farmers’
footfall in January (18.7% of total footfall) and
in February (15.5% of total footfall). Of the total
average farmers’ footfall for scientific advisory
related to nutrient management problems, 50.8 per
cent was associated to Mn deficiency, followed by Fe
(30.4%) and the lowest for Zn (18.8%) (Figure 5).In
light textured soils, Mn deficiency is encountered in
both the timely and late sown wheat varieties under
irrigated and rainfed, resulting in yield loss (Singh
et al, 2017 and 2018). In the study region, Singh et
al (2017) reported that in Mn deficient soils, foliar
application of manganese sulphate (MnSO4.7 H2O)
significantly (p<0.05) increase in wheat grain yield
compared with control (no-Mn application).
Horticulture and other crops
Farmers’ footfall for different problems (insect-
pest, diseases and physiological disorders) in fruits,
vegetables and other important crops in Mansa
district constituted 6.0 per cent of total footfall
for scientific advisory related problems (Table 5).
About 4.8 per cent footfall was related to problems
in other important crops of the area viz. summer
moong, fodder crops etc. Singh and Sharma (2017)
also studied problem of varroa mite, robbing and
colony collapse in honey bees. Kaur (2016) has
reported that farmer’s approach for problems related
to insect-pest, diseases and nutrient deficiency
related problems in fruits and vegetable crops.
56 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 51-56
CONCLUSION
Assessment of technological problems indicates
the need of strengthening training component
particularly focused on insect-pest and disease and
nutrient management and weed management. In
addition, short-duration training courses focused on
weed management, amelioration of micro-nutrients
(Fe, Zn and Mn) deficiency, insect-pests especially
whitefly in Bt-Cotton and disease management
(sheath blight, foot rot, neck blast) needs to
organized for enhancing knowledge of the farmers.
Trainings on balanced and integrated nutrient
management should be planned for efficient nutrient
management in view of poor quality irrigation water
and salt affected soils.
REFERENCES
Davis K, Ekboir J, Mekasha W, Ochieng C, Spielman D,
Zerfu E (2007). Strengthening agricultural education
and training in Sub-Saharan Africa from an Innovations
Systems Perspective. Discussion Paper 00736.
Washington: IFRPI.
Kaur G, Singh G, Sharam M, Singh G and Manan J (2016).
Use of plant disease diagnostic laboratory in identifying
insect pests and diseases of fruits and vegetable crops. J
Krishi Vigyan 5 (1) 107-113
Pholonngoe M Band Richard L (1995). Training manual
for non formal and adult education trainers. Extension
Educator, Maseru: Lesotho Association of NFP.
Singh G and Sharma M(2017).Diagnosis and remedial
measures of common technological problems in bee
keeping. J Krishi Vigyan 5 (2):27-31
Singh G, Singh P and Sodhi G P S (2017).Assessment and
analysis of agriculture technology adoption and yield
gaps in wheat production in sub-tropical Punjab. Indian J
Ext Edu 53 (1):70-77.
Singh G, Singh P and Sodhi G P S ( 2018). Status of crop
management practices for rice and basmati cultivation
in South-Western Punjab. J Community Mobilization
Sustain Dev 13 (3), 457-462.
Received on 15/02/2019 Accepted on 30/03/2019
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 57-61 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00046.1

Different Modes of Information Sharing for Cashew Nut

Production Technologies in Ariyalur District of Tamil Nadu
A Rajkala, G Alagukannan, Y Rajajoslin and S Shobana
ICAR Krishi Vigyan Kendra (CREED)
Ariyalur - 612 902 (TamilNadu)

ABSTRACT
Ariyalur is the second largest district of Tamil Nadu in terms of cashew nut area and production. The level
of technological know – how and adoption of advanced technologies in cashew nut cultivation and value
addition is low resulting in low productivity (520 kg/ha) of cashew nut in the district in comparison to
state productivity (850 kg/ha). To enhance the knowledge of farmers different technology dissemination
approaches has been used. Present study has been conducted to assess the effectiveness of different technology
delivery mechanisms viz., distribution of literatures, delivering SMS and voice messages. Three groups of
25 farmers each were selected to deliver message using different message delivery mechanisms. Pre test and
post test were conducted to assess the gain in knowledge and impact on adoption of different technologies.
Pre test revealed that in all the three groups only 16% of the farmers were having high level of knowledge,
while the post test results indicated that information sharing through mobile text message in time to time
was effective as 64% of the farmers acquired high level of knowledge. Similarly, high level of adoption by
72% of the respondent was observed for the technology of spraying of panchagavya. Technology delivery
through mobile text message was adjudged as good ICT mode to transfer technologies to the farmers.
Key Words: Adoption, Cashew nut, Knowledge level, Technology.

INTRODUCTION leading to low productivity (520kg/ha). Delivery of

Cashew nut is being cultivated by around 52
thousand farmers on an area of 29,000 ha in Ariyalur.
The cultivation of cashew nut is practiced mainly
as rainfed crop. Most of the farmers use traditional
varieties of cashew nut. Farmers get low yield due
to maintenance of sub optimal plant population,
lack of awareness regarding pruning practices,
attack of various insect pest viz; incidence of tea
mosquito bug, cashew stem and root borer and
lack of moisture conservation measures etc. Attack
of anthracnose and mildew during rainy season
causes flowering abortion and fruit drop thus low
yields. More than eighty percent of the cashew nut
growing farmers are small and marginal and their
knowledge in scientific cashew cultivation practices
is low to medium only. Adoption level of different
cashew nut production technologies is also low
appropriate information can play an important role
including technology delivery, improved access
to advice, research, markets, credit, infrastructure,
farmer organization development and business
development services (Sulaiman, 2003).
The farmers usually dependent on their large
social network and took advice from fellow farmers’
relatives or commission agents, pesticide dealers and
friends (Sharma et al, 2012). The access to technical
information from research systems is usually slow
and delayed. Earlier approaches of technology
dissemination through viz., trainings, method
and result demonstration are now supplemented
by information and communication technologies
(ICT). Now, ICT as mobiles and computers provide
timely, cost effective and relevant information
leading to changing agricultural scenario. As the

Corresponding Author’s Email: gakannan@rediffmail.com

57 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 57-61

 Rajkala et al
technological advances emerges in the arena of
ICT, it is imperative to study the effectiveness of
different delivery mechanisms. Hence the Krishi
Vigyan Kendra, Ariyalur studied during the year
2017-18 the effectiveness of different modes of
information delivery pertaining to cashew nut
cultivation.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted in Ponparappi village
of Sendurai block of Ariylur district. Seventy
five cashew nut growing farmers were randomly
selected and they were formed into three matching
groups (25 members in each group) in terms of age,
education, land holding, knowledge and adoption
of cashew nut production technologies. Based
on the problems faced by farmers with respect
to cashew nut production, information related to
seven cashew nut production technologies were
selected to disseminate through three different
extension modes. The seven different technologies
selected were pruning, soil and water conservation,
application of manure and fertilizers, spraying
of panchagavya, control of tea mosquito bug,
management of stem borer and value addition. Pre-
test was administered to study the knowledge level
and adoption status vis-a-vis cashew nut production.
The information regarding selected cashew nut
production technologies was delivered through
three different mode of communication.
Three technological options were tried
to deliver information regarding cashew nut
production technologies as T1= information
delivery through printed literature, T2= through
mobile SMS and T3= through voice message. First
group was provided with information on cashew
nut production technologies through published
literature, second group through mobile SMS and
third group through voice message. The content of
the message was same for three different modes of
information sharing.
Pre-test and post-test were administered for
these groups to identify the knowledge level before
58 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 57-61
and after information sharing using three different
modes. The scores gained in knowledge test were
categorised as low (1-5 mark), medium (6-10 mark)
and high (11-15 mark). Similarly, adoption level
of cashew nut production technologies was also
studied for three groups of farmers.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
It was (Table 1) that majority farmers (76%)
of Group I where information was shared using
extension literature viz; booklets, folders or
pamphlets were having low level of knowledge
(1-5 score) prior to treatment. This was followed
by medium level (6-10 score) of knowledge (16%)
and high level (11-15 score) of knowledge (8%).
After the treatment (sharing of information using
extension literature), the percentage of farmers in
high knowledge level category increased to 20.0.
Similarly, in case of Group III (information sharing
though voice message) the percentage of farmers
with high knowledge level increased from 16.0 to
36.0 percent.
The data ( Table 1) showed that maximum gain
in knowledge was in case of mobile text message
(Group II). The numbers of farmers having high
knowledge level with knowledge score between
11-15 were 16.0 per cent before the information
sharing using mobile text message, and it increased
by four times to 64.0 per cent after the dissemination
of information trough mobile text message. In case
of voice message percentage of farmers with high
knowledge level increased from four per cent to
36.0 per cent. The minimum change was observed
in case of extension literature where eight percent
of farmers were in high knowledge level category
before the information sharing and increased to 20.0
per cent after treatment (i.e. information sharing
via extension literature). The advantage of mobile
text message over other extension modes may be
due to timeliness, completeness and conciseness
of the message content. Sandhu et al (2012) also
reported that farmers found mobile text message
as useful, comprehensible and timely. The results
indicate that the gain in knowledge is prominent
 Different Modes of Information Sharing
Table 1. Effect of different modes of information sharing on knowledge gain in cashew nut production
technologies.
Knowledge Information sharing modes
level
Extension literature Mobile text message Voice message
Group-I (n1=25) Group-II (n2=25) Group-III (n3=25)
Before After Before After Before After
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
Low 19 76 12 48 17 68 3 12 17 68 8 32
(1-5)
Medium 4 16 8 32 4 16 6 24 4 16 8 32
(6-10)
High 2 8 5 20 4 16 16 64 4 16 9 36
(11-15)

among the responding farmers irrespective of the
technology delivery mechanisms taken for this
study. However, the knowledge gain was highest
in the case of farmers who received text messages
as 64 per cent of the farmers in this group showed
high level of knowledge and it was followed by 36
per cent in the case of voice messages.
Technology Adoption
The comparative analysis of different modes
of communication showed that adoption level of
recommended cashew nut production technologies
was maximum among farmers (GroupII) who
received information through text message. A
great majority of farmers (72%) of GroupII had
high adoption level of spraying of panchgavya,
followed by 64 per cent farmers with high adoption
level of application of fertilizers and manures,
management of stem borer (60%), pruning practices
(52%), control of mosquito bug (52%), soil and
water conservation practices (52%) and value
addition (8%) differential adoption of cashew nut
production technologies. Respondent from GroupII
also reported ease in preparing panchgavya. The
percentage of farmers who had high adoption level
of panchgavya in GroupI were 44 per cent and 32.0 the suitable technologies have to reach the farmers at
per cent cent in GroupIII.
The comparative analysis of different modes
of information sharing showed that GroupII (text
messages) scored highest in adoption percentage for
all the seven technologies of cashew nut production
and the averaged at 46.30 percent. It was followed
by distribution GroupI (44.5%) and voice messages
(36.0%). Badaye et al (2018) also reported that
the text messages delivered in local language were
highly understandable and could be conveyed
to other farmers to improve the knowledge and
adoption level. The high adoption percentage in
case of mobile text message was due to the fact that
the farmers could retain the text messages in their
mobiles and could re-read while practicing the same
in their field. The extension literatures distributed
to the clients were also useful but some farmers
misplaced the papers and thereby could not use
the information in actual field situation. Whereas
in case of recorded voice message the adoption
percentage was low (36%) as the farmers could not
recall the information properly when required and
thus faced difficulty in adopting the technologies.
CONCLUSION
To reduce the technology gap and extension gap
earliest. The findings of the study clearly indicated

59 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 57-61

 Rajkala et al
Table 2. Effect of different modes of information sharing on adoption level of cashew nut production
technologies .

Technology Category Information sharing mode

Extension literature Text message Voice message
(GroupI) (GroupII) (GroupIII)
No. % No. % No. %
Pruning practices L 4 16 1 4 3 12
M 8 32 11 44 12 48
H 13 52 13 52 10 40
Soil & water L 3 12 3 12 3 12
conservation M 10 40 9 36 12 48
H 12 48 13 52 10 40
Application of L 4 16 2 8 3 12
manures and M 12 48 7 28 12 48
fertilizers H 9 36 16 64 10 40
Spraying of L 6 24 2 8 3 12
panchgavya M 8 32 5 20 14 56
H 11 44 18 72 8 32
Control of tea L 4 16 5 20 2 8
mosquito bug M 8 32 9 36 12 48
H 11 44 13 52 11 44
Management of L 6 24 2 8 3 12
stem borer M 8 32 8 32 13 52
H 15 60 15 60 9 36
Value addition L 15 60 20 80 19 76
M 9 36 3 12 4 16
H 1 4 2 8 2 8
L=Low;M=Medium and H=High

Table 3. Adoption rate of cashew nut production technologies in different in different information
sharing modes.
Technology Adoption percentage of different cashew nut production technologies Average
delivery 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 adoption %
mechanism
Extension 52 40 36 72 44 60 8 44.5
literature
Text message 52 48 64 44 52 60 4 46.3
Voice message 40 52 40 32 44 36 8 36.0

60 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 57-61

 Different Modes of Information Sharing
that mobile text message were effective in bridging
the extension gap. Thus, information sharing
through mobile text message has the potential of
empowering the cashew nut growers of Ariyalur
district of Tamil Nadu by transfer of technologies
related to its production and value addition. The
conventional methods of extension and modes
of information sharing need to be supplemented
with recent communication technologies. Hence,
delivering the technologies through the recent ICTs
viz, mobile SMS would be of immense utility in this
context.
REFERENCES
Alagukannan G, Velmurugan P and Ashokkumar M (2015).
Impact of interventions on knowledge and adoption
of improved technologies in banana cultivation. J Krishi
Vigyan 3(2): 54 - 58.
61 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 57-61
Badaya A K, Gathiye G S Kirad, K S Chauhan, S S Rajpoot
and Swati Barche (2018). Assessment of mobile advisory
services for improving agricultural livelihood of farmers
in tribal dominated district of Madhya Pradesh. J Krishi
Vigyan 6( 2): 1 - 4
Sandhu H S, Singh G and Grover J (2012) Analysis of kisan
mobile advisory service in South Western Punjab. J
Krishi Vigyan 1(1):1 – 4.
Sharma M, Kaur G and Gill M S (2012) Use of information
and communication technology in agriculture by farmers
of district Kapurthala. J Krishi Vigyan 1( 1) : 83 - 89.
Sulaiman R (2003). Agricultural Extension Involvement of
private sector. National bank for Agricultural and rural
Development, Mumbai, India.
Received on 10/04/2019 Accepted on 22/04/2019
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 62-68 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00011.4

Doubling Farmers’ income in Himachal Pradesh:

Challenges and Solutions
Sanjay Kumar Sharma and B K Sharma
CSKHPKV, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Una, -174 303 (Himachal Pradesh)

ABSTRACT
Earlier efforts to augment production of cereals, pulses, fruits and vegetables were successful but
farmers never got remunerative price for their produce. They were forced to sell their produce in distress
because food processing units and cold storage structures were not established. Assured irrigation and
quality inputs like seed, pesticides were not available. Still, irrigation facilities are lacking and farmers
are dependent on timely rains only for successful farming. Many a times, unpredictable weather
damages crops leading to economic losses. Thus, efforts to improve economic conditions of farmers
must lay due emphasis on improving the basic infrastructure related to farming. Small and medium food
processing industries should be established to ensure proper disposal of produce at remunerative prices.
Key Words: Agriculture, Farmer, Food, Income, Industries, Infrastructure, Inputs, Processing.

INTRODUCTION in policies and plans of the past that focused on

People associated with non-agriculture food production but not on farmers’ prosperity.
vocations have made tremendous progress, The present study is an attempt to understand this
whereas, no perceptible change in pathetic and situation vis-à-vis Himachal Pradesh for suggesting
pitiable condition of farmers is visible despite suitable solutions.
many schemes initiated for their welfare. In the
past, technologies related to crop production and MATERIALS AND METHODS
protection were very crude and food production The data from relevant issues of Statistical
was just enough to feed the population. With the Outline of Himachal Pradesh published by the
passage of time, lot of improvement have taken Department of Economics and Statistics, Himachal
place in the production and protection technologies Pradesh and Annual Reports of the Department of
like development of high yielding varieties/hybrids, Agriculture, Co-operation and Farmers Welfare,
sowing/transplanting techniques, standardization Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare,
of nutrient requirements of crops, irrigation needs, Government of India have been used. Detailed
pests and disease management strategies etc. (IARI, enumeration of reasons responsible for continued
2014). Adoption of these technologies by farmers poor economic status of farmers is largely based
helped them realize higher yields and assured on the personal observations of authors. These
nutritional security (Lepcha et al, 2017). However, observations were recorded during interface with
despite increased production and productivity, poor farmers of different districts of the state for more
economic status of farmers remained unchanged. than twelve years. These interactions happened on
However, recently targeted efforts have been multiple occasions such as organizing awareness-
made to double their income by the year 2022. cum-training programmes, diagnostic visits to the
Policy makers and scientists have been entrusted farmers’ fields, celebrating field days, conducting
with herculean responsibility to strategise for the on farm trials (OFTs) and front line demonstrations
same. There is a need to analyze the discrepencies (FLDs). The suggested solutions are based on the
Corresponding Author’s Email: sanjayhpau@yahoo.com

62 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 62-68

 Sharma and Sharma
valuable farmers’ feedback as well as on authors’ Himachal Pradesh received 72 per cent less rainfall
understanding of these practical issues. than the normal (Anon, 2018). Consequently,
the sowing in rainfed areas was either delayed or
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION denied altogether. Many rain-fed regions in low
The Challanges hills and plains of Himachal Pradesh reported total
The agriculture sector in Himachal Pradesh failure of wheat crop in Rabi season of 2017-18.
lacks infrastructural facilities necessary for This adversely impacted overall production and net
successful farming. Infrastructural inadequacies are monetary returns to farmers.
real bottlenecks that block the economic progress Wild and stray animals
of farmers (Barah, 2010). In addition, many non- The menace of wild and stray animals has
technical challenges too are faced by farmers. The assumed monstrous proportions. Damage to crops
ambitious goal of doubling farmers’s income by by wild and stray animals is reported from many
2022 can be accomplished only by addressing these parts of the state. Stray animals largely comprise of
inadequacies and other non-technical issues. Some dry and unproductive cows, male calves and bulls;
of the practical challenges faced by the farmers are: whereas, the wild animals include blue bulls, bears
Weather vagaries wild boars, hares, leopards, porcupines etc. (Table
Weather plays an incredibly important role in 1).
agriculture. Suitable weather conditions particularly Small and marginal farmers find rearing of
rainfall and relative humidity favour successful unproductive cows and male calves unprofitable.
crop production as it permits timely agricultural Mechanized farming has rendered male calves
operations. Hence, moderate and timely rainfall useless for farmers. Earlier, these farmers provided
is desirable; excessive and untimely precipitation bullock service to fellow villagers for tilling and
leads to high humidity conducive for disease sowing. Now, the mechanization has eliminated this
development. Disease management, in turn, entails income generation activity too. Over exploitation
investment on pesticides which escalate production of forests for meeting fuelwood requirement is the
cost manifolds. Chakraborty and Acharya (2018) genesis of wild animal nuisance. It has depleted
also reported that deviation in weather parameters the forest resources and destroyed natural habitat
like temperature, rainfall pattern significantly of wild animals. Consequently, wild animals are
impacted farm production and farmer economy. forced to venture into cultivated crops.
Changed weather conditions in high altitudes
of Himachal Pradesh have paved the way for Monkey menace
occurrence of pests and diseases in these regions Monkey menace is far more serious threat to
too (Sharma, 2014). crop cultivation than the wild and stray animals
in many hilly states including Himachal Pradesh
Rain-fed farming (Sahoo and Mohnot, 2004). The losses caused by
Irrigation facility is essential for crop wild animal including monkeys are estimated to be
diversification which offers an opportunity for more than 500 crores rupees annually in Himachal
improving the economic well-being of farmers Pradesh (Chakravarty, 2015). In low and mid
(Sharma, 2011). However, more than 80 per hills of the state, monkey menace has compelled
cent of cultivable area in Himachal Pradesh is farmers to abandon farming. They deem it more
rainfed (Anon, 2017). Inadequate or no rainfall fit not to sow crops than to sow and suffer losses.
during any of the important stages of crop growth Consequently, large acreage remains fallow. Hence,
hampers crop health and the concomitant yield in monkey menace mars successful crop cultivation
these areas. During the Rabi season of 2017-18, and destroys economy of the farmer.
63 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 62-68
 Doubling Farmers’ income
Table 1. Major wild animals causing damage to cultivated crops and their area of activity in Himachal
Pradesh.
Sr. No. Stray/ wild animal Area of activity
1. Bulls and cows Plains, low and mid hill regions
2. Wild boar Low and mid hill regions
3. Sambhar and nilgai Nahan, Paonta and lower Shiwalik hills
4. Porcupine Low and mid hill regions
5. Black bear Kullu, Manali, Mandi, Chamba and some parts of Shimla
6. Brown bear Tribal regions, upper parts of Chamba and Rampur
7. Leopard Throughout the state except tribal regions
8. Snow leopard Tribal regions
9. Monkey Almost all urban and rural habitations

Lack of quality seed and praying mantis (Hierodula grandis) are rarely
Quality seed is the basic and essential input noticed predating in fields. This disturbed natural
for successful farming. Farmers primarily rely on balance accounts for frequent outbreaks of pests and
costly seeds of multinational companies (MNCs). diseases which forces farmers to spray frequently
More often than not, farmers get duped as these incurring monetary expenses.
costly hybrid seeds turn out to be substandard with
poor germination and susceptibility to prevalent Fragmentation of land holdings
pests and diseases. Sowing of such seeds leads to In Himachal Pradesh, 11 per cent of the total
poor crop stand and enhanced expenditure on plant geographical area is available for cultivation and
protection measures. about 88 per cent of farmers fall in the category
of small and marginal owning land less than two
Spurious agro-chemicals hectares. This accounts for about 54 per cent of the
Pests, diseases and weeds are managed by using cropped area (Table 2).
insecticides, fungicides, herbicides etc. However, The overall average size of land holdings
many spurious agro-chemicals are easily available is just 1.0 ha. Lack of non-farm employment
in market that often fails to keep the target pest or opportunities in countryside and liberal laws of
disease under check. The farmers feel tempted to inheritance promote subdivision of cultivable
purchase them because of their low price. Farmers land leading to preponderance of smaller land
are also deceived into buying these spurious holdings. Ever increasing population pressure on
chemicals as the information on containers reads the limited land resources also contribute towards land
same active ingredients with similar composition. fragmentation. As the land holding becomes smaller,
Resultant crop failures result in massive monetary net returns decline due to decreased production
losses to the farmers. and productivity of these tiny holdings. Therefore,
Non-judicious use of pesticides living standard of marginal and small farmers has
Injudicious pesticide use occurs when not improved.
recommended dose, proper stage of target pest Denying remunerative price for farm produce
and right time of spray is disregarded. It destroys More often than not, the farmer does not get due
the beneficial fauna viz. parasitoids, predators and price for his produce because the product pricing is
microorganisms. Nowadays, some earlier common a function of crop production. Bumper crop leads
predators like green lacewing (Chrysoperla carnea) to fall in price; whereas, reduced production leads
64 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 62-68
 Sharma and Sharma
Table 2. Distribution of land holdings in Himachal Pradesh (2011).
Category of Size of land No. of holdings in Area in lakh Average size of Change in area
farmers holdings (ha) lakh hectare holding (ha) over 1990-91
(% of total) (% of total) census* (%)
Marginal <1.0 6.70 (69.78) 2.73 (28.63) 0.41 +25.99
Small 1.0-2.0 1.75 (18.17) 2.44 (25.55) 1.39 +4.92
Semi Medium 2.0-4.0 0.85 (8.84) 2.31 (24.14) 2.72 -9.63
Medium 4.0-10.0 0.28 (2.87) 1.57 (16.39) 5.61 -22.91
Large >10.0 0.03 (0.34) 0.51 (5.29) 17.00 -40.78
Total 9.61 9.55 1.00 +15.23
Source: Directorate of Agriculture, Himachal Pradesh. *(+) and (-) signs indicate increase and decrease in
the area under different categories of farmers, respectively.
to prices skyrocketing. In either case, the farmer minimum temperatures are noticeable. Deforestation
suffers significant monetary losses. Also, farmers is the single most important human activity that
get fleeced at the hand of middlemen. Assured has greatly impacted weather conditions. Drought,
procurement by government agencies towards the deficient and untimely rainfall experienced
central food grain pool is very limited due to poor nowadays can be attributed to depletion of dense
storage facilities. Large stacks of food grains stored forest cover. Excessive exploitation of forests and
under open sky are a common sight in many states. large scale cutting of big trees for development
Besides causing wastage of precious food grains, projects has adversely impacted weather. Abrupt
it denies the farmers a remunerative price for their felling of a large number of big trees has destroyed
produce. Also, the absence of food processing a sizeable carbon sink contributing to rise in overall
industries force farmers to sell the bulk production average temperature. Efforts to replenish and restore
of perishable produce at much cheaper rates. Many the green cover in lieu of sacrificed trees are utterly
a times, farmers even throw their vegetables to lacking. Primarily, weather manipulation is beyond
protest against the low prices. Sometimes, cheaper the purview of human being. Still, afforestation
rates deter farmers to harvest their crops as the drives to enhance green cover can reverse the
labour cost far exceeds the sale proceeds. trend. Higher survival rate of saplings planted
by Department of Forest can contribute towards
COUNTERACTING THE CHALLENGES increasing green cover. Small check dams may
Addressing these challenges can help in be constructed in forest areas to store rain water.
improving the production, productivity and These small check dams will not only provide water
economic returns to farmers. It warrants the source for wild animals but also support the growth
government agencies and farmers to work in of natural vegetation.
tandem. Collective efforts can help in finding a
lasting solution to these problems. Some of the Decreasing dependence on rainfall
ways suggested to overcome these challenges have Various water sources like canals, wells,
been discussed below: tubewells, etc. should be judiciously utilized for
providing assured irrigation. A significant increase
Neutralizing weather vagaries in net area irrigated by wells and tube wells (54.11%)
Perceptible changes in weather parameters like and canal (21.66%) has been observed in Himachal
total rainfall, number of rainy days, maximum and Pradesh (Table 3). Comparatively lesser increase

65 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 62-68

 Doubling Farmers’ income
Table 3. Net irrigated area through different sources of irrigation in Himachal Pradesh
Net area irrigated (ha)*
Year Canals Tanks Wells and Others Total
tube wells sources
2000-01 3,463 263 14,172 1,05,758 1,23,656
2005-06 4,010 654 16,200 82,776 1,03,640
2010-11 4,213 33 21,840 83,854 1,09,940
Change as per base year 2000-01 +21.66 -87.45 +54.11 -20.71 -11.09
Source: Directorate of Land Records, Himachal Pradesh; *(+) and (-) signs indicate increase and decrease
in net irrigated area, respectively through a particular source.
in canal irrigation may be attributed to enormous on humans habitations and domestic animals. The
expenditures required to be incurred for creating a lasting solution to this problem lies in restoring
huge network of carrying canals and field channels. forest cover where these animals can find food and
Systematic and planned efforts in this direction can shelter in plenty. Plantation drives by Department
yield rich dividends. At the same time, other ways of Forests have not yielded desired results. As such,
of irrigation should be promoted and popularized. fencing forest area in a phased manner to prevent
In areas where canal irrigation is not feasible, check human activity is more practicable. Fencing of
dams may be constructed to harvest rain water. The agricultural fields may be encouraged among
harvested rain water may be power lifted to irrigate farming community. Instead of laying emphasis
fields. solely on solar fencing, barbed wire and link chain
In plain areas where ground water level is fencing may also be equally promoted. Whereas,
comparatively higher, irrigation through tube wells solar fencing can prove very effective in areas
may be promoted. Also, the traditional water bodies affected by monkey menace; barbed wire and link
(ponds) in the rural areas may be revived. Wherever chain fencing can be quite useful against stray and
existing, the feeder rivulets from the forest areas wild animals. Yet another viable solution could be
have been so disturbed by human habitations cultivation of crops like turmeric, ginger, elephant
that these ponds too remain unfilled even during foot yam etc. in low and mid hills as these crops
monsoon season. Therefore, efforts should be are not preferred by these wild animals (Sinha et
made to channelize the runoff during monsoons to al, 2013).
replenish these ponds. Roof top rain water can also Ensuring judicious use of agro-chemicals
be harvested to fill water bodies at village level. The Agro-chemicals are considered as panacea for
use of drip irrigation and sprinkler irrigation may all plant protection problems. The farmers resort
also be promoted and popularized. to their usage even for minor problems that can be
Crop protection from animals easily managed by eco-friendly means. Sensitization
The wild animals constitute an integral of farmers about harmful effects of excessive and
component of natural ecosystem. Therefore, the improper use of these chemicals must be undertaken
often advocated solution to legalize shooting of more vigorously. Farmers need to be made aware
wild animals does not seem to be a sagacious one. of the role of beneficial bio-control agents and the
On the contrary, large scale killing of these animals urgent need to conserve and promote their presence
can further disturb the fragile ecosystem and in the agro-ecosystem. Awareness about plenty of
exacerbate other problems like predatory attacks other plant protection options have to be created so
that pesticides are used as a last resort and not as

66 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 62-68

 Sharma and Sharma
first line of defense. Laboratory reared parasitoids
of prominent pests may be regularly released to
augment their preponderance in nature. Also, many
ready to use formulations of useful fungi, bacteria
and viruses available in market may either be
regularly incorporated into the soil or sprayed on
crops to manage pests.
Preventing spread of spurious pesticides
Predominance of spurious pesticides shackles
the successful farming. Besides injudicious
pesticide use, sale of such pesticides is responsible
for development of pesticide resistance and pest
resurgence. Spurious pesticides forced farmers to
use higher doses that disrupted agro-ecosystem
and enhanced cost of cultivation (Kaur et al,
2018). Stricter implementation of the provisions
of Insecticide Act 1968 must be ensured by the
enforcement agencies. Firms found to be dealing
in the sale of substandard pesticides must be
penalized. Taking random samples of pesticides
from market must be a regular feature. For testing
quality of agro-chemicals, laboratories equipped
with machinery and manpower must be established
at district level.
Procurement of farm produce at
remunerative price
This is one of the principal factors that accounts
for poor economic condition of farmers. Assured
procurement at justifiable price can definitely assist
in increasing monetary returns to them. Farmers may
be given support price twice the cost of cultivation.
However, accurate cost of cultivation should be
calculated by taking into account the actual field
situations. Establishment of food processing
industries should be given a deserving impetus to
ensure proper utilization of perishable products.
Therefore, giving incentives for establishment of
food processing units is the need of the hour. The
crop insurance scheme to compensate for losses
due to environmental exigencies can be made more
effective. The present criterion of estimating losses
based on block/ district level must be revised to the
level of individual farmer.
67 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 62-68
CONCLUSION
Lack of irrigation facility and relevant
industrial infrastructure along with quality inputs
are prominent challenges facing agriculture.
Besides these, monkey menace and damage by wild
and stray animals has emerged as another serious
problem in many parts of Himachal Pradesh.
Freely roaming stray animals is a social problem
which can be tackled by creating mass awareness.
Whereas, the scourge of wild animals can be
sorted out by restoring green cover and increasing
their natural habitats. Ensuring judicious use of
pesticides is must to deal with pesticide resistance
and pest resurgence. Popularization of organic
preparations prepared from locally available plants
known for pest repellence can help in reducing
the pesticide usage. Remunerative price should
be guaranteed through assured procurement by
government agencies. Establishment of small and
medium scale industries for processing perishable
fruits and vegetables is essential. These measures
can definitely help in increasing farmer income
considerably if not doubling it by 2022.
REFERENCES
Anonymous (2017). Annual action plan of Himachal Pradesh
(2016-17). Department of Agriculture, Himachal Pradesh,
Krishi Bhawan, Shimla. 55pp.
Anonymous (2018). Meteorological Centre, IMD, Bibra
House, Cliffend Estate, Shimla (HP)-171001. (http://
weathershimla.nic.in/en-IN/rainfallseasonal.html).
Barah B C (2010). Hill agriculture: Problems and prospects
for mountain agriculture. Indian J Agric Econ 65: 584-
601.
Chakravarty A (2015). Out of control: Why monkeys are a
menace? http:// www.downtoearth.org.in/coverage/out-
of-control-why-monkeys-are-a-menace-50817.
Chakraborty A and Acharya S K (2018). Monsoon and farm
income: Different aspects and their impacts. J Krishi
Vigyan 6 (2): 163-167.
IARI (2014). Technological options for enhanced productivity
and profit. Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New
Delhi-110 012, India. 258pp.
Kaur A, Sharma M and Singh G (2018). Use of pesticides in
agriculture by different categories of farmer in Punjab. J
Krishi Vigyan 6 (2): 247-252.
 Doubling Farmers’ income
Lepcha N, Bandyapadhyay A K and Pal P K (2017). Adoption
of scientific farm innovations towards enhancing
nutritional security in selected areas of Kalimpong, West
Bengal. J Krishi Vigyan 6 (1): 10-14.
Sahoo S K and Mohnot S M (2004). A survey of crop damage
by Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) and Hanuman
langur (Semnopithecus entellus) in Himachal Pradesh,
India. Tiger Paper 31:1-6.
Sharma H R (2011). Crop diversification in Himachal Pradesh:
Patterns, determinants and challenges. Indian J Agric
Econ 66: 97-114.
Sharma S K (2014). Pests of commercial vegetable and
horticultural crops in dry temperate regions of Himachal
Pradesh. Indian J Plant Prot 42: 186-190.
Sinha B N, Kumar A, Sharma Y, Bhushan L and Sharma S
K (2013). Jangli aevum aavara janvaron se prabhabit
kshetron ke liye vaikalpik faslon ki utpadan technique.
CSKHPKV Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Una, Himachal
Pradesh. 44 pp.
Received on 30/01/2019 Accepted on 15/03/2019

68 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 62-68

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 69-72 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00012.6

Eco friendly and Economic Farm Level Production Method for

Metarhizium anisopliae
Manu C R*, PoornimaYadav P I and Saparia Sathyan
KrishiVigyan Kendra Kollam,
Kerala Agricultural University, Sadanandapuram Kollam 691 531 (Kerala)

ABSTRACT
Entomo pathogenic fungi play a crucial role in any IPM programme. Among these fungi, the green muscardine
fungus Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschnikoff) Sorokin is an important one due to its effectiveness against
a wide range of insect pests including soil inhabiting ones and grubs of rhinoceros beetle. Adoption of
Metarhizium for managing rhinoceros beetle grubs as manure pit application is not gaining popularity
due to the non availability of formulation. On farm production method involving solid state fermentation
system has the lacuna of availing pure culture, maintaining the culture and its high cost. Moreover, there
are chances of occurrences of health problems by inhalation of conidia produced as dry powder form in
the on farm production methods practiced nowadays .In this backdrop, present study has been conducted,
wherein 2 economic media viz. coconut water and rice gruel water with and without addition of sugar
and two types of inoculation methods i.e. inoculating with pure culture of fungus and with talc based
formulation were evaluated. The results revealed that coconut water inoculated with talc based formulation
was superior in supporting growth of the fungus and produced more number of colony forming units, which
was at par with that of potato dextrose broth inoculated with pure culture of fungus. Hence, the farmers
can exploit the possibility of utilizing talc based formulation of Metarhizium purchased from a reputed
and reliable source for on farm multiplication using coconut water as it is easily available and economical.
Key Words:,Coconut water, Metarhizium anisopliae, On farm production method, Talc based formulation

INTRODUCTION Management of rhinoceros beetle in immature

Adoption and success of integrated pest
management depend on the availability of eco
friendly pest management options. Metarhizium
anisopliae, commonly called as green muscardine
fungus is a broad spectrum entomo pathogenic
fungus, which is highly effective to various groups
of insect pests. In different agro-ecosystems, entomo
pathogenic fungi are employed as bio control agents
for reducing pest population and consequently their
damages (Inglis et al, 2001). In the present era of
good agricultural practices; safe food production
methods demand hugely onbio agents for pest
management. Ability of Metarhizium to suppress
immature stages of rhinoceros beetle is a boon to
farmers in Kerala where coconut is a major crop
with rhinoceros beetle being its important pest.
stage is highly advantageous to the farmers since it
not only reduces the damage by rhinoceros beetle,
but reduces the chances of red palm weevil, diseases
like bud rot and leaf rot. Recommended practice of
crown cleaning and filling with sand and botanicals/
insecticides are not widely practiced among farmers
due to high cost and non-availability of skilled
labour. Application of Metarhizium as talc based /
liquid formulation in manure pits is highly effective
in managing immature stages of rhinoceros beetle
(Varma, 2013). Metarhizium multiplied in coconut
water medium effectively controlled rhinoceros
beetle grubs without harming earthworms in
vermicomposting tanks (Gopal et al, 2006). Non
availability of formulation leads to its poor adoption.
If there is a suitable on farm production method,

Corresponding Author’s Email: manudasc@yahoo.co.in

69 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 69-72

 Manu et al
adoption of this bio agent for pest management for completion of mycelial growth, which were
would automatically increase. Limitation to the used for mass production.
present system of on farm production method Preparation of talc based formulation(tbf):
adopting solid state fermentation are the high This was achieved by growing fungus as a mat over
cost of mother culture, difficulty in availing the potato dextrose broth under liquid state fermentation
pure culture and its maintenance, which requires system and mixing it with sterile talc at optimum
laboratory skills. Under these circumstances, a moisture and colony forming units(cfu) levels.
laboratory study was conducted to evaluate different
economic liquid media and methods of inoculation Potato dextrose broth(PDB):For 1litre of broth,
for on farm production of Metarhizium. 200g thoroughly washed, sliced potatoes were
boiled in a litre of water for about 30minutes. After
MATERIALS AND METHODS the potatoes were being cooked well, broth was
The study was undertaken in the bio control separated by straining. Twenty grams of dextrose
laboratory of KrishiVigyan Kendra Kollam located was added to this hot broth and dissolved. The
at 8.990N and 76.820E, during the year 2017- potato dextrose broth (PDB) thus prepared would
18.The experiment was laid out in completely be transferred to sterile conical flasks and sterilized
randomized design with 10 treatments and 3 using pressure cooker.
replications. Two liquid media viz. coconut water Preparation of media and sterilization: Two
and rice gruel water were utilized with and without easily available and economic liquid media i.e.
addition of 2g sugar along with potato dextrose rice gruel water (kanjivellam in Malayalam) and
broth under two inoculation methods( T1- Coconut coconut water was evaluated in the study. 100ml
water inoculated with talc based formulation (tbf) each of coconut water and rice gruel water was
of fungus, T2- Coconut water inoculated with collected and filtered using muslin cloth, which was
pure culture of fungus, T3-Coconut water +sugar taken in 250ml conical flasks and sterilized using a
inoculated with tbf of fungus, T4- Coconut water pressure cooker. To another set of these two media
+sugar inoculated with pure culture of fungus,T5- 2g sugar was added before sterilization.
Rice gruel water inoculated with tbf of fungus of Pressure cooker was kept on high flame in a LPG
fungus,T6-Rice gruel water inoculated with pure stove till 3whistles were blown, and then the flame
culture of fungus,T7- Rice gruel water +sugar was lowered to minimum for 20m before putting
inoculated with tbf of fungus,T8- Rice gruel water off. After cooling under normal room temperature,
+sugar inoculated with pure culture of fungus,T9- the media were taken out for inoculation.
Potato dextrose broth(PDB) inoculated with tbf of
Inoculation: Two methods of inoculation were
fungus,T10-PDB inoculated with pure culture of
done on each set of media. One set of media was
fungus).Two inoculation methods evaluated were-
inoculated using normal procedure i.e. inoculation
inoculating the sterilized medium with mother
using pure culture maintained in a petriplate
culture of the fungus and inoculating with 1g of talc
with a sterile inoculation loop under laminar
based formulation having minimum cfu of 1x108 .
air flow cabinet. Talc based formulation of 1g
Preparation of pure culture of fungus: Metarhizium was added to another set of media
Mother culture of Metarhizium anisopliae from using a sterile spatula. After inoculation the flasks
Kerala Agricultural University obtained in potato were incubated at room temperature (26+20C)
dextrose agar (PDA) slants were sub cultured in till the surface of media was fully covered with
PDA slants and petri plates in PDA medium under mycelium. Observations on speed of mycelial mat
sterile condition in a laminar air flow cabinet using coverage (no. of days taken for complete spread of
inoculation loop and kept under room temperature

70 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 69-72

 Production Method for Metarhizium anisopliae
Table1. Effect of different media and methods of inoculation on different parameters.
Sr. Speed of growth Biomass Population of Metarhizium at different dilutions (cfu/g)
No (days) produced dilution (10-10) dilution (10-11) dilution (10-12)
(g)
T1 3.67 4.35 180.33 143.00 136.33
T2 3.67 3.30 75.67 66.00 69.33
T3 3.67 3.32 93.67 77.33 50.00
T4 3.67 1.87 77.33 47.33 20.33
T5 13.67 0.62 68.33 43.33 33.00
T6 7.33 1.60 29.67 24.00 20.00
T7 14.00 0.73 84.00 46.33 44.33
T8 7.33 1.53 148.00 131.00 97.00
T9 3.67 9.39 61.67 53.33 36.67
T10 3.67 4.76 68.67 55.67 41.33
CD 1.319 1.148 NS NS NS
CV 12.04 21.411 77.406 84.863 103.607

mycelial mat over the medium), biomass produced inoculated with pure culture took 7.33d for the
(grams/100mlmedium) were taken. complete surface coverage by mycelium. The
After the complete spread of mycelium, results indicate the suitability of coconut water over
media along with mycelium produced were mixed rice gruel water in supporting the growth of the
thoroughly with 500g sterile talc separately under fungus. Growth of fungus in coconut water under
aseptic condition. One gram of this talc based both inoculation methods was as fast as the standard
formulation was taken and subjected to serial procedure of inoculating PDB with pure culture.
dilution. The dilutions of 10-10, 10-11and 10-12were The interesting result found was that the addition of
plated in PDA medium then incubated under room sugar to coconut water did not make any difference
temperature. Numbers of colony forming units were in speed of growth of fungus (Table 1).
counted and recorded 3days after of inoculation. Bio mass production
Production of mycelia bio mass after the complete
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION spread was the highest in potato dextrose broth
Growth of mycelium inoculated with tbf of the fungus (9.393g) which
Growth of mycelium was fast and the entire was followed by the standard procedure i.e. PDB
surface was covered within 3.67d in the treatments inoculated with pure culture of the fungus(4.763g)
with coconut water under both inoculation methods that was on par with the treatment coconut water
which were statistically similar to the treatments with tbf of fungus which was followed by the
with PDB i.e. inoculation methods under these media treatment T3 (coconut water+sugar inoculated with
produced no difference in growth of mycelium. At tbf of fungus), T2 (coconut water inoculated with
the same time rice gruel water inoculated with tbf of pure culture),T4 (coconut water+sugar inoculated
Metarhizium took 13.67d for the complete growth with pure culture of fungus),T6 (rice gruel water
of mycelium. Rice gruel water+ sugar inoculated in inoculated with pure culture of fungus), T8(rice
the same manner also took 14d for complete growth gruel water+sugar inoculated with pure culture
whereas rice gruel water and rice gruel water+sugar of fungus),T7 (Rice gruel water +sugar inoculated

71 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 69-72

 Manu et al
with tbf of fungus), T5(Rice gruel water inoculated
with tbf of fungus). Coconut water proved its ability Anith K N,SoumyaV G, Sreekumar A, Raj A R and
in biomass production of Metarhizium. Inoculation
with talc based formulation in PDB is found superior
to all other treatments.
Population of fungus
From the data (Table 1), it was clearly visible
that at all the 3 dilutions plated, treatments
did not differ significantly from the standard
procedure(T10). Hence it can be ascertained that
all the media in both inoculation methods were
effective as that of standard procedure. Present
study was in confirmation with the findings of
Dunda (2017). Anith et al (2016) also established
the suitability of coconut water in supporting
growth of Pseudomonas fluoresens. Coconut water
is highly efficient in supporting multiplication of
micro organisms.This might be due to the nutrient
rich composition of amino acids, vitamins and
minerals in coconut water, thus it can be utilized as
an efficient and cheap media for the multiplication
of microorganisms (Survase et al, 2007; Unagul et
al, 2007; Anith et al, 2014).
CONCLUSION
Considering all the three parameters tested,
coconut water was found equally effective or superior
to PDB. While, there is no significant variation VarmaY CK (2013). Efficacy of eco friendly management
observed among the methods of inoculation.
Hence farmers can utilize talc based formulation of
Metarhizium purchased from a reputed and reliable Received on 18/12/2018
source for the on farm multiplication using coconut
water which is always wasted in all the households
and abundantly available as a byproduct of copra
industry.
REFERENCES
Radhakrishnan N V (2014).A cheap and farmer friendly
method for mass multiplication of Pseudomonas
fluorescens. J Trop Agric 52:145-148.
Anith K N, Vyshakhi A S, Viswanathan A, Varkey S and
Aswini S (2016). Population dynamics and efficiency of
coconut water based liquid formulation of Pseudomonas
fluorescens AMB-8. J Trop Agric 54 (2): 184-189.
Dunda W N (2017). Suitabilityof different media and
pathogenicity of Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschnikoff)
Sorokin against Aphis craccivora (Koch). MSc (Ag.)
Thesis. Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth
Gopal M, Gupta A and  Thomas G V (2006). Prospects of
using Metarhizium anisopliae to check the breeding
of insect pest, Oryctes rhinoceros L. in coconut leaf
vermicomposting sites. Bioresour Technol 97(15):1801-
1806.
Inglis G D,Goettel M S, Butt T M, Strasser B (2001).Use of
hyphomycetous fungi for managing insect pest. Fungi as
biocontrol agents. Wallingford: CAB International :23-
69.
Survase S A, Saudagar P S and Singhal R S(2007). Use of
complex media for the production ofscleroglucan by
Sclerotium rolfsii MTCC 2156.Bioresour Technol 97:
1509-1512.
Unagul P, Assantachai C, Phadungruengluij S, Suphantharika
M, Tanticharoen M, Verduyn C (2007). Coconut water as
a medium additive for the production of docosahexaenoic
acid bySchizochtrium mangrovei Sk-02.BioresourTechnol
98:281- 287.
against rhinoceros beetle grubs in coconut. J Biopest
6(2):101-103
Accepted on 15/03/2019

72 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 69-72

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 73-77 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00013.8

Economics of Peach (Prunus persica L. ) Production under

Different Nitrogen Regimes through Neem Coated Urea and
Calcium Sprays
Kamal K Pande1 and D C Dimri2
Krishi Vigyan Kendra (ICAR-VPKAS), Kafligair- 263 628, Bageshwar (Uttarakhand)

ABSTRACT
An investigation was conducted at Krishi Vigyan Kendra (ICAR- VPKAS), Kafligair- Bageshwar
(Uttarakhand) during the years 2016 and 2017 in peach cv. Red June planted at 3 m x 3 m spacing
with varying nitrogen regimes through neem coated urea along with three sprays of calcium chloride.
There were ten treatments i.e., 375g N/ tree + 0.5% Ca Cl2 (T1), 375g N / tree + 1.0% Ca Cl2 (T2), 375g
N/ tree + 1.5% Ca Cl2 (T3), 500g N/ tree + 0.5% Ca Cl2 (T4), 500g N/ tree + 1.0% Ca Cl2 (T5), 500g
N/ tree + 1.5% Ca Cl2 (T6), 625g N/ tree + 0.5% Ca Cl2 (T7), 625g N/ tree + 1.0% Ca Cl2 (T8), 625g
N/ tree + 1.5% Ca Cl2 (T9), 500g N/ tree + water spray as control (T10). The fruits were harvested at
uniform maturity, packed and stored at ambient conditions. Economic analysis was done according to
the average of two years data. Fruit yield, quality and storability at ambient conditions were measured
and depending upon organoleptic acceptability at different storage intervals (0, 3, 6 and 8 d of harvest)
and prevailing market rates the sale price was calculated. Cost of all the inputs and operational cost
were calculated and summed up as cost of production. The benefit-cost ratio was highest under T2 i.e.,
2.99 followed by T5 (2.88), T3 (2.81) and T6 (2.68), whereas the minimum was found with T10 (1.71).
Key Words: Calcium chloride, Economic analysis, Organoleptic acceptability, Nitrogen regimes.

INTRODUCTION position from income point of view of hill farmers.

Peach (Prunus persica (L.) Batsch) is an
important temperate fruit of attractive appearance
and quality. In India, it is cultivated mostly in
Himalayan region starting from the Jammu and
Kashmir, Himanchal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and
extending up to North – Eastern hills. In India, peach
is being cultivated in an area of 18.91 thousand
hectare, with a production and productivity of
96.58 thousand MT and 5.11 MT/ha, respectively
(Anon, 2017). In Uttarakhand it occupies an area
of 9.34 thousand hectare with the production of
49.80 thousand MT. The productivity of this fruit
crop in state is 5.33 MT/ha. Thus, Uttarakhand
alone contribute around 50 per cent of peach
production and consequently occupies a vital
As far as, the economic return from
horticultural produce is concerned; yield, quality
and shelf life of fruits contribute almost equally
and cost of production also plays a key role in
realizing the benefits. The same is true for peach
also. Saraswathy et al (2010) described nitrogen
as the nutrient having single greatest effect on post
harvest fruit quality. Besides, calcium is another
nutrient that plays important role in maintaining
shelf life of fruits because an inverse relation
exist between fruit tissue calcium level and rate
of respiration. Alandes et al (2009) in pear and
Shirzad et al (2011) in apple observed that calcium
maintains the fibrilar packaging in the cell walls and
reinforce the cell to cell contact in calcium treated

Corresponding Author’s Email: pande4kamal@gmail.com

1
Subject Matter Specialist, Krishi Vigyan Kendra (ICAR-VPKAS), Kafligair- 263 628, Bageshwar (Uttarakhand)
2
Professor, Department of Horticulture, GBPUA&T, Pantnagar- 263145 (Uttarakhand)

73 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 73-77

 Pande and Dimri
fruits. This process is related to the production of farmers due to its attractive appearance, early
calcium pectate that counteracts the peroxidases, maturity and consumer preference. The experiment
pectin methyl esterase and catalases activities was conducted in randomized block design with
and thus prolongs the shelf life of fruits. Sprays three replications and ten treatments. Forty trees of
with calcium have been reported to be effective uniform vigour and trunk girth were selected. One
in extending shelf life of fruits by maintaining tree under each replication was used as treatment
firmness, minimizing respiration, tissue breakdown unit and the experimental area was 400 m2. The
and thus, reducing the fruit loss (Bhat et al, 2011). treatments comprised three levels of nitrogen
The organoleptic acceptability is the manifestation fertilization (375 g, 500 g and 625 g / tree through
of compiled quality attributes estimated during the neem coated urea) along with three concentrations
course of storage. (0.5%, 1.0% and 1.5 %) of calcium chloride for
Therefore, a study was conducted at Krishi foliar spray, and a control (500 g N per tree through
Vigyan Kendra (ICAR- VPKAS), Kafligair- neem coated urea along with water spray). Trees of
Bageshwar (Uttarakhand) during two consecutive uniform vigour and trunk girth were selected for
years i.e., 2016 and 2017 to work out the each replication. One tree under each replication
economics of peach cv. Red June under different was used as treatment unit. Thus there were ten
nitrogen regimes through neem coated urea which treatments viz., 375 g N/ tree + 0.5% Ca Cl2 (T1), 375
is now available in plenty due to the decision of g N/ tree + 1.0% Ca Cl2 (T2), 375 g N/ tree + 1.5%
Government of India which made it mandatory for Ca Cl2 (T3), 500 g N/ tree + 0.5% Ca Cl2 (T4), 500 g
the domestic urea manufactures to produce neem N/ tree + 1.0% Ca Cl2 (T5), 500 g N/ tree + 1.5% Ca
coated urea up to a minimum of 75 per cent of their Cl2 (T6), 625 g N/ tree + 0.5% Ca Cl2 (T7), 625 g N/
total production of subsidized urea from 35 per cent tree + 1.0% Ca Cl2 (T8), 625 g N/ tree + 1.5% Ca Cl2
earlier and allowed them to go up to 100 per cent. (T9), 500g N/ tree + Water spray (T10 control). Foliar
At the same time, three concentrations of calcium sprays of calcium chloride were given thrice, first at
chloride were also applied as foliar spray. Thus, the petal fall stage, second at 25 days after Ist spray and
influence of these factors on economic aspect of third at 25 days after IInd spray. Common doses of
peach production was studied. Farm yard manure (40 kg/tree), P2O5 (250 g/tree)
and K2O (500 g/tree) were also applied uniformly
MATERIALS AND METHODS: in each tree. Source of N, P2O5 and K2O were neem
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kafligair- Bageshwar is coated urea, single super phosphate and muriate of
situated in the mid Himalayas between 29º45’07’’ N potash, respectively. Whole quantity of FYM, P2O5
latitude and 79º44’03’’ E longitude at an altitude of and K2O were applied in December. Half of the N
1245 meters above the mean sea level and represents was applied in mid February about three weeks
humid sub- temperate climate with average annual before flowering and remaining half in last week of
rainfall of 1256 mm. The summer is warm with March after fruit set.
occasional rainfall and the winter is chilly with Bruiseless fruits of almost same maturity from
frosting occur usually from mid December to mid all forty trees were separately selected, packed
February. in corrugated fiber boxes and stored at ambient
The experiment was conducted on 6 -7 yr temperature. Separate boxes were used for different
old peach cv. Red June trees raised on seedling storage periods. Provision of ten fruits per tree was
rootstocks and planted at 3m x 3m spacing. This made to record organoleptic acceptability at each
self fertile peach cultivar is extensively grown storage interval. Depending upon organoleptic
in Kumaun hills and is very popular among the acceptability at different storage intervals (0, 3, 6

74 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 73-77

 Economics of Peach Production
and 8 day of harvest) and prevailing market rates imparted better organoleptic acceptability. Our
the sale price was assigned. results were also in accordance with the findings
of Barwal and Kumar (2014) who reported the
Organoleptic acceptability beneficial effects of calcium chloride sprays above
A panel of five judges ranked the overall 0.5 per cent concentration on overall acceptability
acceptability of fruits for each treatment based on of nectarines during storage at ambient conditions.
taste, aroma and texture at harvest as well as at all Moreover, increase in nitrogen fertilization led to
three storage durations. A five point scale indicating dilution of calcium in the fruit due to high vegetative
the following quality preferences was used for growth (Rato et al, 2010) and might elucidate the
evaluation (Barwal and Kumar, 2014). negative effect of increased nitrogen levels on
Rating of fruits storability
Sr. No. Quality preference Marks Economic analysis
1. Excellent 5 The findings of economic work out (Table 2 and
3) revealed that maximum cost of production i.e.,
2. Very good 4 Rs. 3.19 lakh/ha was incurred under treatment T9
3. Good 3 followed by T6 (Rs. 3.17 lakh/ha), T3 (Rs. 3.15 lakh/
ha) and T8 (Rs. 3.01 lakh/ha), while the minimum
4. Fair 2 was estimated under control i.e., T10 (Rs. 2.64 lakh/
5. Poor 1 ha). The estimated gross return per plant and per
hectare for peach on the basis of two years average
Economic parameters showed that the highest gross return of Rs. 802/-tree
The cost of production was calculated by corresponding to Rs. 8.91 lakh/ha was calculated
putting together values of all inputs, operational under treatment T2 followed by T3 (Rs. 797/tree
cost and treatment cost. The Gross returns or gross and Rs. 8.86 lakh/ha), T5 (Rs.776 per tree and Rs.
income was calculated by multiplying the average 8.63 lakh/ha) and T6 (Rs. 765 per/tree and Rs. 8.50
fruit yield with expected sale price. The net return lakh/ha), whereas the minimum gross income was
was calculated by subtracted the value of cost of estimated under T10 (Rs. 408/tree and Rs. 4.54 lakh/
cultivation to gross return. Benefit- Cost for all the ha). The highest net return of Rs. 5.94 lakh/ha was
treatments was calculated by dividing the gross return estimated with T2 followed by T3 (Rs. 5.71 lakh/
from cost of production. ha), T5 (Rs. 5.64 lakh/ha) and T6 (Rs. 5.33 lakh/
ha), while the lowest net return was calculated for
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION T10 viz., Rs.1.90 lakh/ha. The benefit-cost ratio was
highest under T2 i.e., 2.99 followed by T5 (2.88),
Organoleptic acceptability T3 (2.81) and T6 (2.68), whereas the minimum was
The data (Table 1) showed that the treatments found with T10 (1.71).
T2 and T3 had maximum mean organoleptic
acceptability (4.4 score), that was significantly Treatment cost of urea (neem coated) and calcium
higher to all other treatments. The minimum (2.2 chloride played important role in determining the
score) was observed under T10 (control). It may be variation in cost of production. The gross return
concluded from the presented data that the lowest and consequently the net return and benefit-cost
nitrogen regime resulted in better organoleptic ratio were highly influenced by the fruit yield as
acceptability and increase in nitrogen levels led well as the expected price of produce according
to inferior quality preference. Moreover, sprays of to organoleptic acceptability. The yield was
calcium chloride above 0.5 per cent concentration statistically at par for T2, T3, T5 and T6 but the better

75 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 73-77

 Pande and Dimri
Table 1. Response of N regimes through neem coated urea and foliar application of calcium chloride
on mean organoleptic acceptability of peach cv. Red June and expected sale price on the basis of two
year’s data (2016 and 2017)
Sr. No. Treatment Mean organoleptic Expected sale price (Rs./ q)
acceptability
1. T1 3.7 bc 3,100
2. T2 4.4 a 3,400
3. T3 4.4 a 3,400
4. T4 3.4 c 3,000
5. T5 3.9 b 3,200
6. T6 3.8 b
3,200
7. T7 2.7 d 2,500
8. T8 2.9 d 2,600
9. T9 2.9 d 2,600
10. T10 2.2 e 2,000
CD (0.05) 0.3

* Values within columns having common letter are statistically at par.

Table 2. Treatment wise total cost of production of peach cv. Red June on the basis of two year’s
average (2016 and 2017)
Sr. Treatment Operational Input cost Treatment application Total cost of production
No. cost (Rs. lakh / (Rs lakh /ha) cost (Rs. lakh / ha)
ha) Rs./tree Rs./ha [C] [D=A+B+C]
[B]
[A]
1. T1 1,68,300 88,884 20.68 22,975 2.80
2. T2 1,68,300 88,884 36.46 40,506 2.98
3. T3 1,68,300 88,884 52.27 58,071 3.15
4. T4 1,68,300 88,884 22.3 24,776 2.82
5. T5 1,68,300 88,884 38.08 42,307 2.99
6. T6 1,68,300 88,884 53.89 59,872 3.17
7. T7 1,68,300 88,884 23.91 26,564 2.84
8. T8 1,68,300 88,884 39.69 44,095 3.01
9. T9 1,68,300 88,884 55.5 61,660 3.19
10. T10 1,68,300 88,884 6.52 7,244 2.64

76 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 73-77

 Economics of Peach Production
Table 3. Treatment wise economic analysis of peach cv. Red June on the basis of two year’s average.
Sl. Treatment Average yield Gross return Net return Benefit -
No. [Av. yield x Expected sale price] (Rs. lakh /ha) cost ratio
[F=E-D] [G=E/D]
Kg/tree q/ha Rs. /tree Rs. lakh/ha (E)
1. T1 21.85 b* 242.75 b 677.35 7.53 4.72 2.69
2. T2 23.60 a 262.20 a 802.40 8.92 5.94 2.99
3. T3 23.46 a 260.64 a 797.64 8.86 5.71 2.81
4. T4 22.18 b 246.42 b 665.40 7.39 4.57 2.62
5. T5 24.28 a 269.75 a 776.96 8.63 5.64 2.88
6. T6 23.91 a 265.64 a 765.12 8.50 5.33 2.68
7. T7 17.97 e 199.65 e 449.25 4.99 2.15 1.76
8. T8 19.38 d 215.31 d 503.88 5.59 2.59 1.86
9. T9 19.50 d 216.65 d 507.00 5.63 2.45 1.77
10. T10 20.44 c 227.09 c 408.80 4.54 1.90 1.71
CD (0.05) 0.83 9.15
*Values within columns having common letter are statistically at par.
average organoleptic acceptability during storage REFERENCES
of peach fruits at ambient conditions under lowest Alandes L, Prez- Monuera I, Llarca E, Quiles A and Hernondo
nitrogen regime (375 g N tree) along with 1.0 per I (2009). Use of calcium lactate to improve structure
of “ Flor de Invierno” fresh cut pears. Postharvest Bio
cent calcium chloride sprays might lead the produce Technol 53: 145- 151.
to fetch the higher expected price and consequently
Anonymous (2017). Horticultural Statistics At A Glance,
gave higher economic return. Moreover, fruits with 2017. National Horticulture Board. www.nhb.gov.in
elevated storage capacity at ambient conditions
Barwal V S and Kumar J (2014). Effect of pre-harvest calcium
may be transported to distant places where they sprays and harvesting time on quality and shelf-life of
have greater opportunity of getting higher prices, nectarines. Adv Appl Res 6: 53-56.
which in turn would be manifested in maximum net Bhat M Y, Ahsan H, Banday F A, Dar M A and Khan F A
return and benefit-cost ratio. (2011). Effect of calcium chloride and storage period at
ambient temperature on physico-chemical characteristics
CONCLUSION of pear cv. Bartlett. Indian J Hort 68: 444 - 447.
The economic interpretation depending on Rato A E, Agulheiro A C, Barroso J M and Riquelme F (2010).
organoleptic preferences and prevailing market Effect of different calcium fruit content in physical and
chemical properties of European plum. J Plant Nutr 33
prices suggests that the economic benefit of peach
(3): 391-404.
production may be increased by alteration of nitrogen
Saraswathy S, Preethi T L, Balasubramanyam S, Suresh
doses and calcium sprays. Therefore, nitrogen J, Revathy N and Natarajan S (2010). Postharvest
application @ 375 g/tree through neem coated urea Management of Horticultural Crops. Agrobios, Jodhpur,
and three foliar application of 1.0 per cent calcium India. Pp 64.
chloride along with traditionally practiced doses of Shirzad E, Rabiei V and Sharafi Y (2011). Effect of calcium
40 kg/ tree FYM, 250 g phosphorus/ tree and 500 chloride on post harvest quality of apple fruit. African J
g potassium/ tree may be recommended for full Agric Res 6: 5139- 5143.
grown peach cv. Red June trees under Uttarakhand Received on 22/03/2019 Accepted on 10/04/2019
hills for better economic gains.

77 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 73-77

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 78-82 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00014.X

Effect of Different Sources and Concentrations of Pre-harvest

Calcium and Boron Sprays on the Quality and Yield of Apple
(Malus x domestica Borkh.)
Ishtiyaq A Khan*, Aasima Rafiq and S A Ganie
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Anantnag,
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Science and Technology,
Kashmir 192 211 (Jammu & Kashmir)

ABSTRACT
A field study was carried out by KVK, Anantnag to determine the effect of different sources and concentrations
of calcium and boron on yield and quality of apple cv. Red Delicious. Boron was sprayed at pink bud stage
and at petal fall stage, whereas calcium at walnut stage and next two sprays at three weeks interval after first
spray. The results of the study were promising as there was a significant improvement in both yield and quality
of apple. The results clearly showed that calcium and boron regardless of source and concentration improved
both yield and quality of apple over control. However, Calcium (Cacl2) as dehydrated source @ 0.3 per cent
and Boron as boric acid @ 0.15 per cent proved to be the best treatment over other treatments was statistically at
par with results obtained with solubar at similar concentration for yield parameters. Furthermore, an average
enhancement of yield to the tune of 29.83 per cent and quality in terms of A grade apples to the tune of 55.31
per cent were achieved over control. Thus, it can be concluded that foliar sprays of calcium and boron on
apple not only increase yield, but also improve quality that results in significantly higher economic returns.
Key Words: Apple, Boric acid, Calcium chloride, Nutrition, Quality.

INTRODUCTION presence of ca2+ (Marme,1983). The application

Apple (Malus x domestica Borkh.) is the principal
fruit crop of Jammu & Kashmir and remains one
of the most important sector contributing to the
economy of the state. Red Delicious is the most
important commercial cultivar which accounts for
lions share in apple production. The state leads in
production and productivity in the country but the
productivity bears a poor comparison to the apple
countries of the west. Nutrition plays a vital role
in growth and productivity of fruit trees. Among
various factors affecting growth and development,
the lack of balanced nutrition is considered one
which affect the growth, fruit setting, quality
and yield. Application of calcium and boron may
partially help to overcome this problem. Calcium
is required for cell elongation and cell division.
There is now evidence that auxin induced H+
secretion of meristimatic cells is related to the
Corresponding Author’s Email: ishtiyaqkhan7@gmail.com
of calcium inhibits fruit abscission and delays its
senescence, increase fruit pull force and firmness
(Faust, 1975). On the other hand, boron plays a
major role in enhancing cell division, biosynthesis
of carbohydrates and proteins, flowers pollination
and fertilization. It plays an important role in
fruit setting through encouraging germination
and growth of pollen grains. Additionally, boron
is involved in physiological and biochemical
processes inside the plant cell, altering the
concentration and translocation of nutrients (Tariq
and Mott, 2007). Calcium and boron are therefore
very important nutrients which can improve yield
and quality of apple. During the last decades, the
foliar application of mineral elements has become
an established procedure in fruit plants to increase
the production and improve the quality of produce.
In principle, the physiology of nutrient uptake by

78 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 78-82

 Khan et al
leaves is comparable to root uptake. However, in
contrast to roots, the knowledge of regulation of
nutrient uptake by leaves is still limited. This is also
true for mobility of distinct nutrients within plants,
which has to be considered for a successful foliar
application.
Foliar application of nutrients can supply
essential elements directly to the foliage and fruit
at times when rapid response may be desired.
Furthermore, certain organs of the tree may require
more of a particular nutrient than does the entire
tree (Faust and Shear, 1968). There is a wide
disparity among the growers with regard to the
source and concentration of calcium and boron
to be used. Therefore, the objectives of the study
were to find out the effect of different sources and
concentrations of foliar sprays of boron and calcium
on yield, quality and economics of apple.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present study was carried out on nineteen
year old Apple trees cv. Red Delicious worked
on seedling rootstock spaced at 7m x 7m at
Mehmoodabad village of District Anantnag during
2016-17. Initial nutrient status of the orchard soil
was assessed with regard to pH, organic carbon,
N, P, K, Ca and B (Table 1). Two sources each
of calcium (CaCl2 –fused and CaCl2- dehydrated)
and boron (Boric acid and Solubar) were used.
Similarly, two concentrations of each source
viz, Boron @ 0.1 per cent and 0.15 per cent and
Calcium @ 0.2 per cent and 0.3 per cent were used.
Thus, the experiment consisted of sixteen treatment
combinations replicated three times established
under randomized completely block design (RCBD-
Factorial). Routine cultural practices were followed
during the course of experiment. The details of the
treatment combinations were as under:
T0 = Control (Untreated trees )
T1 = Boric acid @ 0.1% + CaCl2 (fused) @ 0.2 %
T2 = Boric acid @ 0.1% + CaCl2 (fused) @ 0.3 %
T3 =Boric acid @ 0.15% + CaCl2 (fused) @ 0.2 %
79 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 78-82
T4 =Boric acid @ 0.15% + CaCl2 (fused) @ 0.3 %
T5 =Boric acid @ 0.1% + CaCl2 (dehydrated) @ 0.2 %
T6 =Boric acid @ 0.1% + CaCl2 (dehydrated) @ 0.3 %
T7=Boric acid @ 0.15% + CaCl2 (dehydrated) @ 0.2 %
T8=Boric acid @ 0.15% + CaCl2 (dehydrated) @ 0.3 %
T9=solubar @ 0.1% + CaCl2 (fused) @ 0.2 %
T10=solubar @ 0.1% + CaCl2 (fused) @ 0.3 %
T11=solubar@ 0.15% + CaCl2 (fused) @ 0.2 %
T12=solubar @ 0.15% + CaCl2 (fused) @ 0.3 %
T13=solubar @ 0.1% + CaCl2 (dehydrated) @ 0.2 %
T14=solubar @ 0.1% + CaCl2 (dehydrated) @ 0.3 %
T15=solubar @ 0.15% + CaCl2 (dehydrated) @ 0.2 %
T16=solubar @ 0.15% + CaCl2 (dehydrated) @ 0.3 %
Boron was sprayed at two stages, first one at
pink bud and second at petal fall stage, whereas
calcium was sprayed at three stages, first spray at
walnut stage of apple, followed by three weeks
of interval. The observations with regard to yield
was estimated as kg/tree, quality in terms of
percentage grades per tree as (A, B and C grades)
and economics in the form of benefit cost ratio
was done as per the method of Torane et al (2011).
The data were analyzed as per the standard method
of Snedecor and Cochran (1989) and data in the
tables are presented as means using least significant
difference (LSD) test at 0.05 level of significance.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Yield and quality Attributes
The data (Table 2) revealed that the average
yield of trees sprayed with calcium and boron
increased significantly over control irrespective of
source and concentration used. The maximum yield
(161.49 kg/tree) was obtained in the trees which
were sprayed with boron in the form of boric acid
@ 0.15 per cent and calcium chloride- dehydrated
@ 0.3 per cent (T8) followed by Boron as solubar
@ 0.15 per cent and calcium chloride as dehydrated
source @ 0.3 per cent (T16) which were statistically
at par with each other, thereby recorded an increase
 Effect of Different Sources and Concentrations of Pre-harvest Calcium and Boron Sprays
Table 1. Initial nutrient status of the orchard soil
pH O.C (%) N (kg/ha) P (kg/ha) K (kg/ha) Ca (meq/l) B (ppm)
6.73 0.89 372.40 14.20 53.05 7.81 0.44

Table 2. Effect of different sources and concentrations of Calcium and Boron on Yield and quality
of Apple cv. Red Delicious.
Treatment Yield (kg/tree) Quality (%)
A b c
T0 124 .38 34.42 42.00 23.58
T1 143.25 38.1 41.71 20.19
T2 144.41 40.48 40.39 18.15
t3 148.17 43.02 39.32 17.43
t4 149.42 45.42 38.50 16.25
t5 144.17 47.10 38.59 14.00
t6 145.14 52.18 38.08 10.71
t7 160.24 51.61 37.54 11.18
t8 161.49 53.46 37.61 8.64
t9 142.24 37.33 42.68 20.50
t10 143.34 39.62 41.39 19.43
t11 146.53 43.03 40.16 17.25
t12 148.39 44.08 38.68 17.41
t13 143.32 46.56 37.24 16.14
t14 144.54 52.71 37.16 10.41
t15 159.05 51.43 37.65 11.32
t16 161.36 52.08 37.95 9.54
LSD (0.05) 0.15 0.10 0.13 0.06
±S.E Mean diff 0.074 0.050 0.062 0.030
A-A Grade Apples; B- B Grade Apples and C- C Grade apples

in yield by (29.83 %) over control. Similarly,
sprays of calcium and boron improved quality
attributes of apple over control. Highest A grade
apples (55.31%) were observed in the treatment
(T8) which was superior to all other treatments
recorded an increase of 50.93 per cent over control.
Furthermore, the lowest %age of C grade apples
(8.64 %) and (9.54%) were observed in T8 and T16
treatments, respectively. This significant increase in
fruit yield of apple can be attributed to the fact that
boron increases effective pollination and thereby
fruit set and hence yield. Fruit size and shape
are often related to seed number and distribution
80 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 78-82
within the fruit. Cytokinins, auxins and gibberllins
produced by developing seed may be responsible
for these effects (Frank, 1986). Furthermore, Dong
et al (1997) stated that the effect of boron on fruit
quality might occur indirectly through effects on
the seed production. The significant increase in
yield with calcium and boron sprays have also
been noted by Svagzyds et al (1995) who reported
that an increase in yield by 21.10-22.70 per cent
were achieved in comparison to control. Similarly,
Kumar et al (2003) reported that pre-harvest spray
of boric acid significantly increased the fruit yield
of apple. Better coloured fruit of apple cv. Red
 Khan et al
Table 3. Effect of Calcium and Boron sprays on cost benefit analysis of Apple cv. Red Delicious
Treatment Average gross returns (Rs/ha) Average cost involved (Rs/ha) B:C Ratio
T0 9,49,416 4,23,300 2.24
T1 11,35,260 5,00,968 2.27
T2 11,61,372 5,10,612 2.27
t3 12,20,736 5,23,872 2.33
t4 12,58,068 5,28,156 2.38
t5 12,32,976 5,09,592 2.42
t6 13,03,968 5,13,060 2.54
t7 14,25,756 5,66,508 2.52
t8 14,69,208 5,70,996 2.57
t9 11,25,672 5,02,860 2.24
t10 11,54,436 5,06,736 2.28
t11 12,14,616 5,17,956 2.35
t12 12,33,996 5,24,688 2.35
t13 12,12,780 5,06,736 2.39
t14 12,97,032 5,16,769 2.50
t15 14,13,924 5,62,224 2.51
t16 14,58,377 5,70,384 2.55

Delicious were obtained with preharvest sprays of CONCLUSION

boron either alone or in combination with calcium
chloride (Bhat and Farooqui, 2004). Significant
enhancement in fruit yield and quality of Navel
Orange fruits with boric acid and calcium chloride
have also been reported by Hikal et al (2017).
Economic Returns
The economic analysis of different treatments
has been presented in Table 3. It was evident that
because of variations in average fruit yield and
quality of apple in different treatments, average
gross returns and average net returns to the growers
were higher from T8 and T16 as compared to other
treatments. Furthermore, higher benefit cost ratio
of 2.57 demarcates the superiority of calcium as
dehydrated source and boron as boric acid or solubar Bhat K M and Farooqui K D(2004). Effect of foliar sprays
@0.3 per cent and 0.15 per cent, respectively over
control and other treatments. The results were in
conformity with that of Gurteg et al (2012).
In conclusion both boron and calcium are very
important nutrients to be sprayed for enhancing
both yield and quality of apples and thus higher
profit. Boron sprayed in the form of boric acid or
solubar @ 0.15 per cent at pink bud stage and at
petal fall stages and calcium as calcium chloride
in the form of dehydrated source @ 0.3 per cent
proved to be the best combination for achieving the
desired results both in terms of yield and quality.
Hence, spray of boron @ 0.15 per cent either as
boric acid or solubar and calcium as dehydrated
source @ 0.3 per cent is advisable for getting good
yield and better quality in apple.
REFERENCES
of calcium and boron on fruit quality of apple cv. Red
Delicious under water stress conditions. SKUAST J Res
6: 204-206.
Faust M (1975). the role of calcium in the respiratory
mechanism and senescence of apples. Res Scientific 238:
87-92.

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 Effect of Different Sources and Concentrations of Pre-harvest Calcium and Boron Sprays
Faust M and Shear C B(1968). Corking disorders of apples:
a physiological and biochemical review. Botanical Rev
34: 441-469.
Frank G(1986). Apple. In hand book of fruitset development.
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Gurteg S, Pal S S and Singh A S (2012). Effect of Age of
seedlings and irrigation on mortality, bolting, bulb weight
and yield of Onion (Allium cepa L.). Krishi Vigyan. 1(1):
10-13
Hikal A R F, Ibrahim M A and Abdelaziz R A ( 2017). Effect of
different treatments of calcium and boron on productivity
and fruit quality of navel orange fruits. Egypt J Hort 44
(1): 119-126.
Kumar J, Rehalia A S, Rana S S and Chandel J S(2003).
Effect of pre and post-bloom sprays of urea and boric
acid on growth, yield and fruit quality of apple cv. Red
Delicious. Prog Hort 35: 14-19.
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Marme D(1983). Calcium transport and function. In:
Inorganic plant nutrition. Eds.A. Lauchli and R.L.
Bieleski. pp. 599-625.
Snedecor G W and Cochran W G (1989). Statistical Methods.
8th Edition. Affiliated East-West Press, Lowa State
University, p. 77.
Svagzyds S, Tagliavini M N and Millard G H (1995). Mineral
nutrition of deciduous fruit plants. Acta Hort 383: 487-
490.
Tariq M and Mott C J B (2007). Effect of boron on the
behaviour of nutrients in soil-plant systems-a review.
Asian J Plant Sci 6: 195-202.
Torane S R, Naik B K, Kulkarni V S and Talathi J M ( 2011).
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Received on 10/02/2019 Accepted on 21/03/2019
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 83-87 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00015.1

Effect of Integrated Weed Management on Growth and Yield of

Kharif Onion (Allium cepa)
Nishith Gupta*, KSBhargav and Moni Singh
RajmataVijayaraje Scindia Krishi Vishwavidyalaya-KrishiVigyan Kendra,
Dewas– 452001(Madhya Pradesh)

ABSTRACT
The present study was carried out at the KrishiVigyan Kendra, Dewas during kharif2015-16, 2016-17 and
2017-18with the objectives to find out practically convenient and economically viable weed management
practices on growth, yield and yield attributing characters of kharif onion.The experiment was laid out in
randomized block design with 9 treatmentsviz.,T1=control (without hand weeding and chemical herbicides),
T2=three hand weeding at 20, 40 and 60 DAT, T3=one hand weeding at 20 DAT, T4=pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg/
ha (pre-plant incorporation-PPI), T5=oxyfluorfen @ 0.250 kg/ha (post emergence-PoE), T6=pendimethalin
@ 1.0 kg/ha (PPI) + one Hand weeding (HW) at 40 DAT, T7=oxyfluorfen @ 0.250 kg/ha (PoE) + one HW at
40 DAT, T8=pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg/ha (PPI) + oxyfluorfen @ 0.250 kg/ha (PoE), T9=pendimethalin @ 1.0
kg/ha (PPI) + oxyfluorfen @ 0.250 Kg/ha (PoE) + one HW at 40 DATwith three replications.All the weed
management practices resulted in significantly lower weed density relative to contrast.Highest plant height
(59.69 cm), neck thickness (1.11 cm), leaves/plant (8.28) were recorded in hand weeding at 20, 40 and 60
DAT which was statistically at par with pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg/ha (PPI) + oxyfluorfen @ 0.250 Kg/ha (PoE)
+ one HW at 40 DATbut significantly higher than control.Hand weeding at 20, 40 and 60 DATresulted in
significantly higher bulb weight (92.12 g), bulb diameter (6.37 cm) and bulb yield (272.14 q/ha) as compared to
rest of the treatments. Among chemical treatments, pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg/ha (PPI) + oxyfluorfen @ 0.250
Kg/ha (PoE) + one HW at 40 DAT resulted in significantly higher bulb weight (88.67 g), bulb diameter (6.14
cm) and bulb yield (267.84 q/ha).Highest net returns (Rs1,77,697/ha) and B:C(4.39) were obtained with the
application ofpendimethalin @ 1.0 Kg/ha (PPI) + oxyfluorfen @ 0.250 Kg/ha (PoE) + one hand weeding
at 40 DAT making it practically more convenient and economically viable weed management practice.
Key Words: Hand weeding, Kharif onion, Oxyfluorfen, Pendimethalin.

INTRODUCTION in the initial stages, short stature, non-branching

Onion is one of the most important commercial
vegetable crops grown all over the world.Globally
it is considered to be the second most important
vegetable after tomatoes. China is the leading
country in production of followed by India and
then USA. Presently, an annual production of
onion is 21,564 thousand MT from an area of
about 1270 thousand hectare with a productivity of
17.0 MT/ha (Anon, 2017).Onion exhibits greater
susceptibility to weed competition as compared
to other crops due to its inherent characteristics
such as slow germination, extremely slow growth
Corresponding Author’s Email:nishithkvk@gmail.com
habit, sparse foliage and shallow root system.
Therefore, quick and fast growth of weeds in the
initial stages and competition thus tends to be
severe. In addition to this, frequent irrigation water
and fertilizer application allows for successive
flushes of weeds in onion.It has been reported by
Channapagoudar and Biradar(2007) that yield loss
due to weed infestation in onions to the tune of
40 to 80 per cent. Conventional methods of weed
control i.e. hand weeding is no doubt effective but
it is time consuming, cumbersome, expensive and
under many situations becomes uneconomical.
Moreover,weeding during critical growth stages is

83 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 83-87

 Gupta et al
very difficultdue to increased cost of human labour @ 0.250 kg/ha (PoE) + one HW at 40 DAT,
and its scarceavailability. T8=pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg/ha (PPI) + oxyfluorfen
The critical period of crop-weed competition in @ 0.250 kg/ha (PoE), T9=pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg/
onion lies between 15-60 days after transplanting. ha (PPI) + oxyfluorfen @ 0.250 Kg/ha (PoE) +
Hence, managing the weeds meticulously in early one HW at 40 DAT. 45 days old seedlings of onion
stages is an imperative task to get higher weed ‘Agrifound Dark Red’, were transplanted in the
control efficiency and bulb yield. Herbicides when month of August during all the years at a spacing of
used in combination with one or two hand weedings 20 cm × 10 cm.Pendimethalin was applied before
showed improved efficiency in control of weeds. one week of transplanting as PPI, while oxyfluorfen
The control of weeds either through herbicide alone was applied 25 days after transplanting when weeds
or in combination with hand weeding at 45 days are at 3-4 leaf stage.Weed density was recorded at 75
after transplanting registered higher net returns as days after transplanting of crop by placing a quadrat
compared to weed free check (Ved Prakash et al, of 50 cm×50 cm randomly from three places in
2000). Spraying of pre-emergence herbicides keeps each plot.The data for vegetative parameters (plant
the crop in weed free conditions during early stages. height, number of leaves and neck thickness) was
Then, at later stages hand weeding or application recorded at 75 DAT and yield parameters (bulb
of post emergence herbicides helps to reduce the weight, bulb diameter and total bulb yield) were
cost of weeding and keep the weed population recorded at harvest.For economic study, prevailing
below economic threshold level throughout the market price was used for different outputs and
crop growth period.Hence, an attempt was made inputs. Statistical analysis of the data obtained
to find outthe appropriate combination of cultural in different set of experiments was calculated
and chemical weedmanagement practices for weed following the standard procedure as stated by Panse
control in onion may be practically effective and and Sukhatme (1989).
economically viable for farmers.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
MATERIALS AND METHODS Effect on weeds
A field experiment was conducted at the All treatments showed significant reduction
KrishiVigyan KendraFarm, Dewasduring kharif in total weed density as compared to unweeded
2015-16, 2016-17 and 2017-18. The experiment control during all the 3 years (Table 1). Significantly
was conducted on medium deep black soil and lower weed density (31.37/m2) was observed
the texture of the soil was clay loam type. The in three hand weedings at 20, 40 and 60 DAT.
soil pH of the plots wasfound to be in the range of Highest weed density (140.13/m2) of weeds was
7.7. The soil of the experimental site had 0.38%, recorded in control plot.These results might be
247 kg/ha, 20.8 kg/ha, 332 kg/ha organic carbon, due to the fact thatPre-plant incorporation (PPI) of
available N, P and K, respectively. The experiment pendimethalin causes reductionin germination of
was laid out in a randomized block design with total weed population during initial period of crop
three replications.The experiment consist of nine growth, further the application of oxyfluorfen as
treatments viz.,T1= control (without hand weeding post emergence herbicide(PoE)might have control
and chemical herbicides), T2= three hand weeding to the first flush of broad leaf weeds in onion, when
at 20, 40 and 60 DAT, T3= one hand weeding at 20 applied at 25 DAT. This wascombined with hand
DAT, T4=pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg/ha (pre-plant weeding at 40 DAT, be efficient for the control of
incorporation-PPI), T5=oxyfluorfen @ 0.250 kg/ha remaining grassy weeds and second flush of broad
(post emergence-PoE), T6=pendimethalin @ 1.0 leaf weeds. This was also in consonant withWarade
kg/ha (PPI) + one HW at 40 DAT, T7=oxyfluorfen et al (2006).

84 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 83-87

 Integrated Weed Management in Kharif Onion
Table 1. Weed density, growth and yield attributes of kharifonionas affected by weed management
practices(Pooled data of 3 years).
Treatment Weed density Plant Height Neck Leaves/ Bulb Bulb
(No./m2) (cm) thickness plant weight (g) Diameter
(cm) (cm)
T1 140.13 42.25 0.94 6.43 61.02 4.41
T2 31.37 59.69 1.11 8.28 92.12 6.37
T3 67.31 52.33 1.04 7.47 81.72 5.15
T4 76.81 49.33 1.00 7.20 78.10 5.13
T5 70.87 49.88 1.00 7.29 79.85 5.16
T6 54.79 53.57 1.05 7.72 86.39 5.97
T7 49.58 54.52 1.06 7.83 86.74 6.01
T8 63.63 52.15 1.02 7.50 83.51 5.54
T9 42.16 55.22 1.07 7.93 88.67 6.14
SEm+ 3.2 0.9 0.03 0.09 0.89 0.04
LSD (p=0.05) 9.8 3.31 0.12 0.41 2.61 0.17

Effect on crop growth and yield attributes
The data (Table 1) showed significant variations
among treatments in respect of all vegetative
growth parameters and yield attributes.Highest
growth attributes viz. plantheight (59.69 cm), neck
thickness (1.11 cm), number of leaves per plant
(8.28), bulb weight (92.12 g) and bulb diameter
(6.37 cm)were observed with three hand weedings
at 20, 40 and 60DAT. However application of
pendimethalin @ 1.0kg/ha(PPI) + oxyfluorfen @
0.25kg/ha (PoE) + one handweeding at 40 DAT
was at second place in respect of allthese attributes.
Whereas, all growth and yield attributes were
significantly lowest under control plot.It might be
due to less weed crop competition throughout crop
growth period by manual weeding, which in turn
maintain the soil fertility status by way of removing
less plant nutrients through weeds and ultimately
have favourable effect on growth parameters and
yield attributes. Suppression of weed competition
by pre and post emergence herbicide application
was furtherenhanced by integrating hand weeding
at 40 DAT in weed control treatments, which
offers efficient and prolongedweed control and
kept the crop weed free during the criticalperiods
of competition. These findings were in close
conformity with those reported by Chandrikaet al
(2009),Bharathiet al (2011), Kalhapureet al (2013)
and Gandolkaret al (2015).
Effecton yield
Significant variations were also observed
for bulb yield in onion.The highest bulb yield of
272.14q/ha was obtained underthree hand weedings
at 20, 40 and 60 DAT followed bypendimethalin
@ 1.0 Kg/ha (PPI) + oxyfluorfen @ 0.250kg/ha
(PoE) + one hand weeding at 40 DAT (268.84q/
ha). Lowest bulb yield was recorded in control
treatment which was significantly different from
rest of the treatments. Increase in bulb yieldwith
hand weeding and herbicide can be attributed to
reduction in weed density low during the entirecrop
growth period leading to increasedgrowth and yield
attributes. These results were in close conformity
with Chopra andChopra (2007).
Economics
The data related to cost of cultivation, gross
return, net return, benefit: cost ratio under various
weed management practices are presented in Table
2. The highest net monetaryreturn of Rs 1.78lakh/
ha was obtained with applicationof pendimethalin
@ 1.0 kg/ha (PPI) + oxyfluorfen @0.250 kg/ha

85 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 83-87

 Gupta et al
Table 2. Effect of weed management practices on bulb yield and economics of kharifonion.
Treatment Bulb Yield (q/ha) Cost of cultivation Gross Return Net Return B:C
(Lakh/ha) (Rs.) (Lakh/ha) (Rs.) (Lakh/ha) (Rs.)
T1 236.54 0.48 2.03 1.55 4.19
T2 272.14 0.59 2.34 1.75 3.97
T3 255.80 0.51 2.20 1.68 4.28
T4 257.51 0.50 2.21 1.71 4.40
T5 258.13 0.51 2.22 1.71 4.37
T6 264.57 0.52 2.27 1.75 4.38
T7 265.83 0.52 2.28 1.76 4.37
T8 260.78 0.51 2.24 1.73 4.39
T9 267.84 0.52 2.30 1.78 4.39
SEm+ 0.69 - - - -
LSD(p=0.05) 1.31 - - - -

(PoE) + one hand weeding at 40 DAT withbenefit: REFERENCES

cost of 4.41. Though weeds were controlledmore
efficiently and bulb yield production was highest in
treatment three hand weedings at 20, 40 and 60 DAT,
itscost of cultivation was also higher (Rs0.59 lakh/
ha) becauseof the higher human labour requirement
and their higherwages. The cost of human labours
for controlling weedswas reduced with application
of pre and post emergenceherbicides in combination
with hand weeding, which wasresponsible
for reduction in total cost of cultivation,
resultingmaximum B:C in treatment pendimethalin
@ 1.0kg/ha (PP)+ oxyfluorfen @ 0.250kg/ha
(POE) + one handweeding at 40 DAT. Economical
parameters of onion inrespect of methods of weed
control were also studied byPatel et al (2011).
CONCLUSION
From the results, it can be concludedthat
application of pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg/ha(PPI)
+ oxyfluorfen @ 0.250 kg/ha (PoE) + one hand
weeding at 40 DAT was more effective, practically KalhapureAH, Shete BT, Bodake PS (2001). Integrated weed
convenientand economically viable practice for
weed controlin kharifonion.
Anonymous( 2017). http://www.faostat.fao.org
Bharathi S, Rao AS, Surya Kumari S (2011). Effect of weed
management practices on weed control and yield of onion
(Allium cepa L.) in vertisols. J ResAngrau 39(12):10-13.
Chandrika V, Reddy D. SrinivasuluKarunaSagar, G and
ReddyG and Prabhakara(2009). Influence of graded
levels of nutrients,time of N application and weed
management practiceson weed dynamics, yield attributes
and bulb yield ofonion (Allium cepaL.). Indian J Weed
Sci 41 (1&2): 80-89.
Channapagoudar B B and Biradar N R(2007). Physiological
studieson weed control efficiency in direct sown onion.
Karnataka JAgrilSci 20(2): 375-376.
Chopra N and Chopra N K(2007). Production of weed
freemother bulb of onion (Allium cepa) through
integration ofherbicides and weeding. Indian J Agron
52(1):80-82.
Gandolkar K, Halikatti SI, Patil PS, Pattarand PL (2015).
Effect of sequential application of herbicides for weed
management in drill sown onion (Allium Cepa L.) under
rainfedcondition. Bioinfolet - A Quarterly J Life Sci
12(3):748-755.
management in onion (Allium cepa). Indian JAgron
58(3):408-411.
Panse V G and Sukhatme P V (1989).Statistical Methods
for Agriculture Workers. Publication and information
division. ICAR, New Delhi.

86 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 83-87

 Integrated Weed Management in Kharif Onion
Patel T U, Patel C L, Patel D D, Thanki J D, Patel P S andRam
AJat(2011).Effect of weed and fertilizer managementon
weed control and productivity of onion (Allium cepa).
Indian J Agron 56(3): 267-272.
Ved Prakash, Pandey A K, Singh R D and Mani V P(2000).
Integrated weed management in winter onion (Allium
cepa L.) under mid hill conditions of North-Western
Himalayas. Indian J Agron 45 (4): 816-821.
Warade A D, Gonge V, Jogdande N D, Ingole P G andKarunakar
A P(2006). Integrated weed management in onion.Indian
J Weed Sci 38(1&2): 92-95.
Received on 06/04/2019 Accepted on 15/04/2019

87 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 83-87

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 88-93 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00016.3

Effect of Irrigation Water on Profitability as well as

Sustainability of Summer Mung bean Versus Spring Maize
Cultivation in Kapurthala District of Punjab
Jatinder Manan, Manoj Sharma, Gobinder Singh and Gurmeet Singh
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kapurthala 144 620 (Punjab)

ABSTRACT
In the central plain zone of Punjab, the underground water level is depleting at a very rapid rate may be
due to over exploitation of water resources used for raising the long duration and high water requirement
crops in addition to the industrial use. Hence, a study was conducted to note the effect of application
of irrigation water on profitability as well as sustainability of summer mung bean versus spring maize
cultivation in Kapurthala. For this, front line demonstrations on summer mung bean were conducted on
32 ha area at farmers’ field during spring 2016 season. The various parameters recorded were sowing
date, per cent germination, number of irrigations and man days required for various crop management
practices, number of sprays applied for control of insect pest and diseases, method of harvesting,
grain yield and selling rate. The grain yield obtained in mung bean varied between 9.4 q/ha to 11.5 q/
ha and average grain yield was found to be 10.65q/ha under the demonstration plots. Total irrigation
water applied was calculated to be 9,850 and 1,200 m3 /ha for spring maize and summer mung bean,
respectively. If we calculate, the cost of irrigation water @ 1 paisa per 10 L, the net returns for spring
maize cultivation was found to be Rs 49,421/-ha and Rs 54,600/-ha for summer mung bean, which
clearly speaks that cultivation of summer mung bean is very economical compared to spring maize.
Key Words: Irrigation water, Spring Maize, Summer Mung bean, Sustainability, Water productivity.

INTRODUCTION situation and therefore, opting for cultivation of

Punjab is the major rice- wheat producing state spring maize ( Zea mays) during the month of
in the country contributing 51 per cent of Paddy Feb-June every year. Moreover, due to very high
(Anon, 2016a) and 18 per cent of wheat production temperature during the months especially April and
(Anon, 2016 b). The central plain zone comprising May, the water requirement of Maize comes out
the major part of the state is highly productive and to be very high. Sharma et al (2014) and Manan
has irrigation system, mainly through tube-wells. In et al (2016) reported that farmers in the area were
order to produce 10.8 t/ha of rice and wheat (Anon, cultivating maize hybrids developed from various
2016 c), two natural resources i.e. water and soil private organizations and earning high net profits.
have been depleted to a large extent. As, 145 water Contrary to the fact that farmers are not calculating
blocks that Punjab has been divided into, 110 have the cost of irrigation water applied in raising the
already been declared as dark zones (Anon, 2016 d) spring season crop because state government is
and removes 500-700 kg/ha major nutrients from providing electricity free of cost to run the tubewell.
the soil annually (Biswas et al, 2001). Now the time has come that the net profitability is
In spite of this peculiar situation, the farmers coming down and growing of crops is not being
of Jalandhar and Kapurthala district (Central plain sustained because the underground water level is
zone) are not judging the consequences of unwanted going down and farmers are lowering down the

Corresponding Author’s Email: jatinderkm@rediffmail.com

88 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 88-93

 Manan et al
deep submersible motors. It is pertinent to mention
that earlier the water level was at 60 ft. in the year
1991 which now has gone down to 110 ft. during
2016 in about 25 years of period. Hence, it becomes
essential to educate the farmers about the use of
irrigation water for raising short duration crops.
Mung bean (Vigna radiata) being a leguminous
crop has a unique role in fixing atmospheric nitrogen
through the process of biological nitrogen fixation
(BNF). The biological nitrogen fixed by mung
bean not only meets its own requirement but also
leaves nitrogen after harvest, which is beneficial
to the next crop by fixing 31-85 kg N/ha (Sekhon
et al, 2002). Hence, it was planned to conduct
front line demonstrations on summer moong on
an area of 32 ha. with the objective to measure the
effect of irrigation water on profitability as well as
sustainability of summer mung bean versus spring
maize cuLivation in Kapurthala
MATERIALS AND METHODS
In order to demonstrate the production potential
of summer mung bean as a profitable, sustainable
and viable alternative to the spring maize, front line
demonstrations on summer mung bean cv. SML
668 were conducted on 32 ha area at 50 farmers’
field in 2 blocks of the district i.e. SuLanpur and
Kapurthala.
so that maximum number of visitors can see the
performance of mung bean crop sown in place of
spring maize. The participating farmer had also
sown spring maize and therefore, it became easy to
make comparison between pulse and cereal crop.
Package of practices followed
All the package of practices recommended
by the Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana
(Table 1) were followed (Anon, 2016c). However,
KVK provided only seed of SML 668 and all other
inputs were applied by the farmer himself at his
own level as per the advice of the KVK scientist.
Observation recorded
Since this crop takes about 60 to 65 days
from sowing to maturity, therefore, regular and
frequent visits were made to note down growing
status of mung bean as well spring maize crops,
in order to increase the level of confidence of both
the scientist as well as participating farmer. The
various parameters recorded were sowing date, per
cent germination, number of irrigations applied,
number of sprays applied for control of insect pest
and diseases, method of harvesting, grain yield
and selling rate. Based on the data, calculations
were made in order to draw the inference about the
comparative performance of summer mung bean
with spring maize.

Selection of farmers Calculations

In two blocks, farmers were made aware The economical parameters were calculated
about the utility of pulse crops through trainings, using following formulae:
seminars and lectures organized by the Krishi
• Gross income (Rs) = Yield (q/ha) X Selling
Vigyan scientists during the months of January
price (Rs/q)
and February, 2016. During these programmes,
farmers were asked to give their requirement to go • Gross returns per day (Rs) = Gross income
for mung bean cultivation at their fields. Only those (Rs) / Crop duration (No. of days)
farmers, who were willing to sow the crop as per • Irrigation water applied (m3/ha) = Number of
the guidelines of the KVK experts were selected. irrigations x depth of irrigation (5cm) x 10x
Farmers were supplied 37.5 kg seed/ha costing Rs. 10
7,500/- free of cost.
• Net returns (Rs) = Gross returns– Cost of
Selection of site production
It was made mandatory to the farmers that • Water productivity (kg/m3/ha) = Yield (kg/ha)
demonstration plot should be along the road side / Total irrigation water used (m3)
89 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 88-93
 Effect of Irrigation Water on Profitability
Table 1. Package of practices followed for raising mung bean crop under front line demonstration.
Sr. Parameter Quantity Purpose
No.
1. Variety SML 668 It is a short duration variety which matures in 60 to 65 days after
sowing. The potential yield of this variety is 11.5 q/ha.
2 Seed 37.5 kg/ha Grains are bold in size and therefore seed rate is 37.5 kg/ha whereas
for small size varieties, it is 30 kg/ha.
3 Seed Rhizobium spp Seed must be treated with Rhizobium spp cuLure as it will help in more
treatment root nodulation which will help in fixing of atmospheric nitrogen in
the soils.
4 Time of 20 March to 10 The seed can be sown after potato harvesting in the month of end
th th

sowing April February or 1st week of March. However, the recommended time is
20th March to 10th April.
5. Application Stomp @ 2.5 L/ha. In order to control all type of weeds, pre emergence weedicide is
of weedicide required to be applied within 48 hr of sowing.
6. Control of 1250 ml of Ekalux These insecticides need to be sprayed after mixing in 80-100 L of
insect pest 25 EC (quinalphos) water with a manually operated knapsack sprayer.
and diseases or 500ml of Nuvan
100(dichlorvos)
7. Harvesting Stop irrigation It will be better to go for manual harvesting because quality of produce
after 55 days after becomes better than combine harvesting.
sowing and spray
Gramaxone @
2.0 L/ha before
harvesting with
combine harvestor.

The data were analyzed using mean values.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Grain Yield
The grain yield in mung bean varied between
9.4 q/ha to 11.5 q/ha and average grain yield was
found to be 10.65 q/ha under the demonstration
plots (Table 2), whereas, in the farmer’s practice, the
average yield obtained was 6.5 q/ha. However, the
potential yield of the variety (SML 668) was 11.25
q/ha. This might probably be due to difference in
the soil type and management practices followed by
the farmers as well as effect of preceding crop on
the yield of mung bean.
Average yield of mung bean of the district was
found to be 5.24 q/ha and the state average was 6.69
q/ha, both these values were lower than the average
yield of 10.65 q/ha obtained under FLD conducted
by the KVK scientists. These values showed that
average yield of FLD’s have a yield gap of (- 59.2

Table 2. Comparative performance of spring maize versus summer mung bean.

Sr. No. Parameter Spring Maize Mung bean
1 Days to maturity (Days) 118.5 63.4
2 Yield (q/ha) 94.0 10.65 ( 9.4 to 11.5)
3 Selling price (Rs/q) 958/- 7,000/-

90 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 88-93

 Manan et al
Table 3. Water use efficiency in spring maize and mung bean
Sr. No. Parameter
1 Number of irrigations during crop season
2 Total irrigation water applied (Cubic m/ha)
3 Water productivity (kg/m3/ha)
4 Cost of irrigation water (Rs/ha)
%) with respect to state yield and (- 103 %) to the
district yield, whereas, only 5.3 per cent lower
as compared to the potential yield of the variety.
Hence, cultivation of pulse crops demand a regular
visit to the field followed by timely operations
particularly weed control during first 25 days and
control of tobacco caterpillar and American boll
worm during first 45 days and later on at flowering
and pod formation stages. It was noticed during this
season that there was heavy infestation of tobacco
caterpillar and American boll worm on mung bean
crop, that was controlled effectively in FLD but
farmers could not take precautionary measures and
thus obtained lower yield as compared to potential
yield of the variety. The yield losses caused by pod
borer varied from 30-50 % in different rotations.
Water productivity
The cropping season of both spring maize and
summer mung bean starts from February to June
months, when the ambient temperature starts rising
and was found to be maximum during the months
of April and May. The duration of growing period
for maize and summer mung bean is 118 days and
63 days, respectively. The data regarding number
of irrigation applied during crop season varied
significantly because spring maize required 19.7
irrigations as compared to 2.4 irrigations for summer
mung bean. Likewise, total irrigation water applied
was calculated to be 9,850 and 1,200 m3/ha for
spring maize and summer mung bean, respectively
(Table 3).
This indicates that cultivation of spring
maize is highly unsustainable due to higher water
requirement which has led to more underground
water depletion as evident from lowering of water
91 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 88-93
Spring Maize Mung bean
19.7 2.4
9850 1200
0.95 0.89
9,850/- 1,200/-
table @ 60-70 cm per year in the central plain zone
of Punjab and if this situation continues to prevail,
the whole district will be declared as dark zone.
Hence it is imperative to discourage cultivation of
spring maize and farmers must be advised to go for
short duration water efficient and sustainable crop
such as summer mung bean.
Cost of irrigation water
Although Government of Punjab is providing
electricity free of cost to the farming sector, as a
result of which farmers do not consider the cost of
irrigation water applied for growing crops. If we
calculate, the cost of irrigation water @ 1 paisa per
10 L then, the cost of irrigation water for spring
maize cultivation during the season was calculated
to be Rs 9,850/-ha and for summer mung bean it was
Rs 1,200/-ha, which clearly speaks that cultivation
of summer mung bean is very economical compared
to spring maize. This fact needs to be further
propagated among the farming community while
calculating the gross profit or net profit earned per
unit area.
Cost of inputs used for raising crops
The values in Table 4 clearly showed that there
was a huge difference in the cost of production for
spring maize (Rs 30,800/-) and summer mung bean
(Rs 18,750/-). The major difference was due to the
fertilizer application because summer mung bean
was grown mostly after potato harvesting which
requires no fertilizer whereas, for growing spring
maize there was a need for 300 kg of urea, 187.5
kg of DAP and 50 kg of MOP per hectare, which
cost Rs 6,875/- per ha. Similarly, for providing 19
irrigations to the spring maize, during the growing
period starting from February to June at least 19
 Effect of Irrigation Water on Profitability
Table 4. Cost of inputs used for growing spring maize and summer mung bean per hectare.
Sr. No. Parameter Spring Maize Mung bean
1 Land Preparation 3,750/- 3,750/-
2 Seed cost 4,000/- 7,500/-
3 Seed treatment 350/- 50/-
4 Labour cost for sowing 1,750/- 1,000/-
5 Watch and ward cost during germination and grain filling 2,325/- 0
6 Weedicide used 1,625/- 1,000/-
7 Insecticides used 1,000/- 1,200/-
8 Fertilizers used 6,875/- 0
9 Earthing up 625/- 0
10 Labour cost for harvesting 3,750/- 2,750/-
11 Labour cost for threshing 0 1,000/-
12 Labour for irrigation 4,750/- 500/-
Total Cost 30,800/- 18,750/-
man days @Rs. 250/man day were required thus This was the main reason that farmers were
costing Rs 4,750/- , which is Rs 500/- in case of increasing area under spring maize day by day in
summer mung bean. order to harvest maximum gross income and not
Additionally, an amount of Rs 2325/- was paying any attention toward cultivation of short
required to deploy a person for taking care of watch duration, more resource efficient crops like summer
and ward especially at the time of germination and mung bean and spring groundnut etc. Contrary to
after filling up of grains in spring maize (Table 4). the fact that if we calculate gross returns on per
As far as, harvesting cost is concerned maize crop day basis then summer mung bean gives an amount
was harvested with the help of combine harvester of Rs. 1,176/-ha as compared to spring maize
@ Rs 3750/- per ha, whereas, moong crop was (Rs.760/-ha). This indicated that farmers can earn
harvested and threshed manually. No fertilizer was more per unit area in per unit time but it requires
applied to the summer Mung bean as Rhizobium an exhaustive effort to be made by the extension
spp. which supplies about 20-40 kg N/ha. can be agencies in order to make the farmer understandable
considered as a complementary source of plant about this philosophy.
nutrients as inoculation of Rhizobium enhances Net Returns
nodulation, nitrogen fixation, and grain yield. The study clearly indicated that the net
Gross Returns profitability is totally dependent upon the cost of
The average selling price of mung bean irrigation water applied, which is considered free
observed during the year 2016-17 was between Rs. by the farmers and if taken into consideration,
6500/- to Rs. 7500/-q and so the average was Rs. cultivation of spring maize, in any case is not at all
7,000/-q then gross income comes out to be Rs. profitable (Table 5). In one case, when irrigation
74,550/-ha (Table 5). On the other hand, spring water cost was excluded, spring maize gave a net
maize yielded an average of 94.0 q/ha @ Rs. 958/-q profit of Rs 59,271/- per ha compared to 55,800/-
which comes out to be Rs. 90,052/ha and was more with summer mung bean, showing that it is
by Rs. 15,502/ha. economical to go for cultivation of spring maize.

92 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 88-93

 Manan et al
Table 5. Net returns in spring maize and mung bean.
Sr. No. Parameter Spring Maize Mung bean
1 Gross income (Rs/ha) 90,052/- 74,550/-
2 Gross returns per day (Rs/ha/day) 760/- 1,176/-
4 Cost of production including irrigation cost (Rs/ha) 40,650/- 19,950/-
5 Net returns excluding irrigation cost (Rs/ha) 59,271/- 55,800/-
6 Net Returns including irrigation cost (Rs/ha) 49,421/- 54,600/-

In second case, when cost of irrigation water @ 1 REFERENCES

paisa per 10 L was taken into account cultivation
of spring maize became less remunerative (Rs
49,421/-) than the summer mung bean (Rs 54,600/-
). Therefore, it can be said that farmers must take Anonymous (2016 b). http://listz.in/top-10-wheat-producing-
into account the cost of irrigation water required to
irrigate the crop, while calculating the total cost of Anonymous (2016 c). Package of practices for kharif crops of
production as well as the profitability of the crop.
CONCLUSION
The average grain yield of mung bean was
10.65 q/ha under the demonstration plots whereas
average yield of spring maize was 94q/ha. On the
contrary, total irrigation water applied was 9,850
and 1,200 m3 /ha. for spring maize and summer
mung bean, respectively. This indicated that spring
maize requires 8.2 times more quantity of irrigation
water than summer mung bean. Similarly, irrigation
to spring maize and summer mung bean costs about
24.3 and 6.0 per cent of the total cost of production,
respectively. The average selling price of mung
bean during the year 2016-17 was Rs. 7,000/-q and
thus, gross income comes out to be Rs. 74,550/-
ha whereas selling price of spring maize was
Rs. 958/-q. so gross income comes out to be Rs.
90,052/ha which was more by Rs. 15,502/ha than
summer Mung bean. On calculating the cost of
irrigation water @ 1 paisa per 10 L, the net returns
for spring maize cultivation was Rs 49,421/-ha
and Rs 54,600/-ha for summer mung bean. Hence
it is imperative to discourage cultivation of spring
maize and farmers must be advised to go for short
duration water efficient and sustainable crop such
as summer mung bean.
Anonymous (2016 a). http://articles.economictimes.
indiatimes.com/2016-01-09/news/69634736 _1_tonnes-
rice-stock-paddy
states-in-india.html
Punjab. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana.
Anonymous (2016d).http://economictimes.indiatimes.
com/news/politics-and-ation/depleting-ground-
water-dark-reality-under-punjabs-green-landscape/
articleshow/51741389.cms
Biswas S C, Soumitra Das and P Subhash Kalwae ( 2001).
Crop response to biofertilizer. Fert News 46: 15-18 & 21-
24.
Manan J, Sharma M, Singh G and Singh G (2016). Effect of
application of various inputs by the farmers and the yield
of spring maize hybrids. J Krishi Vigyan 4(2) : 22-27.
Sekhon H S, Singh G and Sharma P ( 2002). Biological
nitrogen fixation. pp 141-166. In: Recent Advances in
Agronomy. G Singh, J S Kolar and H S Sekhon (eds.).
Indian Society of Agronomy, New Delhi, India.
Sharma M, Singh O, Singh G and Kaur G (2014). A snap shot
of spring maize cultivation in Kapurthala and Jalandhar
district under central plain zone of Punjab. J Krishi
Vigyan 3(1) : 1-4.
Received on 15/10/18 Accepted on 15/03/2019

93 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 88-93

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 94-99 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00048.5

Effect of Liquid Bioinoculants on Biocontrol Activities and

Growth Promotion of Amarathus (Amaranthus cruentus)
H Gurumurthy1, M K Shivaprakash2 and C C Maina3
Department of Agricultural Microbiology, University of Agricultural Sciences,
GKVK, Bangalore-560 065(Karnataka)

ABSTRACT
An experiment was conducted to evaluate the best consortia of liquid bioinoculantsfor biocontrol
of pathogens and to enhance the plant growth and biomass of Amaranthus cruentus under greenhouse
conditions. Liquid bioinoculants viz., Azotobacter chroococcum, Bacillus megaterium, Frateuria aurantia,
Psuedomonas fluorescens, Bacillus subtilis and Trichoderma viridaewere used either singly oras consortia
in different treatment combinations. Treatment T8 (Pathogens+ Bacillus subtilis + Pseudomonas fluorescens
+ Trichoderma viride) recorded maximum biocontrol efficiency (72.89 %) and vigour index (2423.56)
followed by T7 (62.25 % and 2298.11). Growth parameter like maximum plant height (8.82 cm at 15
DAS, 29.0 cm at 21 DAS and 40.87 cm at 30 DAS) was recorded in T5. Maximum number of leaves
(6.23 at 15 DAS, 9.13 at 21 DAS and 12.57 at 30 DAS) was recorded in T5which received consortia of
Azotobacter chroococcum, Bacillus megaterium, Frateuria aurantia, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Bacillus
subtilis and Trichoderma viride. Maximum root length, shoot length, plant fresh weight and plant dry
weight were 7.80 cm, 40.87 cm, 7.87 g and 3.07 g, respectively recorded in T5 followed by other treatments.
Key Words: Amaranthus, Biocontrol, Efficiency, Liquid bioinoculants, Seedling, Vigour index.

INTRODUCTION Apart from its uses as a vegetable, it has also been

The health and nutrition of expanding world used as an effective alternative to drug therapy
population is major upcoming challenges especially in people with hypertension and cardiovascular
in developing countries. Green leafy vegetables disease (CVD) Martirosyan and Miroshnichenko
were used since ancient periods as source of food (2007). The demand for this crop as vegetable has
as they contain many nutrients and minerals which increased, especially in the urban centres where
are helpful in maintaining human health. Leafy people are not involved in primary production and
vegetables being richest in their nutritional value hence, these vegetables have become an important
hold an important place in well-balanced diet commodity in our market and its production an
and are the cheapest of all the vegetables within important economic activity for the rural women.
the reach of poor man. They are also sources of Liquid biofertilizer formulation is a promising
energy, micronutrients and nutrients essential for and updated technology of the conventional carrier
health, in addition to phytochemicals with health based production technology wherein its shelf
benefits including glycemic control, immuno- life is up to 3m and it does not retain throughout
stimulation or antioxidant activity (Belanger et the crop cycle. Liquid biofertilizers on the other
al, 2004). Amaranthus cruentus(L) is a popular hand facilitates the long survival of the organism
leafy vegetable originated from South America. by providing the suitable medium which is
Corresponding Author’s Email: gurumurthyh.8031@gmail.com
1
Senior Research Fellow, Division of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, ICAR-IIHR, Hesaraghatta Lake Post, Bengaluru-560089.
2
ICAR Emeritus Professor, Department of Agricultural Microbiology, UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru-560065, Karnataka.
3
Research Fellow, Scheme on Popularisation of Biofertilizer, Department of Agricultural Microbiology, UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru-560065.

94 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 94-99

 Gurumurthy et al
sufficient for the entire crop cycle. Carrier based pathogen was filled in the trays and the sowing
bio fertilizers are not so tolerant to the temperature was taken up in replication. The trays were watered
which is mostly unpredictable and uncertain in the daily and the following observations related to
crop fields while temperature tolerance is the other germination viz., germination percentage, percent
advantage of the liquid biofertilizers (Mahdi et al, pre-emergence and post emergence disease
2010). Keeping all these aspects in mind, this study incidence, Seedling vigour index (SVI), shoot and
was conducted to evaluate the biocontrol efficiency, root length , bio control efficiency were recorded.
seedling vigour index, growth and biomass of Percent pre-emergence disease incidence was
Amarathus (Amaranthuscruentus) by using liquid calculated using formula100 (GA-GT)/ GA where
bioinoculants. GA-Germination percentage in absolute control and
GT- Germination percentage in treatment. Percent
MATERIAL AND METHODS post- emergence disease incidence was calculated
Biocontrol efficacy of selected biocontrol agents using formula 100 (GP-ND)/ GP where GP-Number
in seedling trays under green house conditions of healthy plants left in control and ND- Number of
A seedling tray experiment was conducted to healthy plants left in treatment. The seedling vigour
evaluate the antagonistic and growth promoting index was calculated by adopting the method suggested
effect of the consortia of biocontrol agents in substrate by (Abdul- Baki and Anderson,1973)and expressed in
enriched with biocontrol agents against pathogen number by using the formula SVI = Germination (%)
under greenhouse condition in the Department of x [shoot length (cm) + root length (cm)]
Agril. Microbiology UAS. GKVK, Bangalore with The shoot length of ten randomly selected
the following treatments. T1:Control, T2: Bacillus plants was measured from collar region to the tip
subtilis (Bs), T3:Pseudomonas fluorescens (Pf), of the plant with the help of a scale and the mean
T4:Trichoderma viride (Tv), T5:Bacillus subtilis (Bs)shoot length was expressed in centimetres. The root
+ Pseudomonas fluorescens (Pf),T6:Bacillus subtilis length ten randomly selected plants was measured
(Bs) + Trichodermaviride (Tv), T7:Pseudomonas from collar region to the tip of primary root with
fluorescens (Pf) + Trichodermaviride (Tv), the help of a scale and the mean root length was
T8:Bacillus subtilis (Bs) + Pseudomonas fluorescens expressed in centimetres .Biological control efficacy
(Pf) + Trichodermaviride (Tv) was calculated using the formula BCE = (DIPC-
Preparation of substrates and seedling trays DIT/ DIPC) x 100 given by (Guo et al, 2004)where
The substrate was prepared by mixing 10 kg DIPC- Disease incidence in pathogen control and
of coir pith with 2.5 kg each of red earth, perlite, DIT- disease incidence in treatment group
vermicompost and pongamia cake. The substrates Growth promotion and biocontrol activities of
were autoclaved in autoclavable polybags liquid formulations on Amaranthus in raised
and filled into large polythene bags. The mass beds
multiplied pathogen inoculum viz., Fusariumsp., For this experiment, land was dug and soil
Phytophthorasp., Pythiumsp. and Rhizoctoniasp. was brought to fine tilth. FYM and vermicompost
and biocontrol agents were added to substrate were applied at the rate of 12.5 t/ha 15d prior to
mixture @ 100g /kg to each polybag and mixed sowing. Small plots having a dimension of 1m
properly one week prior to sowing. The mixed × 1m were prepared. Microbial inoculants were
substrate was added at the rate of 100g/tray at the applied to each plot as per required treatment as
time of sowing. The trays with 18 cups each with soil application seven days before sowing. Sowing
100g capacity were used for the experiment. The was taken up and the beds were regularly watered
trays were labelled and substrate infested with and maintained and observations were recorded

95 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 94-99

 Effect of Liquid Bioinoculants on Biocontrol Activities
at regular intervals. The plants were sprayed with
consortia of biocontrol agentsviz., Pseudomonas
fluorescens. Bacillus subtilis, Lactic acid bacteria,
Azotobacter chroococcum, Saccaharomyces
cerevisiae at 14 and 21d after sowing. The
treatment details were as follows. T1:Control,T2:
A. chroococcum(A.c) + B. megaterium(B.m)
+ F. aurantia(F.a), T3: A. chroococcumA.c)
+ B. megaterium(B.m) + F. aurantia(F.a) +
B.subtilis(B.s), T4: A. chroococcum(A.c) + B.
megaterium(B.m) + F. aurantia(F.a) + T.viride(T.v),
T5: A. chroococcum(A.c) + B. megaterium(B.m)
+ F. aurantia(F.a) + T.viride(T.v) + P. fluorescens
(P.f) + B.subtilis(B.s), T6: A. chroococcum(A.c)
+ B. megaterium(B.m) + F. aurantia(F.a) + P.
fluorescens (P.f), T7: A. chroococcum(A.c) + B.
megaterium(B.m) + T.viride(T.v) + B.subtilis (B.s)
T8:A. chroococcum(A.c) + B. megaterium(B.m) +
P. fluorescens (P.f) + T.viride(T.v)
Observations related to plant growth viz., plant
height (cm), number of leaves, shoot length (cm),
root length (cm), fresh weight and dry weight of
plants (g) were recorded at regular intervals.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Biocontrol efficiency of Amaranthus
The results pertaining to the effect of liquid
bioionculants on biocontrol efficiency in amaranthus
grown in seedling trays under greenhouse condition
is presented in Table 1. Per cent germination
(89.07) was maximum in Treatment T8 (Pathogens
+ Bacillus subtilis + Pseudomonas fluorescens +
Trichodermaviride) followed by T7 (Pathogens
+ Pseudomonas fluorescens+ Trichodermaviride
(88.70) which was on par with T8. Lowest per
cent germination (70.20) was recorded in control
T1 (pathogens alone).There were no significant
differences observed between the treatments
regarding days taken for 50 per cent germination.
The treatments T5 and T6 recorded less number
of days taken for 50 per cent germination (3.00)
followed by T4, T7 and T8 which took 3.33 days
taken for 50 per cent germination. Lowest pre-
96 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 94-99
emergence disease incidence (3.0%) was observed
with T8 followed by T6 (3.26 %) T7 (4.05 %) and T5
(4.07 %). Treatment T8 which received Trichoderma
viride as liquid bioinoculant recorded lowest post
emergence disease incidence (4.01%) which was
significantly lesser than other treatments. Maximum
biocontrol efficiency (72.89 %) was observed in the
treatment T8 which was significantly higher than T7
(62.25 %). The highest biocontrol efficiency of T8
can be attributed to the use of biocontrol agents to
suppress the disease incidence with the production
of antibiotics, siderophores, and cell wall degrading
enzymes (chitinase and glucanse) as well as
induction of systemic resistance, root colonization
efficacy, and rhizosphere competence (Beneduzi et
al, 2012).
Biocontrol efficiency was lowest in control which
may be attributed to lack of any biocontrol agent in
the treatment.Compared to individual inoculation
and control, collective effect of liquid consortia can
reduce the use of chemical fertilizers. Inoculation
with plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR)
may enhance crop productivity either by making
the nutrients available to plants or by protecting
plants from pathogenic microorganisms. Our
results were similar to the results obtained by
(Karthikeyanet al, 2001)who reported the use of
consortia of Trichodermavirideand T. harzianumand
Paecilomyces lilacinus against damping off of
brinjal and Mohan (2006)who reported a decrease
in the disease incidence of brinjal seedlings when
treated with a consortia of biocontrol agents and
PGPRs.
Seedling vigour index of Amaranthus
The data pertaining to the efficiency of liquid
bioinoculants in enhancing seedling vigour of
Amaranthus are presented in Table 2. Highest root
length (6.50 cm) was recorded in T8(Pathogens
+Bacillus subtilis+Pseudomonas fluorescens
+Trichoderma viride). Lowest root length (2.30
cm) was recorded with control which was treated
with only pathogens. Treatment T8 (Pathogens +
Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas fluorescence and
 Gurumurthy et al
Table 1. Biocontrol efficiency of liquid bio inoculants in Amaranthus grown in seedling trays under
green house condition.
Days taken Pre-emergence Post –emergence
Per cent Biocontrol
Treatment for 50 per cent disease incidence disease incidence
Germination efficiency (%)
germination (%) (%)
T1 70.20d 4.00a 28.33a 28.56a 0.00h
T2 75.37cd 4.00a 15.25b 19.03b 12.00g
T3 80.37bc 4.33a 8.23c 14.27c 29.11e
T4 78.17c 3.33a 5.07cd 9.53d 20.23f
T5 79.30bc 3.00a 4.07d 9.28 d
32.25d
T6 84.23ab 3.00a 3.26d 7.14de 54.12c
T7 88.70a 3.33a 4.05d 8.00d 62.25b
T8 89.07a 3.33a 3.00d 4.01e 72.89a
SEM± 1.29 1.03 0.79 0.77 0.75

Table 2. Efficiency of liquid bio inoculants in enhancing seedling vigour of Amaranthus grown in
seedling trays under green house condition.
Root length Shoot length Root dry weight
Treatment Shoot dry weight (g) Vigour index
(cm) (cm) (g)
T1 2.30f 10.11d 0.410a 0.087d 871.03d
T2 4.30bc 17.13bc 0.053c 0.090d 1615.19c
T3 2.70ef 16.31c 0.092b 0.073e 1527.81c
T4 3.33de 17.00bc 0.061c 0.084d 1591.43c
T5 4.00cd 15.13c 0.088b 0.124c 1517.38c
T6 6.00ab 19.00ab 0.091b 0.221a 2109.25b
T7 5.60a 20.31a 0.089b 0.163b 2298.11ab
T8 6.50bc 20.71a 0.093b 0.223a 2423.56a
SEM± 1.01 0.58 0.002 0.002 75.17

Trichoderma viride) recorded maximum shoot index ofAmaranthus plants of T8 receiving pathogens,
length (20.71 cm) followed by T7 (20.31), T8 and T7 Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas fluorescence and
which were on par with each other. Lowest shoot Trichoderma viride (2423.56) when compared to
length (10.11 cm) was recorded in Control T1. T7 receivingpathogens, Pseudomonas fluorescens
Maximum root dry weight (0.093 g) was observed and Trichoderma viride (2298.11). Plants treated
in T8 followed by T6 (0.091 g) and was on par with with only pathogens recorded the lowest T1 vigour
each other. Highest shoot dry weight (0.223 g) was index (871.03). Higher growth parameters were
also noticed in T8 (Pathogens + Bacillus subtilis, observed in T8 attributed to biocontrol activity of
Pseudomonas fluorescens and Trichoderma viride) Trichoderma viride, Pseudomonas fluorescens and
followed by T6 (0.221 g). Least shoot dry weight plant growth promoting activity of Bacillus subtilis
(0.087 g) was recorded in control (T1). and Pseudomonas fluorescens. This finding was
There was a significant increase in the vigour similar to the findings of Gamalero et al ( 2004).

97 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 94-99

 Effect of Liquid Bioinoculants on Biocontrol Activities
Growth and biomass of Amaranthus as and Trichoderma viride (T7) respectively. The lowest
influenced by liquid bio inoculants on raised number of leaves (4.93) was observed in the control.
beds under green house condition After 30 days of sowing, the highest root
The results pertaining to growth and biomass of length(7.80 cm), shoot length (40.87), plant
Amaranthus as influenced by liquid bio inoculants fresh weight (7.87 g), plant dry weight (3.07 g)
on raised beds under green house condition at was recorded in the treatment (T5) treated with
different days after sowing (DAS) is interpreted in Azotobacter chroococcum, Bacillus megaterium,
Table 3. At 15 DAS, plants of T5 receiving consortia Frateuria aurantia, Pseudomonas fluorescens,
of Azotobacter chroococcum, Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus subtilis andTrichoderma viride.
Frateuria aurantia, Pseudomonas fluorescens,
Bacillus subtilis and Trichoderma viride recorded There was a significant difference among growth
maximum height (8.82 cm) followed by T8 parameters between the plants which received
(Azotobacter chroococcum, Bacillus megaterium, different combination of liquid bioinoculants.
Pseudomonas fluorescens and Trichoderma viride) Treatment T5 recorded maximum growth parameters
which recorded 8.70 cm and T6 recorded 8.63 cm. compared to other treatments. The findings
The lowest plant height was recorded in the control coincides with (Murugesan, 2008, Ramakrishnan
(5.45 cm). At 21 DAS, T5 recorded maximum plant and Selvakumar, 2012), overall utilization of liquid
height of 29.00 cm followed by T8 which recorded biofertilizers with single and combined treatments
28.70 cm. After 30 DAS, the maximum plant in addition to increased yield could be a strategy
height (40.87 cm) was observed in T5 treated with to achieve sustainable agriculture. The results are
Azotobacter chroococcum, Bacillus megaterium, attributed to the cumulative beneficial effect of
Frateuria aurantia, Pseudomonas fluorescens, PGPRs and biocontrol agents. These results were
Bacillus subtilis and Trichoderma viride followed in conformity with the findings of (Chrispaulet al,
by T6 (40.53 cm) which was treated with microbial 2010) who reported that the treatment receiving
consortia of Azotobacter chroococcum, Bacillus effective microorganisms recorded highest values
megaterium, Frateuria aurantia and Pseudomonas in all the parameters measured except the root
fluorescens and T8 (39.07 cm). The treatment control dry matter accumulation. There were significant
recorded least plant height of 23.37 cm differences (p≤0.05) in shoot length, growth, stem
diameter, leaf numbers per plant, leaf area, leaf
The application of microbial consortia also fresh and dry weight and root fresh and dry weights
had significant positive effect on number of leaves among treatments. The results demonstrated
of Amaranthus raised in beds under green house that growth and yield of Amaranthus may be
conditions. At 15 DAS and 21 DAS, significant improved by inoculating the plants with effective
number of leaves (6.23 and 9.13, respectively) was microorganisms, and as a result reducing the use of
observed in T5 which received microbial consortia chemical fertilizers in production of this vegetable
of Azotobacter chroococcum, Bacillus megaterium, hence promoting sustainable agriculture.
Frateuria aurantia, Pseudomonas fluorescens,
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98 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 94-99

 Gurumurthy et al
Table 3. Growth and yield of Amaranthus as influenced by liquid bio inoculants in raised beds under
green house condition.
Plant height (cm) Number of leaves Root Shoot Plant Plant Dry
Treatment 15 21 30 15 21 30 length length Fresh weight
DAS DAS DAS DAS DAS DAS (cm) (cm) weight (g) (g)
T1 5.45e 14.60e 23.37f 4.93a 7.53c 10.13d 3.40g 23.37f 2.48f 0.94e
T2 6.85d 18.33d 27.53e 5.27a 8.10bc 10.80cd 5.30f 27.53e 4.60e 1.47d
T3 7.50c 22.47c 28.97d 5.00a 8.03bc 11.50bc 6.30de 28.97d 5.71d 1.73cd
T4 8.40ab 23.23c 38.23b 5.90a 8.53ab 11.43bc 6.50cd 38.23b 7.59b 1.93c
T5 8.82a 29.00a 40.87a 6.23a 9.13a 12.57a 7.80a 40.87a 7.87a 3.07a
T6 8.63a 25.77b 40.53a 6.13a 8.50ab 11.83b 7.00b 40.53a 7.77ab 2.83ab
T7 7.82bc 25.53b 36.43c 6.10a 8.27b 11.40bc 6.70c 36.43c 7.71ab 2.68b
T8 8.70a 28.70a 39.07b 5.83a 8.13c 11.77b 6.17e 39.07b 7.19c 2.93ab
SEM± 0.15 0.35 0.25 0.34 0.15 0.16 0.07 0.25 0.06 0.08
Note: Means with the same superscript donot differ significantly @ P=<0.05 as per DMRT
T1: Control (Pathogens alone) T5: Pathogens + Bacillus subtilis + Pseudomonas fluorescens
T2: Pathogens + Bacillus subtilis T6: Pathogens + Bacillus subtilis + Trichodermaviride
T3: Pathogens + Pseudomonas fluorescens T7: Pathogens + Pseudomonas fluorescens + Trichodermaviride
T4: Pathogens + Trichodermaviride T8: Pathogens + Bacillus subtilis + Pseudomonas fluorescens + Trichodermaviride

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Mohan S M (2006). Biological control of Damping off disease
of Solanaceous crops in Commercial Nurseries. M Sc
(Agri.) ThesisUnivAgriSci Bangalore.
Murugesan NV (2008). Effect of liquid biofertilizer on growth
and yield of tomato J Ecobiology 23 (2): 153-158.
Ramakrishnan K and Selvakumar G (2012). Effect of
biofertilizers on enhancement of growth and yield on
tomato, Int J Res in Botany 2(4): 20-23.
Saunder R A and Beciker R (1984). Amaranthus.A potential
food and feed resource. In: “Advanced Science
Technology” cereal chemist. St Paul MN. P. 352.
Received on 27/02/2019 Accepted on 30/03/2019

99 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 94-99

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 100-103 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00017.5

Effectiveness of Training Programmes on Textile Designing and

Clothing among Rural Women
Manisha Bhatia and V K Rampal
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Ropar-144 001
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana (Punjab)

ABSTRACT
Providing technical knowledge to the rural women through various training programmes is imperative
for the development of women. Krishi Vigyan Kendras play an important role in providing knowledge
about the improved practices of home Science technologies through its various training programmes.
The present study was conducted with the aim to study the effectiveness of the training programmes in
terms of gain in knowledge of the trainees. The focus was however on the trainings related to textile
designing and clothing construction. The data were collected from 75 trainees who attended the training
programmes through a set of questionnaire administered to them both before and after the conduct of
the training. Test scores were calculated and gain in scores was obtained. Percentage improvement
was calculated to study the improvement in scores. The t-test scores indicated that the trainings
have made significant (p<0.05) differences in the gain in the knowledge test scores of the trainees.
Key Words: Knowledge test, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Garment Construction, Trainings.

INTRODUCTION their income. The training programmes conducted

Bringing rural women to the forefront is
essential for the overall development and upliftment
of the society. Increase in the knowledge about
the improved practices through various training
programmes is one of the critical inputs for the
development of women particularly in the rural
areas. Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) conducts
training programmes on improved practices of
various home science technologies including
preservation of fruits and vegetables, stitching and
garment construction and soap and detergent making.
Among the various training programmes conducted
by the KVK for the rural women, trainings related
to textile designing and clothing construction has
immense potential in the rural areas. The rural
women have basic knowledge about garment
construction but often lack knowledge about the
techniques of value addition of clothing such as
tie and dye, fabric painting, block printing and
hand embroidery. Thus, providing the knowledge
about these technologies is important to enhance
Corresponding Author’s Email: bhatiamanisha@pau.edu
by KVK comprised of lectures, demonstrations
and hands-on training on various aspects of
textile designing and garment construction. For
better execution and implementation of training
programmes the study on the qualitative gain
in the knowledge of beneficiaries is important.
The present study therefore, aims to calculate the
effectiveness of training programmes on stitching,
garment construction and textile designing in terms
of change in knowledge of the beneficiaries after
attending the training programmes.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Criteria of parameter selection
For studying the impact of training programmes
on the change in the knowledge of the beneficiaries,
a knowledge test comprising of 30 questions divided
in three sections was prepared. The first part dealt
with the equipments and supplies used in sewing,
sewing machine and its care and recording of body
measurements. The second section comprised of

100 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 100-103

 Bhatia and Rampal
textiles related questions such as different textile Table 1. Socio Economic Profile of the
fibers and finishing techniques, different methods of Respondents.
developing a design, principles of designs, elements Sr. Parameter Percentage
of design, selection of suitable clothing and care and No.
storage of clothing and the third dealt with the basic A. Age (yr)
of colours, tie and dye and methods for removal of
15-20 13.3
different stains from different types of fabric. The
20-25 20
present study is based on the data collected from 75
rural women who attended 5 training programmes 25-30 14.7
on stitching and garment construction and fabric 30-35 16
designing at KVK Fatehgarh Sahib during 2016 to 35-40 18.7
2018. >40 17.3
B. Caste
Criteria of Knowledge Test
General 33.3
This test was administered to the respondents
SC 66.7
before starting the training programme. Pre-test
C. Education
scores were calculated on the basis of the existing
knowledge of rural women related to stitching and Primary 10.7
fabric designing. Same set of questions were asked Middle 9.3
post training as well. Gain in scores and percent Matric 26.7
improvement was calculated using following Senior Secondary 20
equations: Graduate 26.6
Gain in Scores= Score of post test-Score of pretest Post Graduate 6.7
D. Monthly Income (in Rs.)
Per cent improvement= Gain in scores x100
Pre test scores 10,000 to 20,000 22.6
20,000 to 30,000 42.7
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 30,000 to 40,000 20.0
40,000 to 50,000 14.7
Socio-economic Profile
Majority of the respondents (20%) were in the the training (Table 2). Thus, the gain in score of the
age group of 20-25 yr and 66.7 per cent belonged respondents was 1.13. The knowledge test scores
to SC category. The educational status of the indicated that the knowledge of the respondents
respondents indicated that four out of every five regarding the equipments and selection of the
respondents had education of metric and above, fabric increased by 18 per cent points during the
of them 6.7 per cent were post-graduate (Table 1). post-test. During the pre-test only 28 per cent of
About two-fifths of the respondents had monthly the respondents were aware of different methods
income between Rs.20,000 to Rs.30,000/-. of developing design while after the training about
Impact of the training programmes on the half of the respondents had knowledge on this
knowledge aspect. Only one-fourth of the respondents knew
The first section dealt with the questions related about the defects of sewing machine before the
to the equipments and selection of fabric. The training while their proportion increased and three-
data indicated that the mean score of pre-test was fourths of the respondents had knowledge about
6.29 which improved to 8.05 when the same set of this aspect after the training. Care and maintenance
questions was administered to the respondents after of sewing machine was known to only 13 per cent

101 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 100-103

 Effectiveness of Training Programmes
Table 2. Impact of training on the Knowledge of the respondents.
Sr. Knowledge aspect Pre-test Scores Post-test Scores Gain in % Improvement
No. Scores
1 Equipment and Selection of 6.29 8.05 1.13 17.96
fabric
2 Textile and design 5.1 7.53 2.43 47.64
3 Colours and fabric printing 4.27 8.1 3.83 89.69
Overall Knowledge Test 16.29 23.68 7.39 45.36

of the respondents during the pre-test while their the questions related to primary and secondary
proportion improved to 38 per cent at the end of the colours especially before the training but after the
training. training the knowledge on this aspect was enhanced
The second section of the questionnaire dealt and about seven out of every ten women knew
with the questions related to textile and design. The about it.
pre-test scores of the respondents on this aspect was
5.1 which improved by 2.43 scores and thus the post-
test score was 7.53 with percentage improvement of
47.64 in the scores. During the pre-test, only two
out of every ten respondents were aware of the
properties of natural and man-made fibers while
after the training seven out of every ten respondents
had knowledge on this aspect. Only 15 per cent of
the respondents knew about role of elements of
design in fabric designing before the training but Overall, the scores of the knowledge test of the
after the training this proportion improved to 38 respondents were 16.29 which increased to 23.68
per cent. The role of different lines in designing a after imparting training while the gain in scores was
fabric was known to 13 per cent of the respondents 7.39. The impact of the training programmes can be
before the training but after the training 48 per cent viewed from the fact that the percent improvement
respondents had knowledge on this aspect. in the scores of the respondents was 45.36. This is
The third section of the questionnaire dealt indicative that the training programmes have been
with the questions related to colours and fabric effective in improving the knowledge of the trainees.
printing. It can be noted here that the pre-test scores The findings of the present study were in line with
on this aspect was 4.27 which improved by 3.83 the study conducted by Malabasari and Hiremath
points with the post-test scores of 8.1 (Figure 1). (2016) which revealed that the training programmes
The knowledge scores on this aspect improved conducted by KVK help in empowerment of rural
by 89.69 per cent which was highest among the women and enable them with technical knowledge.
three sections. This may be due to the fact that the
Distribution of respondents based on knowledge
knowledge on this aspect was lower during the
test scores
pre-test and rural women although know stitching
In case of pre- test the majority of the
and garment construction but lacked knowledge on
respondents (58.6 %) obtained knowledge scores
different techniques of value addition of fabric such
between 40 to 60 per cent while about 36 per cent of
as block printing, tie and dye and fabric painting.
the respondents scored less than 40 per cent (Table
Only a few respondents (30%) were able to answer

102 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 100-103

 Bhatia and Rampal
Table 3. Distribution of respondents based on percentage knowledge scores.
Scores (%) Knowledge
Pre test Post test
Number Per cent Number Per cent
<20 8 10.6 - -
20-40 19 25.3 - -
40-60 44 58.6 22 29.3
60-80 4 5.3 36 48
80-100 - - 17 22.6

3). The effectiveness of the training programmes CONCLUSION

was indicated from the fact that after the training It was evident from the findings that the training
none of the respondents scored less than 40 per programmes on stitching and garment construction
cent (Figure 3). The scores of the majority of the and fabric designing made significant impact on
respondents were more than 60 per cent during the the change in the knowledge of the respondents.
post-test. These training programmes provided the technical
To test the null hypothesis that there is no knowledge to the rural women and were effective
difference in the pre and post test scores of in bringing qualitative gain in the knowledge of the
the trainees, t-test was applied. The alternative beneficiaries.
hypothesis was that there is difference in the pre
and post test scores of the trainees. The t-test REFRENCES
Bathla S, Sharma M and Bala R (2018) Effect of vocational
score of 7.29 was significant at 5 per cent level of training programme on preservation of fruits and
significance which indicated that mean score after vegetables for self help group members. J Krishi Vigyan
the test was higher and thus it can be inferred that (Special Issue): 44-47.
the knowledge of the trainees have improved after Biswas S, Sarkar A and Goswami A (2008). Impact of KVK
the training. Thus we reject the null hypothesis and training on advance dairy farming practices (AFDPS)
accept the alternate hypothesis that the there were in changing knowledge and attitude of Prani-Bandhu. J
differences in the post test scores at 5 per cent level Dairying Foods Home Sci 27(1): 43-46.
of significance. The study of Bathla et al (2018) Malabasari R T and Hirmath U S (2016) Effect of Krishi
reported that the vocational training programme Vigyan Kendra training programmes on knowledge and
adoption of home science and agricultural technologies. J
conducted by KVK on Preservation of Fruits and Farm Sci 29 2: 251-256.
Vegetables had made positive effect on the trainees.
Senthikumar K, Daisy M, Kumaravel V and Mohan B (2014).
Thus, it can be concluded that the trainings had Impact of KVK training on scientific method of goat
made significant differences in the gain in the rearing and feeding management of Azolla. Int J Sc Env
knowledge test scores of the trainees. Tech 3 (6): 2287-2292.
Received on 15/03/2019 Accepted on 10/04/2019

103 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 100-103

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 104-109 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00018.7

Effects of Long Term Organic and Conventional Farming on

Physical and Chemical Properties of Soil
Mithlesh, Satnam Singh, Lovepreet Singh and Simerpreet Kaur
PG Department of Agriculture, Khalsa College, Amritsar-143 005 (Punjab)

ABSTRACT
Field experiment was conducted to compare the soil status of organic and conventional farming system under
rice and wheat cropping system. Laboratory analysis was made on the soil samples collected from a long-
term organic farm (SOF) at Department of Soil Science, Khalsa College, Amritsar and compared with the
soil samples collected from different conventional fields (SCF) after the harvest of rice crop to investigate the
effect of organic sources and chemical fertilizers. The results of the study revealed that soil physical properties
viz., bulk density, particle density and porosity varied from 1.26 g/cm3 to 1.31g/cm3 (SOF) and 1.35 g/cm3 to
1.44 g/cm3 (SCF), 2.62 g/cm3 to 2.67 g/cm3 (SOF) and 2.62 g/cm3 to 2.68 g/cm3 (SCF) and 50.19 to 52.80 per
cent (SOF) and 45.48 to 48.49 per cent (SCF), respectively. Soil pH showed slightly acidic to alkaline (6.75 to
7.34) range in organic soil samples while conventional soil samples showed alkaline range (7.98 to 8.28). The
electrical conductivity (EC) of conventional farming system was significantly higher than organic farming
system. The highest value (0.421dS/m) of EC was observed in conventional farming system field while
lowest (0.391 dS/m) in organic field. Soil organic carbon (OC) content in surface soil ranged between 0.74
to 0.85 per cent and 0.26 to 0.35 per cent in organic and conventional farming systems, respectively. Similar
trends were observed in soil status of available N, P and K under organic and conventional farming systems.
Key Words: Bulk density, Conventional, Cropping system, Farming, pH.

INTRODUCTION Organic farming has gained worldwide

Rice-wheat cropping system on most of the
fertile lands has resulted in the decline of soil fertility
and soil organic carbon (SOC) content (Sultana et
al, 2015). The widely practiced rice-wheat system
in Punjab is one such instance, where sustainability
is under threat. Because of nutrient mining in
soils, the soil health has deteriorated, especially in
intensively cropped areas. Conventional farming
systems are reported to be associated with a decline
in soil structure and soil aggregation, increase in soil
bulk density and soil salinity. Conventional farming
is a more input intensive system with higher use of
fertilizers, pesticides for high outputs in terms of
yield (Hathaway et al, 2010). Conventional farming
systems (Kumar et al, 2013) have brought the
serious concern with soil quality and have led to
the development and promotion of organic farming
system as an alternative.
acceptance due to environmental, economic and
social concerns (Araujo et al, 2008). Various
organic amendments such as farmyard manure,
poultry manure, vermi-compost, green manure,
wheat straw etc, are used in organic farming.
These organic amendments have assumed a great
importance and have vital significance for the
maintenance of soil properties (Tiwari et al, 2017)
Organic farming practices have been associated
with improved soil properties through a number of
considerations including the addition of soil organic
matter, increased earthworm population, microbial
biodiversity and soil fertility. Hence, there is
greater potential for soil structure improvement
in organically managed soils than conventionally
managed (Dhaliwal and Walia, 2013). These
changes will affect the mineral availability to crops
either directly by contributing to nutrient pools

Corresponding Author’s Email: sehgalenv@gmail.com

104 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 104-109

 Mithlesh et al
or indirectly by influencing the soil environment. cropping system under organic and conventional
Studies comparing conventional and organic farming each and one composite sample was
farming systems have shown an increase in soil collected from each field. In order to collect
organic matter and mineral contents in organically soil samples grasses, mosses, litter and other
managed soils (Herencia et al, 2008). In contrast, plant residues were removed from soil surface.
organic farming attempts to mimic or follow natural Collection of soil samples was done by using an
processes that tend to improve soil and plant health auger. In each case, V-shaped cut was made with
while preserving soil and water resources. It is the help of the auger (0-15 cm depth). Soils were
important to note that increases in soil organic matter collected in sampling bags, which were sealed
and other favorable soil quality characteristics and labeled properly. Soil samples were brought
change slowly over time with organic management to the laboratory for analysis. Before analysis, the
(Gomiero et al, 2011). The slow rates of change collected samples first dried in shade then oven
will affect accurate assessment of soil qualities dried at 105ºC for 24 hr. The dried samples were
under different management practices. Thus, need crushed with pestle mortar and passed through
of an hour is to adopt for sustainable crop input 2 mm sieve and stored in cloth bags until further
management technology which is economically analysis.
viable, socially acceptable and implementable.
Keeping in view the above points, the study has Soil Analysis
been conducted to note down the effects of long- After the harvest of the crop the composite
term organic and conventional farming on soil soil surface (0-15 cm) samples from each plot of
physical and chemical properties. the experimental field were analyzed for different
physical and chemical properties.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Physical Analysis
Study area Bulk density was determined using core
Amritsar is situated at latitude 31.6340°N, sampling method (Prihar and Hundal, 1971).
longitude 74.87213°E and altitude is 234m above Particle density (PAU Moisture Gauge Method)
the mean sea level. Soil samples were collected (Prihar and Sandhu, 1965) and Porosity was also
during November 2016 after the harvest of rice crop analyzed by adopting standard procedures.
from organic and conventional farms where organic
Chemical Analysis
and conventional farming were carried out more for
Soil chemical properties like pH and EC
more than 10 yr.
(Jackson, 1954), OC (Walkley and Black, 1934),
Collection and preparation of soil samples Available N (Subbiah & Asija, 1956), P (Olsen et
Seven fields were selected for rice-wheat al, 1954) and K (Jackson, 1967) was measured by

Table 1. Locations under study with their geographical coordinates and codes of Amritsar district,
Punjab.
Sr. Sampling location Farming system Co-ordinates Code
No.
1. Bhagat Pooran Singh Natural Organic 31.5939˚N 75.0095˚E SOF
Agriculture Farm, Dherekot
2. Farmer’s fields (Dherekot) Conventional 31.5972˚N 75.0087˚E SCF

SOF: Soil Organic Farm, SCF: Soil Conventional Farm

105 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 104-109

 Physical and Chemical Properties of Soil
standardized procedures. density under organic and conventional farming
system ranged from 2.62 to 2.67 g/cm3 and 2.62
Statistical analysis to 2.68 g/cm3, respectively. The particle density
The comparisons between organic and was observed to be almost same owing to both
conventional farms’ for soil characteristics, management practices. The values of soil porosity
with normally distributed data were tested using under organic and conventional farming system
Student’s t tests with the help of SPSS software at p were 51.40 and 47.21per cent, respectively. High
≤ 0.01 level of significance. soil porosity under organic farming system might
be due to addition of more organic-matter content
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION on weight basis, better aggregation, and changing
Physical Properties pore-size distribution of the soil (Saha et al, 2010).
The bulk density values (Table 2) recorded in
organic farming fields were significantly lower than Chemical Properties
conventional fields which promote the total porosity The soil chemical properties viz, pH, EC, OC was
of the soil as the microbial decomposition products significantly varied from organic to conventional
of organic manures such as polysaccharides and farming system during the time of experimentation
bacterial gums are known as soil binding agents. (Table 3). The highest pH and EC was recorded
These binding agents increase the porosity and in conventional farming with continuous use of
decrease the bulk density of soil by improving the chemical fertilizers and lowest in fields received
aggregation (Rasool et al, 2007). nutrients through organic sources. The decrease in
the pH may be attributed to the production of organic
A significant decrease in bulk density with an acids and release of CO2 due to microbial actions
associated increase in total porosity of soil related (Kumar and Singh, 2010; Singh et al, 2008). An
to greater amount of organic matter deposition and increase in electrical conductivity in conventionally
loosening of soil by root action was also reported by managed soils could be attributed to the higher input
Saha et al (2010). The recorded values of particle of salts in the form of chemical fertilizers (Karishma
Table 2. Effects of long-term organic and conventional farming on physical properties of soil.
Bulk Density (g/cm3) Particle Density (g/cm3) Porosity (percent)
Field SOF SCF SOF SCF SOF SCF
1 1.27 1.37 2.67 2.62 52.43 47.71
2 1.29 1.43 2.62 2.65 50.76 46.03
3 1.28 1.39 2.64 2.68 51.51 48.13
4 1.30 1.35 2.65 2.62 50.94 48.47
5 1.28 1.41 2.62 2.62 51.14 46.18
6 1.26 1.37 2.67 2.66 52.80 48.49
7 1.31 1.44 2.63 2.64 50.19 45.45
Mean 1.28 1.39 2.64 2.64 51.40 47.21
SE 0.01 0.01 0.60
t value 7.71 0.20 6.99
P value 0.00* 0.91NS 0.00*
NS= Not Significant ; *significant at 0.01 level

106 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 104-109

 Mithlesh et al
and Prasad, 2015). Moreover, enhanced leaching permanent addition of organic matter promoted
losses and reduced accumulation of salts in the root the increasing in the available P in soil. Similar
zone under rice crop also contribute to decline in results were found by Tiwari et al (2017). The
EC values (Singh et al, 2015). Whereas, OC content increase in availability of potassium through
in soil was found higher and significantly differ addition of organic sources may also be due to
within the organic and conventional farming system decomposition of organic matter accompanied by
(Table 3). It was due to direct incorporation of these release of appreciable quantities of CO2, which
organic materials in the soil and results enhance when dissolved in water, forms carbonic acid,
organic carbon content of the soil. Increase in OC which is capable of decomposing primary minerals
with the application of FYM, crop residues and and release of nutrients (Chesti et al, 2015; Subehia
vermi-compost has also been reported by Karishma and Sepehya 2012).
and Prasad (2015).
Further, highest value of available macronutrients CONCLUSION
(NPK) was recorded under organic farming based Based on the results, it was concluded that
fields (Table 4) which was statistically superior over plots under organic farming system proved best
conventional farming system. The organic farming for soil fertility and sustainability as compared to
soil was reported with higher urease activity than conventional farming under rice-wheat cropping
soil under conventional system (Singh et al, 2015). cultivation. However, the farmers who relying on
The process of ammonization, ammonification conventional farming should be advised to follow
and mineralization brought about by microbial organic farming to maintain soil properties and
mediated enzymes systems are active in organic sustainable agriculture.
amendments, thus contributing more soluble N
(Walia et al, 2010). ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to Department of Soil
The higher P content was also observed under Science, Khalsa College Amritsar and Bhagat
organic farming system which might be due to the
Table 3. Effects of long-term organic and conventional farming on pH, EC and OC of soil.
pH EC (dS/m1) OC (%)
Field
SOF SCF SOF SCF SOF SCF
1 6.82 7.98 0.39 0.41 0.74 0.31
2 6.75 8.16 0.39 0.41 0.79 0.29
3 7.16 8.24 0.39 0.42 0.83 0.32
4 6.92 8.28 0.38 0.41 0.81 0.35
5 7.34 8.19 0.38 0.42 0.85 0.26
6 7.26 7.98 0.38 0.42 0.79 0.28
7 6.94 8.24 0.38 0.41 0.75 0.34
Mean 7.03 8.15 0.38 0.41 0.79 0.31
SE 0.09 0.03 0.019
t value 10.43 14.63 25.02
P value 0.00* 0.00* 0.00*
*significant at 0.01 level

107 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 104-109

 Physical and Chemical Properties of Soil
Table 4. Effects of long-term organic and conventional farming on available N, P and K (kg/ha)
content in soil.
Field Available N Available P Available K
SOC SCF SOC SCF SOC SCF
1 247.24 194.13 22.64 17.75 332.54 286.35
2 254.34 210.22 23.65 19.64 327.45 305.28
3 260.45 224.36 24.46 16.87 341.84 312.64
4 243.65 195.41 25.65 22.75 319.27 298.34
5 254.38 212.87 23.54 20.84 331.77 317.28
6 248.57 224.23 24.25 19.65 324.26 324.16
7 236.43 208.24 23.85 18.46 336.28 312.57
Mean 249.29 209.92 24.01 19.42 330.49 308.09
SE 5.47 0.83 5.54
t value 7.17 5.55 4.02
P value 0.00* 0.00* 0.00*
*significant at 0.01 level
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middle mountains region of Nepal. Nutr Cycl Agroecosys
86, 241-253.
Tiwari A, Singh N B and Kumar A (2017). Effect of Integrated
nutrient management (INM) on soil properties, yield and
economics of rice (Oryza sativa L.). Res J Env Life Sci
10(7), 640-644.
Walia M K, Walia S S and Dhaliwal S S (2010). Long term
effect of integrated nutrient management of properties
of Typic Ustochrept after 23 cycles of an irrigated rice-
wheat system. J Sus Agric 34: 724-743.
Walkley A and Black C A (1934). An examination of the
method of determination of soil organic matter and
a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration
method. Soil Sci 37, 27-38.
Received on 07/02/2019 Accepted on 25/03/2019
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 110-114 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00019.9

Electrical Appliance Usage and Electricity Consumption Pattern

at household level
V Vijaya Lakshmi1 and M Milcah Paul2
Post-Graduation and Research Centre,
Professor Jayashankar State Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad (Telangana)

ABSTRACT
Electricity is one of the important secondary fuels used by all the consumers in the world. This study
was undertaken to study the electrical appliance usage and electricity consumption patterns in residences.
An exploratory research method was used on 30 randomly selected households in the sub urban areas of
Hyderabad, Telangana State. A structured interview schedule was used to collect the data. The data collected
were analysed using frequency, percentage and correlation. The results showed that the respondent households
used a greater number of miscellaneous appliances as compared to the other appliances used for different
purposes like cooking, heating, cooling, laundry etc. Majority of the households stood in the low consumption
level (0 - 250 units/month) of electricity, classified as per the study. Majority spent Rs. 1 – Rs. 1000/-
month as an expenditure for the electricity consumed, which was considered as a low level of expenditure.
Key Words: Consumers, Consumption, Electricity, Electrical Appliances, Residences.
INTRODUCTION country’s total current electricity consumption (with
Electricity is one of the important resources a 9% growth in 2015-16). Residential electricity
required by everyone in this modern era. Due to consumption (REC) has increased by 50 times
the latest technological advancements; consumers since 1971 and now constitutes about a quarter of
are trying to be tech-savvy and lead an easy and India’s total electricity consumption. All these are
comfortable life using the technology. As a part causing an extra burden to the nation to generate
of this, they are trying to use different kinds of more electricity. Hence, a better understanding of
electrical appliances which help them to do their REC patterns and the factors affecting it is essential
work comfortably and easily and save the time for designing effective and credible energy
finally. Manufacturers are also trying to provide efficiency programmes, optimise planning of
the consumers with various options. As a result, capacity addition, and better adaption to the rapidly
the electricity consumption is increasing day- changing business models and technologies in the
by-day and in the race of staying comfortable, Power sector (Chunekar et al, 2016).
consumers are indirectly causing a lot of harm to Hence, proper research has to be conducted about
the environment. the appliance usage and electricity consumption
A combination of rapid electrification, patterns to get a clear understanding about the overall
increasing incomes, and technological development electricity consumption in residences and frame
will result in people buying more appliances and suitable policies accordingly to make India a better
using more electricity to run them (Khosla and country in terms of promotion of ‘Green’ character.
Chunekar, 2017). They have expressed that already As consumers are also not very responsible while
the residential sector uses about 25 per cent of the using the electrical appliances and this is causing a
Corresponding Author’s Email: milcahpaul@gmail.com
1
Principal Scientist, AICRP – H.Sc., PG&RC, PJTSAU, Hyderabad. Email: vijjikeetu@gmail.com
2
Research Scholar, Dept. of RMCS, College of Home Science, Saifabad, Hyderabad

110 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 110-114

 Lakshmi and Paul
lot of harm to the environment. Hence consumers around 93.33 per cent, 46.00 per cent and 6.66 per
must be educated to use the electricity cautiously, cent of the respondent used a ceiling fan, cooler
select the energy efficient appliances and promote and table fan respectively, for cooling purposes. As
Green India. This study was undertaken to study the ceiling fan is one of the cheapest appliances which
type of appliances used by consumers and also the can be used for cooling and air circulation purposes in
electricity consumption and expenditure patterns in a living space, majority (93.33%) of the respondent
the residences in the sub-urban households. households are using this appliance, when compared
to the air coolers and air conditioners. It can be seen
MATERIALS AND METHODS that none of the households used air conditioners,
A large number of appliances are being used even though this has become a common appliance
by consumers for different purposes in the present used by the consumers (air conditioners are
days. The appliances used by the study households costlier to buy and operate, release large number of
were divided according to their purpose of usage for chlorofluorocarbons into the environment and also
different activities like heating / cooling purposes, use lot of electricity when compared to normal fans
cooking purposes, lighting purposes, cleaning and coolers). The respondent households were using
purposes, laundering purposes, recreation purposes appliances which are eco-friendly, inexpensive and
and miscellaneous purposes. also energy conserving.
An exploratory research method was adopted Around 60.0 per cent of the sample used
and the study was conducted in 30 randomly refrigerator for cooling and preservation of foods.
selected households in the sub urban areas like As the technology has developed, the prices of
Lingampally, Hayathnagar, Patancheruvu of refrigerators have come down and large number
Hyderabad, Telangana State. A structured interview of options is available in the market now-a-days.
schedule was used to collect the data. The data The earlier methods used for cooling and storage
collected were analysed using frequency and of preserved foods like Janatha fridge, mud pots
percentage. Correlation was used to analyse the etc. were not being used by the consumers in the
relation between the selected dependent variable present days. Hence, it can be seen that majority
(energy consumption in units) and independent of the respondents used refrigerator, a modern
variable (number of family members in the appliance for cooling and preservation of foods.
respondent households’ household). Geyser was used by around 6.66 per cent of the
In this study, electricity consumption is defined households for heating purposes. Earlier, there
as the number of units used by the households per were boilers which were used for heating water in
month. It was calculated by converting wattage bathrooms. As times progressed, people are trying
of each appliance into kilowatts multiplied by the to use modern appliances like geysers to boil water.
number of hours used in a day with 30 as number Exhaust fan was used by 6.66 percent for cooling
of days. Thus, after calculating for each of the and air circulation purposes.
appliance used by the households, everything was Appliances used for cooking purposes
totaled up to get the total electricity consumption Grinder, juicer, toaster and food processor was
per month. used by 76.66 per cent, 6.66 per cent, 6.66 per cent
and 3.33 percent of the households, respectively, for
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION preparation of food and things related to it. About
Appliances used for heating and cooling purposes 10.0 per cent each used electric rice cooker and
The results (Table 1) regarding the appliances microwave oven to cook food. Grinder is one such
used for heating/ cooling purposes showed that appliance which was available in different varieties,

111 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 110-114

 Table 1. Distribution of households based on the use of appliances for different purposes (n=30).

112
Purpose/ Frequency Percentage Purpose/ Frequency Percentage
Appliance and Appliance and
Wattage required Wattage required
(Minimum and Maximum) (Minimum and Maximum)
HEATING/ COOLING LAUNDRY
Ceiling Fan(25 – 75 W) 28 93.33 Iron Box(750 – 2000 W) 15 50.00
Refrigerator (150 – 400 W) 18 60.00 Washing Machine(700 – 2100 W) 13 43.33
Cooler(70 – 100 W) 14 46.66 RECREATION
Table Fan(10 – 25 W) 2 6.66 Television(20 – 115 W) 26 86.66
Geyser(1000 – 2000 W) 2 6.66 Laptop(65 – 90 W) 4 13.33
Exhaust Fan(10 – 20 W) 2 6.66 Desktop(90 – 250 W) 4 13.33
COOKING Radio(0.5 – 5W) 3 6.66
Grinder (500 – 1500 W) 23 76.66 DVD Player(25 – 60 W) 2 6.66
Electric Rice Cooker(200 – 500 W) 3 10.00 Music Player(50 – 200 W) 2 6.66
Microwave Oven(600 – 1700 W) 3 10.00 MISCELLANEOUS
Juicer(400 – 800 W) 2 6.66 Charger(5 – 25 W) 24 80.00
Toaster(800 – 1800 W) 2 6.66 Mosquito Repellant(15 – 40 W) 14 46.66
Food Processor(300 – 400 W) 1 3.33 Water Pumping Motor(360 – 720 W) 6 20.00
LIGHTING Water Purifier(20 – 60 W) 2 6.66
Fluorescent Lamp(40 – 150 W) 24 80.00 Modem (2 – 20 W) 2 6.66

J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 110-114

Incandescent Lamp(60 – 200 W) 20 66.66 Shaving Machine (11 – 40 W) 2 6.66
Compact Fluorescent Lamp(20 – 55 W) 16 53.33 Stabilizer(50 – 150 W) 1 3.33
Night Lamp(10 – 40 W) 7 23.33 Water Dispenser (100 – 150 W) 1 3.33
Electrical Appliance Usage and Electricity Consumption

Zero Bulb (5 – 15 W) 7 23.33 Calling Bell (1 – 2 W) 1 3.33

Emergency Lamp(15 – 30 W) 4 13.33 Sewing Machine Motor(40 – 80 W) 1 3.33
Bulb(30 – 100 W) 3 10.00 Hair Styler(750 – 2500 W) 1 3.33
Chandeliers(200 – 400 W) 1 3.33 Hair Straightener(75 – 300 W) 1 3.33
CLEANING Door Bell(1 – 2W) 1 3.33
Vacuum Cleaner(900 – 1800 W) 2 6.66
 Lakshmi and Paul
working mechanisms, designs and purposes; and Use of miscellaneous appliances
which makes the food preparation works easy. About 80 per centof the households used other
Hence, majority of the consumers were now miscellaneous appliances like charger for mobiles;
preferring grinders, though it works on electricity. followed by mosquito repellant (46.66%); water
pumping motor (20.0%) and water purifier, modem,
Use of lightening appliances shaving machine, stabilizer, water dispenser,
Majority (80.0%) of the households used calling bell, sewing machine motor, hair styler,
fluorescent lamps; followed by incandescent lamp hair straightener and door bell (3.33% each). The
(66.66%), compact fluorescent lamp (53.33%), night number of miscellaneous appliances used was more
lamp (23.33%), zero lamp (23.33%), emergency compared to the other appliances used for different
lamp (13.33%), bulb (10.00%) and chandeliers purposes. This showed that the households involved
(3.33%) for lighting purposes. As the benefits in this study and also the consumers in general were
of fluorescent lamps (like energy efficient, cost- using many new and innovative appliances even for
effective, long life-time etc.,) are being wide spread small activities which can be done manually too.
now – a – days among the consumers, majority of
the consumers were preferring fluorescent lamps Electricity Consumption per month
when compared to the other lamps for lighting The results in the Table 2 showed that majority
purposes. (43.33%) of the households consumed electricity
Vacuum cleaning was not much preferable between 0 – 250 units and 40 per cent consumed
and practiced by Indian consumers, particularly electricity between 251 units – 500 units and the
at the house hold level. The results of this study remining 16.66 per cent consumed between 501 –
also support this, as very few (6.66%) number of 750 units. It was good to see that majority of the
respondent used vacuum cleaners for cleaning households involved in the study stand in the low
purposes. Around half (50.0%) of the respondent consumption level (0 - 250 units/month) of electricity,
used an iron box and 43.33 percent used washing as per the study. The respondent households who
machine for laundering purposes. The use of stand in the high level of electricity consumption
washing machines was also found to be increasing (501 - 750 units/month) must be educated about the
as consumers find it as an option which saves times importance of energy conservation.
and effort as compared to the manual washing. Expenditure on Electricity
Use of electrical gadgets In this study, expenditure on electricity
Majority (86.66%) of the households used a consumption is defined as the money spent by the
television followed by laptop and computer (13.33% respondent households on electricity per month. The
each); and radio, DVD player and music player results (Table 2) showed that majority (46.66%) of
(6.66%) for their recreational purposes. Television the households spent Rs. 1 – Rs. 1000/- month as an
was a favourite appliance for the consumers in expenditure for the electricity consumed by them,
order to have some recreation in the house itself. which was considered as a low level of expenditure
As the use of mobile phones, laptops, desktops for electricity, according to this study. Around
and modems is increasing tremendously among 33.33 per cent spent Rs. 1001/- to Rs. 2000/- and
consumers; the appliances like radio, DVD player considered as a medium level of expenditure for
and music player are not being used by most of the electricity. The remaining 20.0 per cent spent Rs.
consumers (all the uses and mechanisms of radio, 2001/- to 3000/-, which was considered as a high
DVD players, music players etc. are inbuilt in one level of expenditure for electricity. Such category
appliance like desktop/ mobile phone). of people must be educated about some tips to

113 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 110-114

 Electrical Appliance Usage and Electricity Consumption
Table 2. Distribution of Respondent households based on the electricity consumption levels
expenditure spent. (n=30)
Sr. No. Parameter No. of Units Frequency Percentage
A. Consumption Level
1. Low 0 - 250 Units 13 43.33
2. Medium 251 - 500 units 12 40.00
3. High 501 - 750 Units 5 16.66
B. Expenditure Level Amount Spent (Rs.) Frequency Percentage
4. Low 1 - 1000 14 46.66
5. Medium 1001 - 2000 10 33.33
6. High 2001 - 3000 6 20.00

conserve electricity, so that they can save the energy the consumers in general, now-a-days, are using
and also their money. many new and innovative appliances even for
small activities which can be done manually too.
Correlation between the number of family This is not a good practice, as it is not eco-friendly.
members and energy consumption Hence, proper education and awareness must be
The correlation value between the dependent given to the consumers about the importance of less
variable (energy consumption in units) and energy consumption and more energy conservation.
independent variable (number of family members in Government can come up with some initiatives
the respondent households’ household) was found that give rewards or awards to households that
to be 0.279. This showed that there was a significant consume electricity properly, on a regular basis; in
correlation between the number of family members order to motivate the consumers and households to
and energy consumption levels; which means that use less amount of electricity. This will benefit the
more the number of family members, more will be individuals, households, nation and the environment
the energy consumption. on the whole. All these acts would promote the
concept of Green India.
CONCLUSION
The study resulted in both positive and negative REFERENCES
aspects. The positive aspects included: a smaller Chunekar A, Varshney S and Dixit, S (2019). Residential
number of heating/ cooling appliances were used Electricity Consumption in India: What do we
by the respondent households, as these consume know?,Prayas (Energy Group).
most of the electricity; majority of thehouseholds Khosla R and Chunekar P (2017). Plugging in: Electricity
belonged to the low electricity consumption level Consumption in Indian Homes. Centre for Policy
and low expenditure level for electricity. The Research (CPR) and the Prayas (Energy group).
negative aspects included: a greater number of Received on 23/03/2019 Accepted on 10/04/2019
miscellaneous appliances were being used; one-
fifth of households also belonged to the high
electricity consumption level and high expenditure
level for electricity. The number of miscellaneous
appliances used was more as compared to the other
appliances used for different purposes. This shows
that the households involved in this study and also

114 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 110-114

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 115-120 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00020.5

Enhancing Profitability of Buffalo Production System by

Rearing Male Calves
Inderpreet Kaur and Varinder Pal Singh
Department of Dairy Economics and Business Management
College of Dairy Science and Technology,
Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana 141 001 (Punjab)

ABSTRACT
Buffalo meat is the healthiest meat because of lower intramuscular fat, cholesterol and calories, higher in
essential amino acids contributing 50 per cent in Punjab’s and19.61 per cent in India’s meat production.
About 1,324 thousand tonnes (91.22%) of buffalo meat worth Rs 26,162 crore was exported during 2016-
17. Punjab produces 8.58 per cent of India’s buffalo meat with only 4.75 per cent buffalo population.
With breedable population of 27.87 lakh and 8.4 lakh male calves every year, 8400 units in Punjab with
unit size of 100 male calf each are proposed resulting in additional 2.31 lakh tonne meat /year worth Rs
2,310 crore besides self employment of 8,400 persons and employment to 16,800 labourers. From a unit
of 100 male calves, the annual net return will be Rs 5.25 lakh and monthly income will be Rs 43,750 and
benefit cost ratio will be 1.29 which is quite high than one indicating that the business is secure and viable.
Key Words: BC ratio, Entrepreneur, Model, Mortality, Net returns, Variable cost.

INTRODUCTION which is 20 per cent of the total cattle population

Livestock sector contributes about 26 per cent
of the total gross domestic product (GDP) from
agricultural sector in India. Livestock sector plays
an important role in Punjab agriculture as evidenced
from its contribution to the total agricultural GDP
which was recorded at 36 per cent during 2016-17
and continuously improving over the time (Anon,
2017). During the last five years, the growth rate of
livestock sector is observed to be 5.05 per cent as
compared to only 0.46 per cent in crop sector.
Punjab is leading milk producing state in the
country with highest milk production per animal
both in cross bred cattle (12.44 l/day) and buffaloes
(8.30 l/day). India has 108.7 million buffaloes
and 190.90 million cattle (Anon, 2014). The cross
breeding has helped the country a lot in enhancing
the milk production and becoming number one
milk producer in the world. In India, the number
of cross bred cattle has increased from 20.10
million during 1997 to 39.73 million during 2012
Corresponding Author’s Email:dhindsavp@gmail.com
in the country. Sharma (2013) reported that very
few farmers were practicing dairy business on
commercial scale (2.4%) and majority of farmers
(93.3%) were having up to 15 animals. Further, it
was also noticed that dairy farmers (74.9%) were
possessing cows with daily milk yield varying
from 4 to 10 l./d and 85.8 per cent of farmers were
keeping buffaloes with daily milk yield ranging
between 2 to 8 l./d. Major problems of the small
dairy farmers were cow dung management while for
semi commercial and commercial farmers mastitis
was the major problem. Further, Sharma (2015)
revealed that poor knowledge about the nutritive
value of feed ingredients (86.5%) , high cost of
raw feed ingredients (28% ), shortage of skilled
and committed labour (32.5%) were found to be
major bottlenecks regarding adoption of cattle feed
formulation technology at the dairy farm. However,
education level helped in acquiring the knowledge
but adoption was found to be less in highly educated
persons (Sharma, 2016).

115 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 115-120

 Kaur and Singh
Punjab state has 24 .28 lakh cows, out of which
85 per cent are cross bred cows. On the other hand,
there are 51.60 lakh buffaloes and buffalo being the
native animal, is well adapted to the local climatic
conditions and resistant to various diseases and
parasites. Contribution of buffalo milk to the total
milk production of the state is about 72 per cent as
compared to 49 per cent at National level. The milk
contributes about 81 per cent of the value of output
from livestock sector and out of that 81 per cent, a
major part (about 80 %) is contributed by buffalo
milk and only 20 per cent is contributed by cow milk
(Anon, 2018). Besides milk contribution, buffalo
is most suitable for meat production and hence
generating additional income and employment in
the state. The potential of buffaloes can be realized
though the sale of unproductive animals for meat
which is accepted socially and religiously unlike
cow meat. There is no such issue of disposal of
unproductive animals and male calves in the case
of buffaloes and hence no issue of stray buffaloes
(Kaur and Singh, 2018).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The required data related to livestock population,
GDP share, growth rate etc has been compiled from
various published secondary sources. The data
required for buffalo male calf rearing model has
been compiled and calculated by the authors at their
own level by considering various assumptions on
scientific grounds which are given below.
Assumptions
• Shed construction: Covered space @ 24 sq feet/
calf (@ Rs 500/sq feet)
• Depreciation on shed @ 4%/annum
• Cost of equipments and chaff cutter @ Rs
25,000/- each
• Depreciation on equipment and chaff cutter @
10 %/annum
• Interest on capital investment @ 10 %/annum
• Purchase of 3 m old male calf with 50-60 kg
weight @ Rs 3000/-
116 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 115-120
• Green fodder (per calf)- 5 kg for 3 m, 12 kg for
next 6 m, 20 kg for next 3 m
• Dry fodder (per calf)- nil for 3 m, 2 kg for next
6 m, 3 kg for next 3 m
• Concentrate feed (per calf)- 0.5 kg for 3 m, 1 kg
for next 6 m, 2 kg for next 3 m
• Labour- 2 labourers @ Rs 9000/month plus
own labour
• Vet expenses @ Rs 300/calf on an average
• Miscellaneous (Light, water, repair etc)-Rs
2000/month
• Sale of 100 calves at the age of 15 m with 300
kg live weight @ Rs 75/kg
• Total manure 255.5 t(@7 kg per calf for 365 d
for 100 calves) sold @ Rs 400/t
• No mortality is assumed after purchase of three
months old male calf. 10 per cent mortality was
assumed before the age of 3 m.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Contribution of livestock sector
In Punjab, the contribution of livestock sector to
agriculture and allied GDP increased from Rs 7,698
crore (29 %) during 2000-01 to Rs 37,415 crore
(36.01 %) during 2016-17 (Table 1). Livestock
sector in addition to regular income, provides house
hold nutritional security and employment to small
and marginal rural households. This regular source
of income has a huge impact on minimising risks
to income as income from crop sector is seasonal.
Moreover, livestock is a security asset to be sold in
times of crisis. It absorbs the surplus family labour
of the farmers and thus helps in earning extra income
throughout the year. The farmers are intrinsically
linked to dairy farming to produce milk and milk
products for home consumption and for subsidiary
income.
 Enhancing Profitability of Buffalo Production System
Table1. Share of livestock in agricultural GDP over time. (Rs Crore)
Year Total Agri.GDP Crop Per cent share Livestock and Per cent share of
including fisheries GDP of crop GDP Fisheries GDP Livestock and Fisher-
ies GDP
1980-81 2423.5 1696.42 70.00 727.08 30.00

1990-91 8253.67 6116.01 74.10 2137.66 25.90

2000-01 26635.32 18751.21 70.40 7884.11 29.60

2010-11 63805.2 44573.37 69.86 19231.83 30.14

2015-16 92818.25 59526.48 64.13 33291.77 35.87

2016-17 103904.26 66489.36 63.99 37414.99 36.01

Source: Statistical Abstract of Punjab, various issues

Growth rate of Agricultural and livestock GDP
In Punjab State, agriculture economy is now a
days in crisis due to stagnation in growth, decline
in real farm incomes and over-exploitation of
natural resources i.e. soil and water. In the current
scenario, livestock enterprises especially dairy,
fishery, pig farming, goat farming and poultry are
the remunerative subsidiary occupations providing
regular flow of income and employment particularly
to small and marginal farmers. Within the livestock
sector, milk is the major contributor to total value
of output from this sector with as high as 82.17
per cent contribution in Punjab and 67.14 per cent
at national level (Table 2).Meat is the next major
contributor with 11.62 per cent and 20.81 per cent
in Punjab and India respectively. Within the milk
group, buffaloes contribute about 80 per cent value
of output and remaining 20 per cent by cows in
Punjab.
Buffalo and Cattle population in Punjab
Table 3 presents the buffalo and cattle population
over time in India as well as Punjab. It has been
observed that the share of cross bred cattle to total
cattle in 2003 was 72.99 per cent only, declined to
71.47 per cent in 2007, and rose to 85.05 per cent
in 2012.
Total buffalo population decreased by 1.16 per
cent during the above period. The buffalo population
during 2012 was 51.6 lakh in Punjab which is 68
per cent of the total dairy animal population of the
state. Hence, it signifies the importance of buffaloes
in livestock production system of Punjab.
Buffalo male calf rearing model for Punjab
There are 27.87 lakh breedable buffaloes in
Punjab state and produces 18.67 lakh calves with
67 per cent breeding efficiency. Approx. 8.4 lakh
male calves are supposed to survive after 10 per
cent mortality and assuming 50:50 male female
ratio. 8400 units in Punjab with unit size of 100
male calf each are proposed resulting in additional
2.31 lakh tonne meat /year worth Rs 2,310 crore
besides self employment of 8,400 persons and
employment to 16,800 labourers. All these calves
have the potential to grow to 300 kg as an average
live body weight at age of 15 m. With initial capital
investment of Rs 12.5 lakh, male calf rearing unit
of 100 calf size can be started (Table 4). The three
month old purchased calves will be reared one year
i.e. up to the age of 15 m. The total fixed cost for
one year will be Rs 1.78 lakh and total variable cost
for the same period will be Rs 16.49 lakh. The total
cost of rearing 100 male calves for one year will be

117 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 115-120

 Kaur and Singh
Table 2. Contribution of various components of livestock sector to value of output during 2015-16
(Rs Lakh)
Sr. No. Particulars Punjab India
1 Livestock 41,23,400 8,35,15,700
2 Milk 33,88,500(82.17%) 5,60,77,700 (67.14%)
3 Eggs 1,23,900 (3.00%) 26,27,400 (3.14 %)
4 Meat 4,79,400 (11.62%) 1,73,84,000 (20.81 %)
5 Dung 98,400(2.38%) 48,45,100 (5.80 %)
6 Crop sector 71,28,400 16,39,52,300
7 Food grains 50,96,100 5,26,72,200
8 Rice+Wheat 50,17,100 3,74,01,800
Source: State wise and item wise estimates of value of output from agriculture and allied sectors, Govt
of India.
Table 3. Buffalo and cattle population in Punjab, 2003-2012 (In million)
Sr. No. Category 2003 2007 2012
1 Cattle 20.99 17.63 24.28
2 Total crossbred cattle 15.31 (72.99) 12.60 (71.47) 20.65 (85.05)
3 Males 2.74 1.97 2.41
4 Females 12.57 10.63 18.24
5 Total Indigenous cattle 5.68 5.03 3.63
6 Males 3.49 2.27 1.94
7 Females 2.19 2.76 1.69
8 Total buffalo 59.95 50.03 51.6
9 Males 5.97 (9.96) 4.83 (9.65) 5.34 (10.35)
10 Females 53.98 (90.04) 45.21(90.35) 46.26 ( 89.65)
Source: BasicAnimal husbandry Statistics (Various issues); 19th livestock census 2012-GoI
Figures in parentheses () indicate proportion of females to respective total of population.
Figures in square brackets [ ] indicate proportion of cross bred and indigenous population to total cattle
population.
Rs 18.27 lakh. The total income from sale of calves The state can provide additional benefits to
for meat and farm yard manure will be Rs 23.52 the farmers to encourage to join this venture in
lakh. The annual net return will be Rs 5.25 lakh the form of credit link programme and supply
and monthly income will be Rs 43,750 and benefit of quality fattening ration at concessional rate.
cost ratio will be 1.29 which is quite high than one Implementation of this scheme in state will give
indicating that the business is secure and viable. a boost to the rural economy, employment to rural

118 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 115-120

 Enhancing Profitability of Buffalo Production System
Table 4. Buffalo male calf rearing model for Punjab.
Sr.
Particulars No. Unit price Amount (Rs)
No.
A Capital investment
1 Cost of shed 2400 sq feet 2,400 500 12,00,000
2 Cost of equipments 25,000
3 Cost of chaff cutter 1 25,000 25,000
4 Total capital investment (Rs.) 12,50,000
B Fixed cost
1 Depreciation on shed(@4% 48,000
2 Depreciation on equipments and chaff cutter (10%) 5,000
3 Interest on capital investment (@10%) 12,5000
4 Total fixed cost 1,78,000
C Variable cost
1 Purchase of 3 month old calf 100 3,000 3,00,000
2 Green fodder 4,459 0.6 2,67,540
3 Wheat bhusa 637 4 2,54,800
4 Concentrate feed 309.5 18 5,57,100
5 Labour 2 9,000 2,16,000
6 Vet expenses 300 30,000
7 Miscellaneous (Light, water, repair etc.) 2,000 24,000
8 Total variable cost 16,49,440
Total Expenditure (B+C) 18,27,440
D Income
1 Income from sale of calves (3 q/calf) 75 100 22,50,000
2 Income from FYM 2,55,500 0.4 1,02,200
3 Total income 23,52,200
4 Net income from 12 months 5,24,760
5 Net income per month 43,730
6 Benefit Cost Ratio 1.29
7 Returns over variable cost from 12 months 7,02,760
8 Returns over variable cost/month 58,563

119 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 115-120

 Kaur and Singh
landless, rural ladies etc. In addition it will provide
avenues for efficient utilization of the crop residue Anonymous (2014). 19th livestock census 2012 All India
which is currently being burnt or being destroyed. As
domestic consumption of buffalo meat in the state is
zero, so it will provide continued growth of export
Anonymous (2017). Statistical Abstract of Punjab. Economic
oriented meat industry. It will help boost the leather
industry. Scientific rearing of buffalo calves with
reduced mortality is an essential requirement for Anonymous (2018). State wise and item wise estimates of
improving buffalo productivity which is important
for sustained buffalo production and utility with the
increasing economic pressure and other constraints.
CONCLUSION
There is no problem of disposal of unproductive
buffalo animals and male calves as slaughtering is
allowed. Normally the males calves are reared up to
3-4 m for the purpose of milk let down by lactating
buffaloes. After that, these are not taken care of and
most of them die due to under feeding and some are
sold for slaughter at early age. Male buffalo calves
can be reared as separate enterprise for earning
additional income and generating employment.
These should be reared up to age of 15m so that
enough weight can be gained before sale. Hence,
the rearing of buffalo male calves can help in
generating additional income and employment in
the state.
REFERENCES
Report, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Animal
Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, Government of India,
New Delhi.
Advisor to Government, Economic and Statistical
Organization, Chandigarh.
value of output from agriculture and allied sectors. Central
Statistics Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme
implementation, Govt of India.
Brar R S, Kaur Inderpreet, Singh V P and Kaur N (2018).
Factors affecting choice of milk marketing channels by
dairy farmers in Punjab. J Krishi Vigyan 6 (2): 123-29.
Singh H, Singh V P, Kaur Inderpreet and Sudhakar W N
(2018) Economic evaluation of green fodder crops in
comparison to other crops in Punjab. J Krishi Vigyan 7
(1): 76-81.
Kaur Inderpreet and Singh V P (2018). Buffalo milk production
in Punjab: An economic analysis. Int J Agri Sci 10 (17):
7050-56.
Singh V P and Kaur Inderpreet (2018). Economics of buffalo
in livestock production system in Punjab: Current status
and future prospectus. Int J Curr Microbio and Applied
Sci 7 (10): 2702-08.
Sharma M (2015).Bottlenecks in adoption of feeding practices
for dairy animals in district Kapurthala. J Krishi Vigyan
3(2): 12-18
Sharma M (2016).Effect of age and educational level of dairy
farmers on knowledge and adoption of dairy farming
practices in Kapurthala district of Punjab. Int J Farm Sci
6 (4): 254-262.
Sharma M, Singh G and Shelly M (2013). Technological
problems and training needs of dairy farmers. J Krishi
Vigyan 2(1) : 59-63
Received on 11/03/2019 Accepted on 10/04/2019

120 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 115-120

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 121-124 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00021.7

Evaluation of Bhawantar Bhugtan Yojana in Context to Modal

Price of Blackgram
Shubhi Patel, Rakesh Singh and Mukesh Kumar
Department of Agricultural Economics, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221 002 (U.P.),

ABSTRACT
The focus of government is to doubling farmers’ income by 2020 for the benefit of farmers. The government
announces Minimum Support Price for crops and procures the same. Apart from this to reduce the enlarging
gap between minimum support price and price received by farmers, the government of Madhya Pradesh
introduced Bhawantar Bhugtan Yojana in August, 2017.The study analyzed the pre and post implementation
modal price and arrival comparison for black gram in Agricultural Produce Marketing Committee, Jabalpur
(M.P.). The study revealed that after the implementation of scheme the modal price of black gram have reduced
by 52 per cent as compared to 2016 in Madhya Pradesh indicating cartel formation by the traders. Data on
arrivals indicated that the arrivals also increased for black gram in Jabalpur by 62 per cent leading to price drop
due to increased arrivals. The result concludes that there is need to put floor price ceiling to avoid dropping of
prices along with shift in the marketing period to avoid increased arrivals with proper checks and balances.
Key Words: Bhawantar Bhugtan Yojana, Black Gram, Modal price.

INTRODUCTION increasing farm distress in the wake of falling farm

It is being realized that farmers are under
increasing stress during last four years. First, there
were two consecutive droughts (2014-15 and
2015-16) and then farm prices of large number of
commodities ranging from pulses to oilseeds fell
way below their minimum support prices (MSP)
in 2016-17 and 2017-18 as reported by Gulati et al
(2018) in states like Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh
and Karnataka. Minimum Support Price (MSP) is
a form of market intervention by the Government
of India to insure agricultural producers against
any sharp fall in farm prices. Primarily the crops
procured are wheat and rice as they can be spent
in Public Distribution System. Even after this there
are circumstances when procurement cannot be
done and the modal prices fall much below MSP.
Extreme volatility in the prices of agricultural
commodities resulting into low income due to high
production rate as reported by Saxena et al (2017).
This causes distress sale by farmers leading to
agitation and dissatisfaction among farmers. With price and arrival of black gram were collected from
prices in 2017, the five time Krishi Karman award
winner in 2011-12, 2012-13, 2014-15 for total
food grain production and 2013-14 and 2015-16
in the field of production, Government of Madhya
Pradesh (GoMP) came out with an innovative
scheme called Bhavantar Bhugtan Yojana, a Price
Deficiency Payment (PDP) scheme, to support
farmers. This scheme deals with payment of price
difference between (MSP) and modal price of the
notified crop by the government. It goes on to
suggest that the system of price deficiency payment
can to some extent improve the prices received by
farmers (Haque and Joshi, 2018). This paper deals
with comparison of modal prices of black gram in
pre and post implementation of the scheme and
arrival pattern of the crop in Krishi Upaj Mandi,
Jabalpur.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study is based on secondary data. Data on

Corresponding Author’s Email: shubhipatel4@gmail.com

121 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 121-124

 Patel et al
Krishi Upaj Mandi Jabalpur and other sources like Estimation of Modal Rate
Bhawantar Bhugtan Yojana portal. Price Deficit • The modal price for the given time period the
Financing Scheme was introduced as a pilot scheme average of prices of modal mandi of Madhya
in Madhya Pradesh in kharif 2017, therefore this Pradesh and two other states giving 1/3
state was purposively selected. Out of 246 main weightage to each.
wholesale markets in Madhya Pradesh, Krishi Upaj
Mandi Jabalpur is a dominating wholesale market • The modal rate is declared after the end of the
of the state serving farmers of Jabalpur district and selling period and uploaded on the Bhawantar
nearby areas. The period of data was for month Bhugtan Yojana portal.
October 2016 to March 2017 for pre implementation • The average yield is decided from state
phase and October 2017 to March 2018 for post revenue department based on previous year’s
implementation phase. Descriptive statistics like district wise crop cutting experiments average
percentage was used to analyze the data. yield and productivity.
Percentage change= (New value- Old value) X The modal prices of black gram before and after the
100/ Old value implementation of the scheme were compared. The
selling period for black gram was 16th October to
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 15th December, no deficit was paid to produce sold
after 15th December. The percentage difference of
Modal prices before and after the price received by farmers in 2017 and modal price in
implementation of the scheme 2016 was calculated (Table 1). It was revealed that
Modal price is the prevailing wholesale price of after the implementation of the scheme the modal
the crop in the mandi while Minimum Support Price prices lowered down significantly in the Krishi
is announced by the government. In Bhawantar Upaj Mandi, Jabalpur. After the end of purchase
Bhugtan Yojana the modal price of the crop is period i.e. 15th December, 2017, the modal prices
calculated according to the following method- have seen a slight rise but were significantly lower
Table 1. Modal prices of black gram before and after implementation of the scheme
MONTH 2016-17 (Rs) 2017-18 (Rs) Price received Percentage
MSP Modal price MSP Modal price after adding change in
price deficit price received
(E-B/B) *100
A B C D E F
October 5000 6450 5400 3000 5400 -16.2
November 5000 6105 5400 3070 5400 -11.5
December 5000 5450 5400 3300 5400 -0.9
January 2018 5000 4980 5400 3120 3120 -37.3
February 2018 5000 4535 5400 3460 3460 23.7
March 2018 5000 5350 5400 3260 3260 -39
Source-Krishi Upaj mandi Jabalpur 2018
Note- numbers in parenthesis indicate percentage reduction inprice received in 2017 as compared to modal price of 2016.
Deficit is different for each month.

122 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 121-124

 Evaluation of Bhawantar Bhugtan Yojana
than the modal prices in the year 2016 for kharif. The above table reveals that the arrival of black
October 2016 witnessed highest modal price i.e. gram in Jabalpur during kharif 2016 was 1,12,585 q
Rs.6450/-q while the same for October 2017 was which increased in the year 2017-18 by 70,778 q in
Rs.3000/-q and after adding the deficit it summed the period from October 2017 to March 2018 after
up to Rs.5400/-q, which was 16.2 per cent lower the implementation of the scheme. Around 63 per
than the modal price in October 2016. Indicating cent increase in arrivals lead to drop in prices by
that prices have dropped down rendering farmers around 41 per cent. On whole the arrivals of year
receive lesser as compared to pre-implementation 2017-18 increased 62.86 per cent as compared to the
period. In March 2018, dip in price received by year 2016-17 for the six month period of October to
farmers was highest i.e. 39 per cent lower than March. Average monthly modal price of black gram
modal price of March 2017. This has reduced the reduced significantly by Rs.2217/q i.e. by 41 per
returns of the farmers as they don’t receive any price cent after the implementation of the scheme. This
deficit for the months after December. So selling of showed that increase in arrivals because of fixed
produce within the marketing period at prevailing marketing window has led to reduction in prices.
prices has become compulsory for the farmers.
CONCLUSION
The arrival pattern of black gram before and Agriculture in its true sense is gambling in
after the implementation of the scheme terms of dealing with climate, produce, prices and
As the supply reaches its peak during the main returns. The study revealed that the modal price
marketing season ,prices in surplus areas fall to of black gram in Krishi Upaj Mandi Jabalpur fell
their lowest levels. Thus, arrival of produce in the down significantly i.e. 0.9 to 39 percent while the
market has inverse relation with the prices received increase in arrival was around 60 per cent. There
by the farmers. In order to work out major reasons is need to keep a check on deliberate lowering of
for drop of modal price of black gram in Krishi Upaj prices by the traders through setting floor prices. In
Mandi Jabalpur, the arrival details of black gram order to deal with the increased arrivals the window
for every month in quintals and average monthly for marketing of the produce should be increased.
modal price before and after the implementation of Thus through proper check and balances the scheme
the scheme were compared. Percentage change was can be saved from manipulations and benefit the
worked out and average modal price was taken into farmers in real terms.
consideration for comparison purpose (Table 2).
Table 2. Arrival details of black gram in Krishi Upaj Mandi, Jabalpur (q)
Month Pre-implementation Post-implementation Change Percentage
kharif 2016-17 kharif 2017-18 change
October 37,822 41,299 3,477 9.19
November 13,440 60,203 46,763 347.93
December 12,763 40,054 27,291 213.82
January 17,195 15,316 -1,879 -10.92
February 11,401 17,189 5,788 50.76
March 19,964 9,302 -10,662 -53.40
Total 1,12,585 1,83,363 70,778 62.86
Average monthly modal price (in Rs.) 5419 3,021 -2,217 -40.92
Source-Krishi Upaj Mandi, Jabalpur 2017-18

123 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 121-124

 Patel et al
REFERENCES
Gulati A, Chatterjee T and HussainS (2018). Supporting
Indian Farmers: Price Support or Direct Income/
InvestmentSupport?http://icrier.org/pdf/Working_
Paper_357.pdf Accessed May 24 2018.
Haque T and Joshi P K (2018). Price Deficiency Payments
and Minimum Support Prices. Econ and Political Weekly
53(20) 7–8.
Saxena R, Singh P N, Balaji J S, Ahuja U, Kumar R and Joshi
D (2017). Doubling Farmers’Income by 2022-23. Agril
Eco Res Rev 30 ( 2) :265-277.
Received on 19/02/0219 Accepted on 20/03/2019

124 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 121-124

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 125-130 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00022.9

Food Security and Income Stability with Soil and

Water Conservation Practice in Hebburu Sub-Watershed,
Tumkur, Karnataka
Naveena K P,1 Shivaraj S 2 and Nithin G P 3
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, KWDP-II, Sujala-III,
University of Agricultural Sciences , GKVK, Bengaluru-65 (Karnataka).

ABSTRACT
Sustained food production and enhanced farm income are the prime objectives of Indian agriculture to
encourage farming through various initiatives under the caption “Doubling Farmer’s Income” by 2022.
In this connection, the study analyzed the impact of adoption of trench cum bunds (TCBs) as a soil and
water conservation measures on economic and non-economic benefits in the watershed area. Partial
budgeting technique was employed to analyze the data. The results indicated that, adoption of trench
cum bunds had generated positive net returns and significant water recharge into the sub surface of soil.
Key Words: Benefits, Economics, Farmer, Food Production, Income, Partial Budgeting Technique.
Sustainable, Trench cum bunds.

INTRODUCTION it possible only by providing subsidies to critical

Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy farm inputs or weave off agricultural loans. Further,
which is contributing nearly 14 per cent of the is it Government the only authority to double the
country’s gross domestic product (GDP). It also farmers’ income?. What are the role of farmers to
provides a source of livelihood for at least 57 per enhance farm income? In the meantime, the ever
cent of people who lived in rural areas. Nearly, 31 increasing population of the country has resulted in
per cent of India’s population living in rural areas reduced per capita availability of agriculture land.
falls under below poverty line (Anon,2014). With Since, soil and water are the two non-renewable
over 60 per cent of Indian agriculture is dependent natural resources necessary for agriculture
on rainfall (mainly from South-West mansoon production, requisite measures are needed to
received during June to September), which is at conserve soil and water resources. Hence, it’s time
high-risk due to vagaries of the monsoon and to showcase economic importance and benefits of
local meteorological conditions. Moreover, the soil and water conservation practices particularly
cultivable land is deteriorating due to soil erosion the case of adoption of trench cum bunds (TCBs)
followed by dwindling water resources and adverse in farm field to enhance crop yields through water
climate change, resulted in decreased agricultural productivity.
productivity. With all these fallouts, Government
has taken several initiatives to address this serious MATERIALS AND METHODS
issue and called for doubling farmer’s income. Now, Location of the study
the question is, how to double the farm income, is The study was conducted in Hebburu Sub-
Corresponding Author’s Email: naveenkeragodu@gmail.com
1
Research Associate, Socio-Economics, KWDP-II, Sujala-III, UAS, Bengaluru.
2
Senior Research Fellow, Hydrology, KWDP-II, Sujala-III, UAS, Bengaluru.
3
Senior Research Fellow, Geographic Information System, KWDP-II, Sujala-III, UAS, Bengaluru.

125 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 125-130

 Naveena et al
watershed located at North latitude 130 11’ 10.633’’ demographic characteristics, various aspects of
and 130 8’ 45.647” and East longitude 760 59’ agriculture like size of land holding, asset position,
29.761” and 770 2’ 52.968’’ covering an area of cropping pattern, cost and returns structure and other
about 1478 ha bounded by Kembalalu, Kalyanapura, related information was collected for the year 2017-
Ramakrishnapura, Rayavara, Kasaba Hebburu, 18 through personal interview. The data collected
Karnakuppe and Kembalapura villages (Fig 1). were subjected to various economic analyses viz.,
tabular presentation, averages and percentage.
Partial budgeting technique was employed to assess
the economic benefits from the adoption of TCBs in
the study area.
Partial budgeting technique
It is a method of making a comparative study
of costs and returns resulting from a change in a
part of the farm business. This change may be made
through a careful selection of alternative methods
of production or practices, the choice of which is
based on opportunity cost or relative profitability.
It helps in the decision making process whenever
small changes are contemplated as to which method
Fig 1. Grid wise households image of Hebburu to adopt, which practices to follow to reduce the
Sub-Watershed unit cost and make higher profits. In the present
study partial budgeting technique was employed
to know the probability of investment on adoption
of trench cum bund as a measure of soil and water
conservation practice in farm field. It takes into
account added cost and reduced returns on debit
side, reduced cost and increased returns due to the
adoption of trench cum bunds on credit side. The
final credit minus debit figure was spread across the
gross area differential under both the adoption and
non-adoption of trench cum bund on per hectare
basis.

Fig 2. Extent of soil erosion in Hebburu Sub- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Watershed The average annual rainfall was 772 mm during
2001 to 2017 which is significantly higher than the
Selection of sample households
long term average of 740 mm corresponding to
Hebburu sub-watershed consisted of
the weather station near Hebburu sub watershed in
Thimmasandra, Rajapura and Kalyanapura micro-
Tumkur Taluk. Severe drought years were observed
watersheds. Purposive sampling method was
during 2002, 2003, 2006 and 2012. The peak rainfall
employed where fifteen households from each
year 2017 was considered for runoff distribution.
micro-watershed who adopted TCBs were selected
for the study. Data on socio-economic status,

126 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 125-130

 Food Security and Income Stability
Table 1. Land characteristics and soil parameters of Hebburu Sub-Watershed.
Particular Hebburu Sub-Watershed
Catchment area (ha) 1478
Soil type Sandy clay loam
Slope Gentle slope (1-3 %)- 983 ha
Soil erosion • Slight erosion- 1278 ha
• Moderate erosion- 14.20 ha
• Degraded land- 9.30 ha
Problematic soils  Strongly acidic- 278 ha
 Moderately acidic- 348 ha
 Slightly Acidic- 383 ha
Organic carbon content Low (< 0.5 %)
Average Annual rainfall (mm) 772
Major crops Arecanut, Coconut, Ragi and Horsegram

Budyko Curve
A Budyko curve represents the evaporative and
dryness index which indicates the healthiness of
water in the watershed. A value of dryness index
less than one indicates a humid, energy limited
catchment, whereas a value of dryness index more
than one indicates a dry, water limited catchment.
The results from the Budyko curve indicates that,
in Hebburu sub-watershed, the value of AET/P
v/s PET/ P was 1.10 indicating dryness (water
limiting) in the watershed. Hence, for sustainable
agriculture production, it is suggested to adopt the
Fig 3. Average annual rainfall (mm) of cropping choices and based on which the irrigation
Hebburu Sub-Watershed schedules have to be altered to reduce the total
evapotranspiration.
In Hebbur Sub watershed, out of the total
rainfall received (1225 mm) during the year 2017,
about 73.36 per cent of rainfall could be absorbed
through infiltration within bunding system. The
runoff (Runoff rate = Rainfall intensity – Infiltration
capacity) available for harvest was only 21.33 per
cent (261.40 mm), which was equal to 1869 litre
of water in one hectare that can be stored through
the adoption of TCBS. Similarly, Tenge et al (2011)
reported that adoption of trench ditches and bench
terraces have showed improved soil moisture
retention and increased maize and bean yields in the
East African Highlands.
Fig 4. Budyko curve of Hebburu Sub-Watershed
127 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 125-130
 Naveena et al
Table 2.Runoff distribution of Hebburu Sub-Watershed.
Sr. No. Component Value
1 Total rainfall (2017) mm 1,225
2 Potential runoff (mm) 326.25
3 runoff excess beyond bunding system (mm) 64.81
4 Runoff available for harvest (mm) 261.4
5 Runoff available for harvest (m3) 2614.4
6 Runoff available for harvest (in litres) 26,14,359
7 Runoff available for harvest (litre/ ha) 1,868.9

The data on households sampled (Table 3) for the bunds was Rs. 14,719/-, of which, a major cost
socio economic survey in Hebburu sub-watershed was towards application of FYM and fertilizers and
indicated that, among households surveyed (45), 31 opening of TCBs ( 37.74 and 36.64 % ). The other
(68.89 %) were marginal farmers, 8 (17.78 %) small important items in the additional cost component
farmers and 6 (13.33 %) semi medium farmers. were labour cost (16.32 %) and planting material
Regarding population characteristics, there were cost (9.28 %). The reduced returns due to loss of
108 (55.96 %) men and 85 (44.04 %) women with area under ragi cultivation (0.01 ha) by opening of
average family size of four members. The literacy TCBs was to an extent of 1.82 t which accounted
level was found less in the study area, as 23 per for Rs. 3,718/-. Hence, the total debit component
cent of the household members were illiterates and through additional cost and reduced returns was Rs.
functional literates. 14,720/-. By planting banana in TCBs and pigeon
The Partial budgeting analysis indicated that, the pea on the bunds of TCBs, the incremental revenue
average additional cost incurred due to adoption of due to additional yield was accounted to Rs. 26,367/.
TCBs and planting banana and pigeon pea in and on Thus, net returns accrued due to adoption of TCBs

Table 3. General characteristics of sample households in the study area. (N=45)

Sr. No. Particulars Number Per cent
1 Land holdings
Marginal farmers 31 68.89
Small farmers 8 17.78
Semi-medium farmers 6 13.33
2 Male 108 55.96
Female 85 44.04
3 Average family size 4.28 -
4 Educational status
Illiterates and functional literates 45 23.32
Primary School 42 21.77
High School 47 24.35
PUC 20 10.36
Degree and above 35 18.14

128 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 125-130

 Food Security and Income Stability
Table 4. Economics of adoption of TCBs through partial budgeting framework.
Debit Credit
Added cost Reduced cost
Particular Methods
Quantity Price Value Quantity Price Value
(Rs.)
A 5.17 Machine 780 4032.60
Opening of hours
TCBs NA 0 0 0
D 4032.60
A 82 No.(banana) 11 902
Planting Pigeon pea 120
material NA 0 0 0
D 1022
A FYM 3.20 cart 260 832
load
Application
of FYM and Fertilizers - 3320
fertilizers NA 0 0 0
D 4152
Labour charges A 6.41 labour days 280 1794.80 Nil
for planting, NA 0 0 0
FYM and D 1794.80
fertilizer
application
Sub total 11001.40
Reduced returns Increased returns
A (ragi) 14.60 qtl Banana 11.42 2257 25774.94
qtl
Pigeon pea 3700 592
Yield
0.16 qtl
NA (ragi) 16.42 qtl 0 0
D 1.82 qtl 2043 3718.26 - -
Total 14719.66 26366.94
Net Gain 11647.28
(Credit-Debit)
Note: A- Adoption, NA (Non-Adoption), D (Difference)

were Rs. 11,647/- which outweigh the additional
cost incurred for the adoption of conservation
structure. The results were in contradictory to the
findings of Shiferaw and Holden (2001) and Nigatu
et al, (2017) that, the yield penalty due to area loss
and high cost investment contributed for lower
adoption of soil conservation practices.
Further, it was also noted that, in the existing
rainfall situations, the average life of the TCBs
was five years. Therefore, the estimated net benefit

129 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 125-130

 Naveena et al
was Rs. 58,235/-. The results were in conformity
with the study of Tasbi (2018), the adoption of
soil and water conservation measures has resulted
higher productivity in all the food crops compared
to the non-adopters. Further, the annual net income
generated through adoption of SWC measures
was highest (Rs. 156,679/-) than the non-adoption
(Rs. 105,258/-) indicating profitability of adoption
of SWC measures in the farm. Reddy (1994)
and Pagiola (1999), reported that majority of
SWC practices adopted by farm households have
generated adequate internal economic incentives.
Fig 6. TCBs planting with banana and pigeon pea
CONCLUSION
Farm households were under the apprehension
that, adoption of TCBs might lose the area under
cultivation, there by the yield will be lower. The
study highlighted that adoption of TCBs as soil and
water conservation technique has generated positive
net returns and significant water recharge into the
sub surface of soil. Therefore, it is worthwhile
investment for adoption of the technology. Hence,
farmers may be convinced in all the watershed areas
for adoption of the technology through awareness
programmes. Since, preventing soil erosion and
water conservation measures are crucial for the
sustainable agriculture production, creation of
Watershed Association Groups are necessary for
effective implementation of SWC measures in the
watershed. Furthermore, result demonstration need
to be conducted by the extension agents at block
levels to motivate the farming community for the
same. Further, isotopal studies have to be carried
130 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 125-130
out at the watershed level to enhance the accuracy
level of water storage.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research is a part of Sujala Project funded
by World Bank and the authors are grateful to
the Project Coordinator and Project Investigators
for their valuable suggestions to make the article
successful. Further, authors express heartfelt thanks
to the Consultants, Research Associates, Senior
Research Fellows, Project Assistants, Field Staff,
Laboratory Staff, Accountants and other colleagues
for their kind support to bring this article to this
level.
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Dunne T and L B Leopold (1978). Water in Environmental
Planning, W H Freeman and Co, San Francisco, 818 p.
Nigatu Dabi, Kalkidan Fikirie and Tewodros Mulualem,
(2017). Soil and water conservation practices on crop
productivity and its economic implications in Ethiopia: A
Review. Asian J Agril Res 11: 128-136.
Pagiola S (1999). Economic analysis of incentives for soil
conservation. In “Incentives in Soil Conservation; From
Theory to Practice” (eds) Sanders DW, Huszar PC,
Sombatpanit S. and Enters T. p41-56 Oxford & IBH
Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
Anonymous (2014). Report of the Expert Group to Review
the Methodology for Poverty Measurement, (chaired by
C Rangarajan), Government of India.
Reddy BVC (1994). Investment in Soil and Water Conservation:
An Analysis of its Impact in the Kalyanakere Watershed
Project. PhD thesis, University of Agricultural Sciences,
Bangalore, India.
Shiferaw Bekele and Holden Stein T (2001). Farm-level
benefits to investments for mitigating land degradation:
Empirical evidence from Ethiopia. Environ and Dev Eco
6(3): 335-358.
Tasbi Rukhsar Aslam (2018). Impact of soil and water
conservation measures on farms economy in Ratnagiri
district. MSc (Agri) unpublished thesis, Dr. Balasaheb
Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeta, Dapoli, India.
Tenge A J, Sterk G and Okoba B O (2011). Farmers’
preferences and physical effectiveness of soil and water
conservation measures in the East African Highlands. J
Social Sci 2(1): 84-100.
Received on: 12/12/2018 Accepted on 15/03/2019
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 131-136 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00049.7

Grass Root Institutions for Enhancing Wood Productivity: A

Study on Functioning of Tree Grower Societies in Tamil Nadu
V Irulandi1, T T Renganathan2 and M Ramasubramanian3
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Needamangalam-614404 (Tamilnadu)

ABSTRACT
A study was conducted among two hundred and forty five tree growers of Tamil Nadu state in India to assess
the functioning of Tree Grower Societies (TGS) and to predict the willingness of farmer to join TGS. It was
observed that majority of the respondents were not aware of the existence of TGS, neither enrolled as member
nor paid membership fees. Regarding the perceptions about the benefits of participation in TGS, majority
of the respondents shown positive response to know the market information of tree produces, technical
information on tree growing, to meet fellow farmers and interacted with them and to avoid interference of
middleman in selling their forest produce. The constraints expressed by respondents in the functioning of
TGS were, lack of infrastructure facilities like office space, furniture, staff, members did not have adequate
knowledge to run the society, non availability of time to attend society meetings and sizeable number of
respondents felt domination of few members in the societies. Logistic regression results revealed that, if a
tree grower had high perception towards forestry extension activities, the odds of his willingness to become
member of TGS would increase by a factor of 17.58 units. In other words, the willingness of a tree grower to
become member of TGS improves by 17 times if he had high perception towards forestry extension activities.
Key Words: Awareness, Constraints, Grower, Perception, Societies, Tree, Willingness.

INTRODUCTION be possible to influence policy makers and cope

Tree Grower Societies are characteristically
umbrella organizations and their prime objectives
is to represent the interest of private tree growers to
the forest department and other line departments at
the state and district level and to influence politically
to achieve their objectives. These associations are
beneficial to tree growers for buying expensive
equipment for forestry works especially planting
equipments to be shared among members, reducing
the fixed cost burden, inputs of individual tree
growers. Higher market price for wood produces
could be achieved through joint marketing and
through bulk order. The expenditure for raising
seedlings needed for tree growing private lands
could be lowered for small and marginal farmers.
These farmers their individual capacity may not
up the market fluctuations whereas members of
TGS together can organize for collective actions
in the field of private forestry and provide to its
members, forward and backward linkages (forestry
extension entries) that are inevitably needed for tree
cultivation.
Tree Grower Societies in Tamil Nadu
One important activity of FECs is to facilitate
the functioning of tree grower societies (TGS)
to augment the potentials of farm lands for the
cultivation of tree crops Twenty Seven TGS were
formed in various districts about a decade back.
Despite the fact that TGS are being promoted with
greater enthusiasm by the Forestry Extension wing,
the diffusion of the concept among the members

Corresponding Author’s Email: ramagriextension@gmail.com

1
Additional Principal Conservator of Forest, Tamil Nadu Forest Department (Retired)
2
Professor (Agri Extension), Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, Gandhigram Rural Univeristy, Gandhigram
3
Asst.Professor (Agri Extension), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Needamangalam, Thiruvarur District, Tamil Nadu

131 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 131-136

 Irulandi et al
Table 1. Distribution of respondents according to the Awareness, Participation and Involvement
about Functioning of Tree Grower Societies. (n=245)
Sr. No. Parameter
1 Awareness about existence of TGS
2 Member in TGS
3 Payment of membership fee
4 Members attending the meeting regularly
5 Satisfaction with functioning
has not been satisfactory as desired. Most of the
TGS in different district were defunct and very
few are functioning with lesser activities. Though,
the benefits accrued out of such farmers societies
elsewhere were found to be abundant, it was
necessary to analyze the reasons or factors which
are responsible for defunct nature as well as the poor
functioning of TGS and to find out the strategies for
strengthening the activities of TGS in Tamil Nadu.
Keeping this in mind, a study was contemplated to
analyze the functioning of Tree Growers Societies
and predict the willingness of tree growers to
become members.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This study was undertaken in Tamil Nadu state
of India. A total of 245 farmers were selected from
the eight districts representing five agro-climatic
zones of Tamil Nadu which have higher potential
for tree growing activities. The respondents were
selected using snow ball sampling wherein word
of mouth of potential tree growers and opinion of
the Forestry Extension officials were taken into
consideration for the selection of farmers. All
the selected respondents were enquired about the
functioning in their respective districts. Out of 245
respondents, 84 were found to be members of TGS
and were considered for further data collection
regarding functioning of the societies.
A well structured pre-tested interview schedule
was constructed to pursue the objectives of the
study which included four components namely
awareness about TGS, perception about benefits of
132 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 131-136
Yes No
Number % Number %
97 39.59 148 60.41
84 34.29 161 65.71
55 65.48 29 34.52
75 89.29 9 10.71
57 67.86 27 32.14
participation in TGS, constraints in functioning of
TGS and suggestions to overcome the constraints
in functioning of TGS. The items of TGS to be
included in the interview schedule were finalized
through discussion with the office bearers and
members of TGS and prospective tree growers in
different agro climatic zones of Tamil Nadu. The
data were analyzed using simple percentage analysis
and binary logistic regression. The response of
the respondents namely willing to join TGS or
unwilling to join TGS was coded ‘1’ and ‘0’ and the
predictors of the willingness was studied through
binary logistic regression
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The perusal of data (Table 1) revealed that
almost two third (60.41%) of respondents did not
know the existence of TGS in their villages. One
third (34.29%) of respondents enrolled themselves
as members in TGS. These members were also part
of few TGS which are functioning with limited
activities.
Likewise, it was evident (Table 1), that only
65.48 percent of members have paid the membership
fee. It was conspicuous to note that there existed
gap between being a member in TGS and paying
membership fee. Since the members could not
realize any tangible benefits from the society,
they were bit hesitant to pay the membership fee.
Further, the societies were poorly patronized by
the Forestry Extension personnel. Had the benefits
of being member of society been explained in a
pacifying way to the farmers, the participation
 Grass Root Institutions for Enhancing Wood Productivity
Table 2. Distribution of respondents according to their perceptions about functioning of Tree Grower
Society . (n = 84)
Yes No
Sr. No. Benefit
Number % Number %
1 Got to know the fellow tree growers 61 72.61 23 27.39
2 Chance to interact with fellow tree growers 66 78.57 18 21.43
3 Improved my expressiveness and developed self 72 85.71 12 14.29
confidence
4 Understanding the collective approach 69 82.14 15 17.86
5 To know about technical information on tree 74 88.09 10 11.91
growing
6 Got to know market information 77 91.66 7 8.34
7 Avoidance of middle men 70 83.33 14 16.67
of members in terms of payment of membership system to provide needed market details to members
fee could have enhanced which would facilitate of the societies.
sustenance of society activities. Out of 84 members, Majority (88.09%) of members of TGS endorsed
majority of them (89.29%) were reported to attend the benefit of getting to know technical information
the meeting regularly. Nearly two third (67.86%) about tree growing by being a member of society.
of respondents were satisfied with the functioning Further, the membership in the society has improved
of the society. The findings were in line with Kumar their expressiveness and developed self confidence
(2016) reported that 87.0 per cent of the respondents as reported by majority of members (85.71%). The
had favorable attitude towards FIG activities and TGS gave an opportunity to the members to meet
he also revealed that two –third (66.0%) of the the Forestry Extension officials and have interaction
respondent’s attendance in the meeting was medium with them which improved their self-confidence
level followed by high (24.0%). and to get technical information about tree growing.
Perceptions about benefits of participation in Further, the meetings which are being organized by
Tree Grower Society TGS helped the members to express their ideas and
The perceived opinion of the members of TGS to engage in transfer of each other ideas.
about the benefits of participation is paramount The indirect consequence or benefit of being a
important to assess its sustainability. member of TGS is that understanding the collective
An important benefit that whopping majority of approach which has been reported by nearly four
members (91.66 %) indicated was to know the market fifth of the respondents (82.14%) which was in line
information by being a member of the society. This with the findings of Song and Olshfski, (2008) who
would result in avoidance of middlemen which was revealed that valued interpersonal relationship can
again reported by majority of (83.33%) members influence organizational outcomes by increasing
as a benefit. From this finding, it was evident that institutional participation The group extension
the expectation of members to get reliable, timely concept is fast emerging like Farmers Interest
market information such as demand, supply, price Groups (FIGs), Commodity Groups, Farmer
of timber and other forest produces was steadily Producer Companies (FPCs) in agriculture and the
increasing. Hence, the Forestry Extension system farmers are increasingly realizing the benefits of
needs to invigorate itself to improve its information working in groups. Approximately three fourth of

133 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 131-136

 Irulandi et al
Table 3. Distribution of respondents according to constraints in prevailed functioning of Tree
Grower’s Society . (N = 84)
Yes No
Sr. No. Constraint
No. % No. %
1 Dominated by few persons 48 57.14 36 42.86
2 Lack of fund to run the society 70 83.33 14 16.67
3 Lack of infrastructure facility 76 90.48 8 9.52
4 Inadequate knowledge to handle society matters 58 69.04 26 30.96
5 Time constraint 55 65.48 29 34.52

members of TGS reported that they got to know the officials of Forestry Extension wing and they have
fellow Tree growers (78.57%) and they had chances to seriously think of imparting knowledge about
to interact with fellow Tree growers (72.61%) working and mandatory activities of the society,
respectively. The findings of Wambugu et al (2009) renewal of society and maintenance of records
corroborated with the findings of the study who and accounts. Time constraint has been reported
reported that social capital positively affects the by nearly two third of (65.48%) members of the
performance of famers groups and developmental society. Although, the members were eager to take
strategies that target commercialization of small part in the meetings organized by the societies,
holder agriculture through producer organizations due to various timely agricultural works, the
which pay attention to the internal factors within members could not find time to participate in the
such organizations. Further, the findings of Hiremath meeting organized by the society. The society must
(2014) need to be emphasized here who reported fix a particular date in a month for the periodical
that the structure and organization of Farmers meeting which will enable the members to attend
organizations were different from the traditional the meeting by adjusting their other works. Nearly
cooperative institutions and their management. half (57.14%) of members felt domination by
few persons as one of the constraints. Any group
Constraints in the functioning Tree Growers is bound to have such individuals who need to be
Society tackled diplomatically by the other members and
The prime constraint expressed by vast majority the office bearers. Training on group dynamics for
of members (90.48%) was the lack of infrastructure office bearers as well as members proved to be an
facilities such as office space, furniture’s, computer effective solution for such problems.
accessories with internet facility and a staff which
are essential to hold meetings and governing day Willingness of Tree growers to become
to day activities for the effective functioning. The members of Tree Growers Society
next constraint which was expressed by majority of Another dimension of the study was to assess
members (83.33%) was the lack of funds to run the the willingness of the Tree growers to become
society which was bare minimum requirement for members of TGS which might have been influenced
running the society. by several factors.
Another constraint which bewildered the In the present analysis, two variables namely
functioning of the society as reported by nearly two Innovativeness and Perception towards Forestry
third (69.04%) of members was that the inadequate Extension activities were found to be significant
knowledge to handle the society matters. This at one percent level of probability. Another
was the crucial point to be borne in mind by the variable namely Information seeking behavior was

134 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 131-136

 Grass Root Institutions for Enhancing Wood Productivity
Table 4. Logistic regression coefficients.
Sr. No. Predictor B S.E. Wald df Sig. Exp(B)
1. Area under tree cultivation 0.070 0.051 1.923 1 0.166 1.073
2. Decision making pattern -0.088 0.096 0.833 1 0.361 0.916
3. Information seeking behaviour 0.725 0.421 2.961 1 0.055 2.065*
4. Innovativeness 1.578 0.537 8.640 1 0.003 4.847**
5. Income from tree crops 0.000 0.000 0.061 1 0.804 1.000
6. Marketing orientation 0.125 0.182 0.472 1 0.492 1.133
7. Access to forestry production 0.039 0.027 2.129 1 0.145 1.040
technologies
8. Perception towards Forestry Extension 2.867 1.288 4.956 1 0.026 17.58**
activities
9. Adoption of tree growing practices 0.078 0.088 0.788 1 0.375 1.081

significant at five percent level of probability. It
could be interpreted that, if a tree grower had high
perception towards Forestry Extension activities,
the odds of his willingness to become member of
TGS would increase by a factor of 17.58 units. In
other words, the willingness of a tree grower to
become member of TGS improves by 17 times if
he had high perception towards Forestry Extension
activities. If an individual perceive high about a
phenomena/activity he tends to move towards that
phenomena or activity. The perception towards
Forestry Extension activity was carried out by
Forestry Extension wing will act as a catalyst to
have a opinion about forestry. Further, the societies
were mobilized by Forestry Extension wing and
the benefits of being a member of the society has
been reinforced in most of the meeting of the wing.
Hence, if a tree grower had a high perception
about Forestry Extension activities, there is every
likely hood that he becomes a member of TGS.
Similarly, if a tree grower is innovative, the odds of
his willingness to become a member of the society
would increase by a factor of 4.84 units. In other
words, the willingness of a tree grower to become
a member of the societies improves 4 times if he
is innovative. Obviously, any farmer who wishes
to practice agriculture innovatively, he tends to
look for innovative practices which are in the
offing through any means. The Forestry Extension
wing which is promoting TGS are also known for
transferring innovative tree growing practices.
Hence, the innovative tree growers might have
formed an opinion to join the societies anticipating
the benefits of being a member.
Yet another variable ‘Information seeking
behavior’ was also found to be significant which
implies that the odds of a Tree grower to become a
member of the societies would increase by a factor
of 2.06 units and hence, the likelihood had increased
two times if he had higher Information seeking
behavior. It has already been discussed in adoption
of tree growing practices wherein Information
seeking behaviour was significantly contributing to
adoption. There is no doubt that if a tree grower is
seeking information from various sources including
Forestry Extension wing, his orientation towards
this institution will grow and ultimately there exists
a possibility of he becoming a member of TGS.
In nut shell, the tree growers who are innovative,
seeking information about tree growing activities
and who had higher perception towards Forestry
Extension activities did possess a higher chance
of becoming a member in TGS. This reveals the
active role to be played by Forestry Extension
wing to conduct regular meetings, campaigns,
demonstrations in the villages which will indirectly
help Tree growers to join as member in TGS.

135 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 131-136

 Irulandi et al
CONCLUSION
The study inferred that respondents were
poorly informed of market information. Therefore,
TGS can act as a service provider with respect to
providing market information, prevailing demand
and supply status of tree products, value addition
to tree products, promotion of income generation
activities such as nursery raising, vermi compost
production, renting tools and equipment and
any other activities bringing income to the TGS.
Moreover, TGS branches may be formed at Taluk
level which will be useful to enroll more members,
facilitate to reach large number of farmers. So there
is a need to organize training programme exclusively
for the Executive Committee Members to get
familiarize with strategic planning, accounting,
financial management, capacity building relates to
run the TGS successfully.
136 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 131-136
REFERENCES
Hiremath G (2014). Strengthening farmer participation through
groups Experiences and lessons from Botswana. OFCOR
Discussion Paper No. 3 ISNAR. The Hague.
Kumar N M R (2016). Farmer’s interest group of guava in
Dindigul district - A Performance Analysis. M.Sc. (Ag)
thesis, AC&RI, Madurai. (Unpublished).
Song G and Olshfski KV (2008). Institution Building
for Afforestation of Wastelands. Paper presented at
the Workshop on Cooperatives in Natural Resources
Management, 7-11 December, Institute of Rural
Management, Anand.
Wambugu S N, Okello J J, Nyikal R A and Shiferaw B (2009).
Effect of social capital on performance of smallholder
producer organizations: the case of groundnut growers
in Western Kenya. In: International Association of
Agricultural Economists Conference. pp. 16-22.
Received on 11/02/2019 Accepted on 10/04/2019
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 137-139 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00023.0

Growth Performance and Survivability of Srinidhi birds under

Farm System of Management
Maroof Ahmad and Upasana Singh
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Ambala 133104 (Haryana)

ABSTRACT
The present study was carried out on 105d old chicks of Srinidhi breed under farm condition. The body
weight was recorded at weekly interval up to 16wk of age. The mean values of body weight at 0d, 4th,
8th, 12th and 16th wk of age were estimated as 32.72 ± 0.59, 398.30 ± 3.18, 1010.87 ± 6.47, 1477.73 ±
9.21 and 1994.12 ± 10.91g, respectively in Srinidhi birds maintained under farm system of management.
Age at first lay was found to be 175.85 ± 2.33 days and average egg production up to 40wk of age was
recorded as105.42 ± 1.65 eggs. Egg weight up to 40wk of age and the survivability of Srinidhi birds
was recorded as 54.40 ± 1.22g and 97.15 per cent, respectively under farm system of management.
Key Words: Age at first laying, Body weight, Egg production, Egg weight ,Survivability, Srinidhi bird.

INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS

Backyard poultry are primarily reared for egg
and meat production in rural areas of the country
and can be advantageously promoted in rural
areas. As the large commercial poultry production
continues to be concentrated in urban and peri-
urban locations which have proven to be powerful
tool for alleviation of rural poverty, eradication of
malnutrition and creation of gainful employment in
vast rural areas. Srinidhi, a dual purpose chicken
breed developed by the Directorate of Poultry
Research, Hyderabad (Telangana) by adopting
specific breeding strategies. The birds have potential
to produce more eggs and meat than desi chicken.
This breed has multi-colored plumage, longer shank,
high general immune competence, faster growth
than desi hen and more eggs which are brown in
color. Body weight of a bird indicates its genetic
constitution and adaptation with respect to the
specific environment and measure the cumulative
growth. Keeping in view, the present study was
undertaken to study the growth, age at first lay, egg
production and survivability of Srinidhi birds under
farm system of management.
The study was carried out on 105 day old
chicks of Srinidhi breed. The chicks were procured
from Directorate of Poultry Research, Hyderabad
(Telangana). After proper cleaning, disinfection
and fumigation the recommended temperature and
humidity were maintained for artificial brooding.
Chicks were brooded under hover brooder up
to 21d of age. During brooding, the chicks were
provided with ad libitum broiler pre-starter crumbs
and clean potable drinking water with 5 per cent
glucose after arrival at farm. These chicks were
also given Hostacycline powder @ 0.5 g per
liter of water, vimeral @ 5.0 ml /100 chicks and
vitamin B-complex @ 20 ml/100 chicks daily in
drinking water for three days. The chicks were also
vaccinated against Ranikhet and Gumboro diseases
as per standard vaccination schedule. Chicks were
maintained under deep litter system of management.
Data on body weights from 0 to16wk of age, age at
first egg, egg production up to 40wk of age, egg
weight and survivability percentage were recorded.
The data were analyzed as per Snedecor and
Cochran (1994).

Corresponding Author’s Email: maroofahmad786@yahoo.co.in

137 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 137-139

 Ahmad and Singh
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 2. Average daily gain (g/day) in body
Growth performance weight of Srinidhi birds.
The body weights of Srinidhi birds recorded at Age (weeks) Daily gain in body weights (g)
weekly interval have been presented in table 1. The 0-4 12.68 ± 0.18
body weight at 0, 1st ,4th ,8th ,12th and 16th wk of age 4-8 21.94 ± 0.25
were found to be 38.72 ± 0.59, 67.21 ± 0.84, 398.30 8-12 16.67 ± 0.42
± 3.18, 1010.87 ± 6.47, 1477.73 ± 9.21 and 1994.12 12-16 18.44 ± 0.50
± 10.91g, respectively, in Srinidhi birds. The
Average daily gain at 0-4, 4-8, 8-12 and 12-16 wk Table 3. Production performance.
was estimated as 12.68 ± 0.18, 21.94 ± 0.25, 16.67 Economic trait Value
± 0.42 and 18.44 ± 0.50 g, respectively. However, Age at first egg (days) 175.85 ± 2.33
higher body weight at 4th week of age (592.40 ± Egg production no. ( up to 40 wk ) 105.42 ± 1.65
6.81 g) was reported by Rajkumar et al (2018) under Egg weight (40 wk) g 54.40 ± 1.22
farm condition. Lower body weight at 8th wk of age
Survivability (%) 97.14
(742.13±5.86 g) was reported by Sarma et al (2018)
and Singh et al (2018) in Srinidhi birds under field
Production Performance
condition. The higher mean body weights recorded The mean age at first egg was recorded 175.85
under farm condition might be attributed to the ± 2.33d in Srinidhi birds. Higher age at first egg
better management practices and feeding conditionwas observed by Sarma et al (2018) in Srinidhi and
of the birds. Vanraja birds under field condition. However, lower
Table 1. Body weight (g) of Srinidhi birds under age at first egg (150-162 d) was reported by Singh
farm system of management. et al (2018) in Srinidhi birds under farm system of
management. Higher age of first egg (173.00±1.35
Period (Week) Body weights ± S.E. (g)
ds) in Gramapriya and 181.53±1.29 d in Vanaraja
0 38.72 ± 0.59 birds were reported by Singh et al (2018) under
1 67.21 ± 0.84 field condition. The average egg production up
2 161.48 ± 1.57 to 40 wk of age was found to be 105.42 ± 1.65
3 287.97 ± 2.60 eggs in Srinidhi birds. However, 195 eggs up to
4 398.30 ± 3.18 72 wk of age were reported by Singh et al (2018)
5 507.75 ± 4.75 in Srinidhi birds under farm condition. The lower
6 668.33 ± 5.91 egg production (50.93±0.28) up to 40 wk of age
7 829.91 ± 6.28 was estimated by Sarma et al (2018) in traditional
farming system. Similarly, the average egg weight
8 1010.87 ± 6.47
at 40 wk of age was estimated to be 54.40 ± 1.22
9 1050.21 ± 6.60
g. The present study was close with those reported
10 1219.06 ± 7.53 by Singh et al (2018) and Sarma et al (2018) in
11 1398.76 ± 8.60 Srinidhi birds under farm and field conditions.
12 1477.73 ± 9.21 However higher egg weight was recorded by Singh
13 1620.30 ± 9.51 et al (2018) in Vanraja birds. The survivability
14 1698.06 ± 9.81
percentage up to 40wk of age was observed as
97.15 under farm condition. Almost similar findings
15 1830.15 ± 10.05
were reported by Zuyie et al (2009) under extensive
16 1994.12 ± 10.91 system of management in Vanraja birds and

138 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 137-139

 Growth Performance of Srinidhi birds
Singh et al (2018) in Srinidhi birds under farm Sarma M, Islam R, Borah M K, Sharma P, Mahanta J D,
condition. These results indicated that management Kalita N and Bhattacharyya, B N (2018). Comparative
performance of Vanaraja, Srinidhi and Desi chicken
provided at farm condition was better than under traditional system among tribal community of
traditional farming system of management. Assam. Indian J Anim Res 52(10):1518-1520
Singh Mahak, Talimoa Mollier R, Rajesha G, Myngthungo
CONCLUSION Nguillie A, Rajkhowa D J, Rajkumar U, Paswan Chandan
The present findings showed that the Srinidhi and Chatterjee R N (2018). Backyard Poultry Farming
birds performed better in terms of body weight with Vanraja and Srinidhi. Indian Farming 68(01): 80-
gain, age at sexual maturity, egg production and egg 82.
weight. The bird adopted well in the local climatic Singh P, Kachroo D, Thakur, N P, Khajuria V, Kumar P, Kumar
conditions of Ambala District. So, farmers from M and Kumar, G (2018). Comparative Performance of
Vanaraja, Gramapriya and Indigenous Desi Bird under
rural areas of Ambala could rear the Srinidhi birds Backyard System of Rearing in Jammu Province, India.
for their livelihood and nutritional security. Int J Current Micro and Applied Sci 7(2): 101-105.
Snedecor, G W and Cochran, W G (1994). Statistical Methods.
REFERENCES 6th Edn, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co.Calcutta.
Rajkumar U, Kumari Kanya R, Raju M V L N, Panda A K,
Zuyie R, Sharma V B, Bujarbaruah K M, and Vidyarthi V K
Niranjan M and Rama Rao S V (2014). Evaluation of
(2009). Performance of Vanaraja birds under intensive
Performance of Vanaraja and Srinidhi Varieties of Rural
system of rearing at different altitude in Nagaland. Indian
Poultry During Nursery Phase Under Different Feeding
J Poult Sci 44 (3):411-413
Regimes. Indian Vet J 91 (3): 95 – 97.
Received on 02/02/2019 Accepted on 15/03/2019

139 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 137-139

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 140-143 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00024.2

Impact Assessment of Technological Interventions for

Reducing Yield Gaps in Rice ( Oryza sativa L.) Under Temperate
Hill Ecology
T Mubark and A Shakoor
Krishi Vigyan Kendra Kulgam, Pombay, 192 233
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Science and Technology, Kashmir (Jammu & Kashmir

ABSTRACT
Rice cultivation extends from the planes having altitude 1600 m above the mean sea level to high altitude
hills 2300 m above msl in the temperate Kashmir valley. Productivity of Rice crop is very low compared
to the potential yield. To narrow down the yield gaps and achieve maximum yields, demonstrations
on improved rice technologies among rice growing farmers of mid belts were conducted by the KVK
Kulgam from year 2013 to 2017. The results demonstrations revealed a significant improvement in
yield in demonstrations over farmers practice. The yield superiority ranged from 9.2 % to 15.8 %. A
yield advantage of 11.9 % over farmers’ practice was recorded in demonstrations. An extension gap of
6.32 q/ ha hectare was recorded. Net returns of ₹96843/= were recorded in demonstrations against ₹
87315/= from the farmers practice. Incremental Benefit Cost Ratio (IBCR) of demonstrations was 2.1.
Key Words: Paddy, Frontline Demonstration, Impact, Temperate condition.

INTRODUCTION higher yield by applying urea in the range of 250.0

India is the leading rice (Oryza sativa L.)
producing country in terms of area and the second
largest producer next to China (Mouneshwari et al,
2017). It is staple food of the people of temperate
Kashmir Valley and its cultivation extends from
the planes having altitude 1600 m above the mean
sea level to high altitude hills 2300 m above msl
in the valley. Average productivity of paddy in the
Jammu & Kashmir is 2.2 t/ha (Mysir and Tapan,
2015). In a study Singh et al (2015) found that
maximum number of farmers applied urea in the
range of 187.5 to 250 kg/ha to the variety Pusa
Punjab Basmati 1509 and harvested an additional
yield of about 0.75q/ha as compared to the farmers
applying ≤187.5kg/ ha. A decline in productivity
was also noticed with higher application rates in this
variety while in case of Pusa Basmati 1121 an equal
number of farmers applied in the range of ≤187.5
kg/ha and 187.5 to 250 kg/ha and the yields were
almost comparable. However, few farmers got much
to 312.5 kg/ha. There exists a huge gap between
the present level of productivity and the production
potential, which can be narrowed down through
demonstrations on improved rice technologies
among rice farming community. Kumar et al
(2018) analyzed the constraints experienced by
agricultural scientists and extension personnel
in rice knowledge management and its delivery.
The results showed that agricultural scientists and
extension personnel faced technological, social,
economical and psychological constraints more
severely. Likewise, Kumar and Lal (2018) reported
that effective communication from different sources
and channels were the essence of extension which
provides agricultural information and knowledge
to the farmers. They concluded that extension
personnel were considered as the most credible
source of information followed by radio, television,
newspaper and computer. In view of this, frontline
demonstrations on rice were conducted by the

Corresponding Author’s Email: drtasneem.mubarak@gamil.com

140 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 140-143

 Mubark and Shakoor
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kulgam with an objective night hours particularly. 22-25d old seedlings from
to popularize the potential technologies related rice modified protected nursery were transplanted at
farming.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Front line demonstration (FLD) were conducted
by the Krishi Vigyan Kendra Kulgam. Paddy
variety Jhelum, a high yielding rice cultivar famous
for high yield potential and quality , released
for the plain zone and successfully tested in the
mid altitudes areas in district Kulgam situated at
75o01’ east longitude and 33o 39’ north latitude in
the lap of Peer Panchal , Himalayan Ranges. The
study area falls between an altitude of 1650 and
1850 m amsl. Improved production and protection
technologies related to the paddy variety Jhelum
were demonstrated at farmers’ field in participatory
mode during Kharif seasons from 2013 to 2017.
Each FLD was conducted in an area of 0.4 ha. The
data recorded were used for calculating economics
and gap analysis. The details of the technologies
demonstrated were:
Seed rate: 60 kg seed for one hectare against
famers’ practice of higher seed rate ranging 150-
200 kg/ha.
Seed treatment: Treatment with Mancozeb@ 2g
+ Carbendazim @1g per kg of seed
Seedbed treatment: Spray of Captan 50 WP
0.15% and Hexaconazole 5 EC 0.15% in cocktail.
Sowing time: The sowing of seed was done in the
first week of May.
Nursery management:
Seedlings were raised under Modified protected
nursery against farmers’ practice of raising nursery
in the open. In modified protected nursery the
medium consisted of a 20-25 cm layer of soil,
sand, organic manure and ash in the ratio of
2:2:1:1 laid on polythene sheet .Nursery area had
good facilities for drainage. Polythene sheets were
used to cover locally available willows sticks to
make low tunnels. Nursery was kept covered with
polythene during cloudy/rainy days and also during
141 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 140-143
different locations over the years.
Balanced dose of fertilizer
Farmers were advised to strictly follow the
recommendations with regard to the dose and
time of fertilizer application. In some cases farmers
were advised to reduce urea fertilizer dose owing to
inherent nitrogen fertility/consistent use of organic
manures in plenty.
Plant population
Farmers were instructed to transplant 2-3
healthy rice seedling per hill with 35-45 Plants/ m
Water management
Owing to availability of water in plenty famers
generally apply running water to the paddy crop
throughout the season excluding the pre heading
stage. Farmers were therefore, advised to impound
water (5cm) for the first 15d after transplanting.
Complete draining out of water was advocated at
mid- tillering stage (20-22 DAT) for 1st top dose
of nitrogen after hand weeding, panicle initiation
stage (35-40 DAT) for application of 2nd top dose
of nitrogen and pre-heading stage (50-55 DAT) to
stimulate heading. From flowering to milk stage, a
thin layer of water was advised to be maintained
in the field. After Alternate wetting and drying
was done from dough stage, (85-90 DAT) to
physiological maturity (100DAT). No irrigation
was given after physiological maturity.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Crop yield
During five years of demonstrations, 278 FLDs
were laid over an area of 111.4 ha. The results of
demonstrations revealed a substantial increase in
yield in improved technology over farmers’ practice.
Over the years and locations improved practices
recorded an average yield of 59.48q/ha compared
to 53.16 q/ha obtained under farmers’ practice of
rice cultivation (Table 1). The yield superiority
ranged between 9.2 and 15.8 per cent. An overall
 Table 1. Grain yield and gap analysis of front line demonstrations on paddy (2013-17) at farmers’ field.

142
Average yield
Area under Average yield in
No. of in Farmers Percentage Extension gap
Year Variety demonstration Demonstration
demonstrations practice yield increase (q/ha)
(ha) (q/ha)
(q/ha)
2013 Jehlum 75.0 30.0 60.6 52.3 15.8 8.3
2014* Jehlum 97.5 39.0 42.6 38.3 11.2 4.3
2015 Jehlum 25.0 10.0 63.8 58.4 9.2 5.4
2016 Jehlum 21.0 8.4 66.2 59.4 11.4 6.8
2017 Jehlum 60.0 24.0 64.2 57.4 11.8 6.8
To t a l /
Average 278.5 111.4 59.48 53.16 11.88 6.32
*Due to incessant rains and floods in 2014 yield declined drastically.

Table 2: Economic Analysis of frontline demonstration programme on paddy at farmers’ field.

Input cost ( Rs./ha) Net returns ( Rs.) Additional Effective
Additional returns from
Year cost in Gain from BCR
Farmers’ Farmers’ demonstration demonstration
demonstrations
(Rs.) ( Rs.)

J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 140-143

Practice Demonstration practice Demonstration
2013 25,690 28,700 3,010 55,165 65,096 9,931 6,921 2.3
2014 26,200 29,200 3000 73,430 82,539 9,109 6,109 2.0
Impact Assessment of Technological Interventions

2015 26,600 29,415 2,815 77,100 85,200 8,100 5,285 1.9

2016 27,800 30,872 3,072 1,14,310 1,23,816 9,506 6,434 2.1
2017 28,192 32,448 4,256 1,16,574 1,27,564 10,990 6,734 1.6

Average 26,896 30,127 3,230 87,315 96,843 9,528 6,298 1.9

 Mubark and Shakoor
yield advantage of 11.9 per cent was recorded in demand for rice in the valley. The area is shrinking
technology demonstrated. day by day due to diversification into other
sectors especially horticulture and non-agriculture
Gap analysis activities. To meet the present and future demand of
An extension gap between 4.3 to 8.3 q/ ha was paddy the average productivity not less than 5t/ha is
recorded over the years and location. On an average required. For this it is imperative to demonstrate all
the extension gap was 6.32q/ha (Table 1). The the proven technologies developed by the SAU at
extension gap was lowest (4.3q/ha) during 2014 farmers’ field so that the productivity is reasonably
and was highest (8.3 q/ha) during 2013. Such gap high to meet the demand. Suitable varieties with
might be attributed to adoption of improved whole other technological components play an important
package technologies in demonstrations which role as evident from the results of this study.
resulted in higher grain yield than the traditional
farmers practices (Singh et al, 2012). The declining REFERENCES
trend in extension gap during 2014 might be due Kammar Mouneshwari R, Vidyavathi G Y and Amresh Y S
to better performance of farmers’ practice under (2017). Effect of demonstration on use of paddy straw
abnormal weather condition i.e. incessant rains and baler in Raichur district. J Krishi Vigyan 6 (1): 224-226.
lower temperature during flowering period. Kumar J and Lal B (2018). Use of information and
communication technologies by the farmers of hilly areas
Economic impact of Jammu and Kashmir. J Krishi Vigyan 6 (2) : 244-246.
Economic returns as a function of grain yield Kumar S, Sangeetha V, Singh P, Burman R Roy and Bhowmik
and sale price varied during different years. A (2018). Constraints experienced by agricultural
Maximum returns of Rs.1,27,564/-ha were achieved scientists and extension personnel in rice knowledge
from demonstration plots during the year 2017 .Net management and its delivery. J Krishi Vigyan 6(2) : 22-
26.
returns pooled over the years were Rs.96,843/-ha
in technology demonstrated against Rs.87,315/-ha Mubarak T, Zargar M A and Bhat Z A( 2012). IDM- In
combating blast disease in rice crop in temperate
from the farmers’ practice. The higher additional environment. J Krishi Vigyan 1(1): 27-30.
returns and effective gain (Table 2 ) obtained
Mysir J Kaloo and Choure T (2015). Status of rice production
under demonstrations could be due to improved in Jammu and Kashmir: An Economic Analysis. Int J
technology, timely execution of field operations and Appl Res 1(9): 359-363
monitoring of demonstration plots followed by on Singh A, Singh A K and Singh L ( 2012). Effect of technological
spot advisories (Mubarak et al, 2012). The highest interventions on rice yield at farmers’ field. Indian Res J
incremental benefit: cost ratio (IBCR) 2.3 was Ext Edu 12 (3) : 23-27
registered during 2013. Overall IBCR recorded Singh G, Sandhu S S, Sharma M and Singh G (2015).
during the period was 1.9. Appraisal of varieties and fertilizer use in rice at farmers’
field in district Kapurthala. J Krishi Vigyan 3(2) : 1-4.
CONCLUSION Received on 12/02/2019 Accepted on 20/03/2019
Since rice is the staple food of the people of
Kashmir Valley, there is and will always remain

143 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 140-143

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 144-148 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00050.3

Impact of Skill Development Training on Mushroom Cultivation

in Kanyakumari District of Tamil Nadu
K Kavitha, R Latha, S Nazreen Hassan and K Thirukumaran
Krishi Vigyan Kendra Thirupathisaram-629 901, Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu)

ABSTRACT
Mushroom production is simple, low cost and plays a significant role to alleviate poverty and generate
employment opportunity for educated unemployed youth in rural and semi-urban areas. The present study was
undertaken with the objective to assess the impact of training on knowledge gain about mushroom production
as an enterprise/self-employment. The training program on mushroom production was focused on farmers,
farm women and youths who have interested in self-employment. Detailed training on different parameters
of mushroom production in context to cultivation techniques, preparation of spawn, substrates preparation,
marketing of fresh product, preservation and value addition etc was imparted to a total number of 72 participants
(men 29; women 43) in five courses. The impact of the training was assessed by pre and post evaluation
testing in terms of improvement in knowledge for different parameters. It was observed that 63.88, 59.72
and 55.55 per cent of the trainees were deviating knowledge on types of mushroom, preservation techniques
and importance of casing after training. Thus, it can be inferred that exposure to training had increased the
knowledge of respondents related to all the sub-components of mushroom production. It may therefore, be
concluded that trainees succeeded in acquiring knowledge after exposure to training on mushroom production.
Key Words: Gain in Knowledge Mushroom Cultivation, Training.

INTRODUCTION can also play a significant role to alleviate poverty

India is primarily an agriculture based country
due to diversity in soil and climatic conditions that
allows a production of variety of crops in different
parts of the country. This also provides vast
potential for the cultivation of mushrooms due to
ample availability of raw materials and favorable
climatic conditions. FAO has recommended
mushrooms as a food item contributing to protein
nutrition of the developing countries. In a country
like India, where vegetarians dominate, attempt
should be made to popularize a vegetable protein
source like mushroom documented by Bahl
(2000). Mushroom growing has been appreciated
as a technically feasible and profitable venture
and widely accepted by the researchers as a good
venture for higher income, employment generation
and rural development. However, mushroom
growing can help in a long way in the efficient
utilization of agricultural and industrial waste. It
Corresponding Author’s Email: kavithagobi@gmail.com
and generate employment opportunity for educated
unemployed youth. Extension trainings have been
considered an outlet for exchange of concepts
with in a community. Therefore, trainings have
been widely accepted strategy with high returns
on investment. There is an urgent need to impart
technical knowledge to farm women and youth in
order to adopt mushroom production as an income
generating activity for enhancing their income.
In this context, ICAR- Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
Kanyakumari has conducted 5 training courses on
mushroom cultivation and its value addition for
farmers, farm women and rural youth on various
aspects of cultivation of mushroom during the year
2017-18. Mushroom production is simple, low cost,
and suitable for rural areas, is labour intensive and
can provide employment in both the rural areas and
semi-urban. Mushroom production will improve
their socio-economic condition of farmers, families

144 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 144-148

 Kavitha et al
and solve employment problems of both literate Post evaluation score – Pre evaluation score
and illiterate, especially in rural areas. Keeping Deviation/gain in Knowledge = -------------- X 100
in view the increasing demand of mushroom due
to globalization and opening of the economy, the Total respondents
present study was undertaken with the objective Preparation of Bedding
to assess the impact of training on knowledge Paddy straw, jowar seeds, polythene bags,
about mushroom production as an enterprise/self- cooking utensils, spawns and polythene sheets
employment were the materials used for mushroom spawn and
cultivation.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Selection of Participants RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The training program on mushroom production Socio-economic profile
was focused on farmers, farm women and rural The participants differed in their socio-economic
youth for those who have interested in self- status based on education, occupation, landholding
employment. The study was conducted at ICAR- and annual income etc (Table 1). The results
KVK, Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu. Seventy two revealed that 59.72 per cent of the participants were
trainees were imparted training on mushroom female whereas 40.28 percent were male. The age
cultivation in five batches out of which 29 were of participants was between 18 to 52 yr. Majority
men and 43 were women. of the participants (48.61%) were in age group of
Collection of Data 31-40 whereas 40.28 per cent were below 30 yr and
A questionnaire was formulated comprising of 34.72 per cent are above 40 yr of age. Information
general information, background of participants, with respect to caste showed that 70.83 per cent of
landholding etc. A pre evaluation test was conducted the participants belong to Backward Caste followed
to know the level of knowledge of participants by Scheduled caste (18.06%).
regarding cultivation techniques, preparation Assessment of the trainees with respect to
of spawn, substrates preparation, marketing of education indicated that 44.44 per cent studied up
fresh product, preservation, value addition, etc. to senior secondary level followed by graduation
Thorough training on various aspects of mushroom (25%) and Diploma holders (15.28%). Information
production was imparted during the training with respect to occupational background revealed
program. Similarly, after completion of the training that 48.61 percent of the participants are housewife
course, post evaluation was performed in order to followed 40.28 percent of trainees belonged to
assess the knowledge gained by the trainees and farming background and only 8.2 per cent belonged
effectiveness of training. to service class. It was found that, 80.55 per cent
To test the knowledge of trainees, a set of 10 of the participants were getting low annual income,
questions related to mushroom growing, nutrients 15.27 per cent of them had medium annual income
present in mushroom, different products prepared and remaining 4.16 per cent were getting high
from mushroom, storage and harvesting of annual income. With regard to mushroom production
mushroom etc. were used. Hence, Deviation or gain experience, majority of the respondents (94.44 %)
in knowledge was calculated from the difference of had low experience followed by 5.55 per cent with
medium experience .
scores obtained in pre and post knowledge test of
the trainees. It was also inferred (Table 1) that majority of
the participants (80.55%) were having small land

145 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 144-148

 Impact of Skill Development Training on Mushroom Cultivation
Table1. Socio-economic profile of trainees undergone mushroom cultivation training (n=72)
Sr. No Particular Trainees attended Mushroom cultivation
Frequency Percentage
1 Gender
Male 29 40.28
Female 43 59.72
2 Age
Up to 30 yr 12 16.67
31-40 yr 35 48.61
Above 40 yr 25 34.72
3 Caste
Scheduled caste 13 18.06
Backward Caste 51 70.83
Others 8 11.11
4 Education
Primary 1 1.39
Middle level 3 4.17
Matriculate 2 2.78
Senior Secondary 25 34.72
Diploma holder 18 25.00
Graduate 20 27.78
Postgraduate 3 4.17
5 Occupation
Farming 25 34.72
Business 4 5.56
Service 2 2.78
Housewife 35 48.61
Others (Retiree, student) 6 8.33
6 Annual income
Low 58 80.55
Medium 11 15.27
High 3 4.16
7 Mushroom production experience
Low 68 94.44
Medium 4 5.55
High 0 0
8 Landholding
Landless 12 16.67
Marginal (<1 ha) 58 80.55
Small (1-2 ha) 2 2.77
Semi medium (2-4 ha) 0 0.00
Medium (4-10 ha) 0 0.00
Large (>10 ha) 0 0.00

holding whereas few of the participants (2.77%)
were under small farmers category. Further, 16.67
per cent participants were from landless category
and thus it was evident that mushroom farming
enterprise does not require much land and therefore,
landless farmers were found to be interested to
adopt this enterprise to supplement their family
income. The socio-economic factors impacting
the adoption of mushroom cultivation enterprise
were not consistent with one another. Age has no

146 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 144-148

 Kavitha et al
significant relationship in adoption of mushroom substrate, importance of casing, quality spawn
cultivation. production, harvesting methodologies, marketing
channels, preservation techniques and Mushroom
Reasons of participation recipes. It was observed that 63.88 per cent of
The factors which motivated the participants the respondents were deviating in knowledge on
to undergo the training were given for ranking types of mushroom after training whereas, 59.72
in order of importance as perceived by them. As per cent of the trainees were deviating knowledge
shown (Table 2), 55.55 per cent respondents joined on preservation techniques after training ( Table
training course to adopt mushroom growing as an 3). While, 55.55 per cent of the respondents were
occupation, 20.83 per cent wanted to learn about deviating in knowledge on importance of casing
mushroom growing techniques for self consumption during mushroom production after training. It
and 12.5 per cent joined the training course just to was revealed that 54.16 per cent of the trainees
teach fellow farmers about mushroom growing. were deviating knowledge on mushroom spawn
Similar results were also reported by Kaur (2016). production after training whereas, 48.61, 47.22
It was evident that majority of participants joined and 45.83 per cent of the trainees were deviating
the training course to adopt mushroom cultivation knowledge on substrate suitability, optimum
as an enterprise growing condition, and marketing channels. It
Increase in level of knowledge may therefore, be concluded that respondents
Pre exposure and post-exposure scores were succeeded in acquiring knowledge after exposure
computed for all the sub-components of mushroom to training on mushroom production. The results
production (Table 3). In pre-evaluation test, the were similar to the findings reported by Rachna et
knowledge range of different participants was al (2013), Nagaraj et al (2017) and Kaur (2016)
18.06 per cent regarding the types of mushroom to that exposure to training increased the knowledge
58.33 percent in mushroom recipes. Post evaluation of farmers, farm women and youths. Thus, it can
training score of various practices ranged from be inferred that exposure to training had increased
77.78 per cent in case of spawn production to the knowledge regarding all the sub-components
95.83 per cent in case of importance of casing. It of mushroom production. The reason behind the
was noticed that pre training knowledge score was satisfactory gain in knowledge might be well
not much satisfactory for all the aspects of training educational background of participant also having
programme. However, the knowledge score gained keen interest of participants.
by participants after training was more satisfactory Suggestions given by the trainees in improving
in all aspects. Sufficient gain in knowledge Mushroom enterprise
regarding mushroom production was recorded for The suggestions offered by the trainees for further
sub-components viz., nutritive value, optimum improvement of the training course were presented
growing condition, types of mushroom, suitable in Table 4. Majority of the respondents (90.27%)

Table 2. Reasons of participation in training programme in mushroom cultivation (n=72).

Sr. No. Reason Frequency Percentage Ranking
1 To adopt mushroom growing as an enterprise 40 55.55 I
2 To learn about mushroom growing techniques for self 15 20.83 II
consumption
3 To teach fellow farmers about mushroom growing 9 12.50 III
4 Just to know about mushroom growing 8 11.11 IV

147 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 144-148

 Impact of Skill Development Training on Mushroom Cultivation
Table 3. Gain in knowledge after training with respect to different components (n=72)
Sr. No. Parameter Pre training (%) Post training Change in
(%) knowledge
1 Nutritive value 41 (56.94) 66 (91.67) +25 (34.72)
2 Optimum growing condition 29(40.28) 63 (87.50) +34 (47.22)
3 Types of mushroom 13 (18.06) 59 (81.94) +46 (63.88)
4 Suitable substrate 29 (40.28) 64 (88.89) +35 (48.61)
5 Mushroom spawn 17 (23.61) 56 (77.78) +39 (54.16)
6 Marketing channels 35 (48.61) 68 (94.44) +33 (45.83)
7 Preservation techniques 23 (31.94) 66 (91.67) +43 (59.72)
8 Importance of casing 29 (40.28) 69 (95.83) +40 (55.55)
9 Harvesting methodology 28 (38.89) 57 (79.17) +29 (40.27)
10 Mushroom recipes 42 (58.33) 69 (95.83) +27 (37.50)

Table 4. Trainees suggestions for improving Mushroom enterprise after training (n=72)
Sr. No. Suggestion Frequency Percentage Ranking
1 Quality spawn to be supplied on time 65 90.27 I
2 Help to get financial assistance through banks 45 62.50 II
3 Linkage with marketing channels 39 54.16 III
4 Exposure visit to successful entrepreneurs farm 25 34.72 IV
5 Practical manual on mushroom growing to be 19 26.38 V
provided
6 Value addition 12 16.66 V

suggested that quality spawn may be supplied in REFERENCES

time. Besides, 62.50 per cent of the respondents Bahl N (2000). Handbook on Mushrooms. Fourth edition.
felt that financial assistance by government should ISBN 81-204-1399-7, Published by Vijay Primlani for
Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.
be provided for mushroom growing and 54.16 per
cent respondents need assistance in linkage with Kaur K (2016). Impact of Training Course on Knowledge
Gain of Mushroom Trainees. J Krishi Vigyan 4(2): 54-57.
marketing channels and 34.72 percent, expected
additional exposure visit to successful entrepreneurs Nagaraj R, Arun K P, Hanumanthaswamy B C and Jyoti M R
(2017). Mushroom Production for Self Employment – An
farm during training course. Impact Study. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci 6(9): 2991-
2997.
CONCLUSION
The study concludes that respondents succeeded Rachna S, Goel R and Sodhi G P S (2013). Evaluation of
vocational training programmes organized on mushroom
in gain in knowledge after exposure to training. farming by Krishi Vigyan Kendra Patiala. J Krishi Vigyan
Mushroom production is an enterprise in which 2(1): 26-29.
requirement of land is not a big issue so even
Rachna S and Goel R (2016). Impact of mushroom cultivation
landless farmers can get additional income through on socio-economic conditions of rural women of Patiala,
mushroom cultivation. Awareness and training on Punjab. Int J Farm Sci 6(2): 251-254.
mushroom production helped in income generation,
Received on 08/04/2019 Accepted on 15/04/2019
nutrient supplementation and in profitable marketing
among the participants.
148 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 144-148
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 149-152 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00025.4

Impact of Soybean Production Technology Dissemination

through Front Line Demonstrations in Malwa Region of M P
Hansraj Jatav, R P Sharma D S Tomar and D K Suryawanshi
Rajmata Vijayaraje Scindia Krishi Vishwavidyalaya,
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Ujjain 456 001 (Madhya Pradesh)

ABSTRACT
The study was undertaken to investigate the impact of front line demonstrations on scientific temperament
of the soybean growers. A total of 90 respondents (45 farmers from KVK adopted and 45 farmer non adopted
villages) were selected. It was found that the scientific temperament of the farmers from the adopted village
was higher than the non- adopted village. It indicated that there was an impact of FLD programme among
the soybean growers. The study also revealed that the selected profile characteristics viz; education, social
participation, extension participation and mass media exposure were apt and contributed to about 77 per cent of
the variation in the scientific temperament of the soybean growers. Therefore, it is suggested that these factors
may be taken into considered while selecting farmers for conducting a technology dissemination programme.
Key Words: Age, Education, Production, Technology, Soybean.

INTRODUCTION concluded that training programmes backed by the

Soybean (Glycine max L.) belonging to family
Leguminosae has recognized as beneficial source
of protein, edible oil and functional food on world
level. It is unique in the sense that large numbers
of diverse end-products such as fortified soya
flour, soya milk, tofu, biscuit, bread, products
are made from it. The population is increasing in
a geometric progression leading to an increased
demand of oilseed crops but there is no possibility
of further increase in area in Madhya Pradesh
and also elsewhere due to growing urbanization,
diversification, dwindling water resources, micro-
nutrient deficiencies and soil health deterioration.
Therefore, the need to produce more soybeans has
to be met out with fewer resources in a sustainable
and cost effective manner. Shaktawat et al (2016)
reported that majority of the marginal, small and
large farmers belonged to low adoption category
for seed treatment by fungicides and application
of fertilizers, medium adoption for application of
herbicide and plant protection measures of soybean
production technology. Likewise, Singh et al (2014)
field demonstrations proved to be the most effective
tool for speedy dissemination of knowledge and
technical skills to the farmers. Kaur et al (2014)
indicated that Front line demonstration program
was effective in changing attitude of farmers
towards pulse cultivation.
KVKs are grass root level organizations
meant for application of technology through
assessment, refinement and demonstration of
proven technologies under different ‘micro
farming’ situations in a district (Das, 2007).
Front line demonstration (FLD) is a long term
educational activity conducted in a systematic
manner at farmers’ fields to prove the worth of a
new practice/technology. The main objective of
front-line demonstrations (FLD) is to demonstrate
newly released crop production and protection
technologies and its management practices at the
farmers’ field under different agro-climatic regions
and farming situations. Front-Line Demonstrations
were conducted in a 0.4 ha land in order to have
better impact of the demonstrated technologies on

Corresponding Author’s Email:raj.hans14@gmail.com

149 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 149-152

 Jatav et al
the farmers and field level extension functionaries. and scientific temperament of the soybean growers.
While a large number of studies have been made to
discuss the yield potentialities and procedures for RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
conducting these demonstrations, limited studies Impact of Front Line Demonstrations on
have been conducted to assess the impact of FLD Scientific temperament of the soybean growers
on scientific temperament of farmers. Thus, the The scientific temperament of FLD adopted and
present study was an attempt to evaluate the impact non adopted village farmers presented in Table 1
of FLD on scientific temperament of soybean revealed that majority (53.33%) of the respondents
growers in adopted and non-adopted villages under possessed medium level of scientific temperament,
FLD programme. while about one fourth (23.33%) of the respondents
possessed high and 21.11 per cent possessed low
MARERIALS AND METHODS level. Similar findings were reported by De (2004)
The study was conducted in Ujjain district in case of potato. The data also indicated that mean
where FLDs were conducted by the Krishi Vigyan value of scientific temperament of FLD adopted
Kendra during 2012-13 to 2016-17. Forty five village was higher (76.35) than the mean score (62.2)
soybean growers each were selected from KVK’s of scientific temperament of non-adopted village.
adopted and non-adopted villages randomly, thus, Thus, it can be stated that there was an impact of
90 respondents constitute the sample of the study. FLD programme on scientific temperament of the
In this study the scientific temperament of the soybean growers.
farmers was assessed as farmers’ mental disposition
related to items pertaining to four areas of human Factors affecting scientific temperament
behaviour vis-à-vis scientific knowledge, attitude, Scientific temperament of the soybean
habit and utilization of scientific method. Scientific growers was found to be significantly correlated
temperament was measured with the help of scale with education, social participation, extension
developed by De (2004). participation, farm mechanization, information
Student’s ‘t’ test was used for testing the source utilization, cosmopoliteness and mass media
significant difference of mean score of two exposure at 0.01 level of significance. (Table 2).
categories of the respondents in relation to their It indicates that as education, social participation,
scientific temperament and the correlation and extension participation, farm mechanization,
regressions analysis were worked out to measure the information source utilization, cosmopoliteness and
strength of association between selected variables mass media increased, scientific temperament also
increased.
Table 1. Distribution of the respondents according to their scientific temperament.
Scientific temperament Adopted Non-adopted Total
Low(<60.04) 2 (4.44) 17 (37.77) 19 (21.11)
Medium(60.04-78.36) 24 (53.33) 26 (57.77) 50 (55.55)
High(>78.36) 19 (42.22) 2 (4.44) 21 (23.33)
Total 45 45 90
Mean 76.35 62.2 69.2
SD 4.71 6.71 9.16
‘t’ = 11.69**
(Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage) **Significant at 0.01 level of probability

150 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 149-152

 Impact of Soybean Production Technology
Table 2. Correlation coefficient between scientific the variation in scientific temperament, multiple
temperament of soybean growers and their linear regression analysis was carried out. The
characteristics. computed co-efficient of determination (R2) value
Sr. Characteristic Correlation
and partial regression co-efficient (b) values with
No. coefficient “r” their corresponding‘t’ values are given in Table 3.
1 Age -0.04
The R2 and ‘b’ values were tested significantly for
their significance. The R2 value of 0.78 indicated
2 Education 0.425**
that all the selected 10 independent variables put
3 Farm size 0.046 together explained about 78 per cent variation in
4 Irrigation potential 0.079 scientific temperament of the soybean growers.
5 Social participation 0.503** The partial regression co-efficient (Table 3)
6 Extension participation 0.792** indicated that independent variables viz, education,
social participation, extension participation and
7 Farm mechanization 0.353**
mass media exposure were positively significant
8 Information source utilization 0.593** as evident from their significant ‘t’ values. This
9 Cosmopoliteness 0.426** implied that education, social participation,
10 Mass media exposure 0.479**
extension participation and mass media exposure
positively and significantly contributed to most of
**Significant at 1% level of significant the variation (77%) in scientific temperament of the
In order to determine the combined effect of farmers (Table 4).
all the selected independent variables in explaining

Table 3. Regression coefficient of selected characteristics of soybean growers with their scientific
temperament.
Sr.No. Characteristic Regression coefficient Standard error t value

1 Age 0.061567 0.053261 1.155935

2 Education 1.796272 0.542072 3.313714**
3 Farm size 0.064258 0.353356 0.181851
4 Irrigation potentiality 0.033078 0.044535 0.74275
5 Social participation 0.033078 0.519402 3.119735**
6 Extension participation 0.033078 0.02722 8.313592**
7 Farm mechanization -0.00915 0.036467 -0.25095
8 Information source utilization 0.32535 0.427763 0.760586
9 Cosmopoliteness 0.21935 0.314069 0.698416
10 Mass media exposure 1.395104 0.606863 2.298876*
R2=0.78 Multiple correlation R= 0.88 F 10,79 value 28.00433**

**Significant at 1% level of significant *Significant at 5% level of significant

151 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 149-152

 Jatav et al
Table 4. Adoption of soybean production technology by soybean growers. (N=90).
Sr. Recommended Adopted Village Non adopted Village
No Technology
Complete Partial adoption Complete Partial adoption
adoption adoption
1 Use of recommended
27(60.00) 18(40.00) 16(35.55) 29(64.44)
varieties
2 Seed treatment 29(64.44) 16(35.55) 15(33.33) 30(66.66)
3 Seed rate 26(57.77) 19(42.22) 16(35.55) 29(64.44)
4 Recommended dose of
24(53.33) 21(46.66) 17(37.77) 28(62.22
fertilizer
5 Integrated weed
31(68.88) 14(31.11) 13(28.88) 32(71.11)
management
6 Insect pest management 30(66.66) 15(33.33) 12(26.66) 33(73.33)
7 Integrated disease
23(51.11) 22(48.88) 14((31.11) 31(68.88)
management
(The figures in parentheses are percentage of the total)

The data (Table 4) revealed that majority
(68.88%) of the respondents had complete adoption
in case of itegrated weed management practices
followed by integrated pest management (66.66%),
seed treatment (64.44%) in KVK adopted
Village. On the other hand, majority (73.33%) of
the respondents had partial adoption in case of
integrated pest management practices followed by
integrated weed management (71.11%), integrated
disease management (68.88%) in KVK Non
adopted Village. The results also revealed that
adoption pattern in KVK adopted village was higher
compared to KVK non adopted village.
CONCLUSION
The mean value of scientific temperament of
adopted village farmers of FLD was higher than
the mean score of scientific temperament of non- Singh, A P Vaid Amrish and Vishal Mahajan (2014).
adopted village farmers. Thus, it can be concluded
that, there is an impact of FLD programme on
scientific temperament of the soybean growers.
The selected profile characteristics for the study Received on 28/9/2018
were apt and contributed to about 77 per cent of
the variation in the scientific temperament of
the soybean growers. Therefore, it is suggested
that these factors may be taken for considered to
increase the scientific temperament of the farmers.
REFERENCES
Das P (2007). Proceedings of the meeting of DDG (AE),
ICAR, with officials of state Departments, ICAR institutes
and Agricultural Universities, NRC Mithun, Jharmapani,
Zonal Coordinating Unit, Zone-III, Barapani, Meghalaya,
India. pp 6.
De, Dipak (2004). Scientific temperament of farmers and its
correlates. Indian J Extn Edu 40 (1&2): 89-94
Shaktawat, R P S, Somvanshi S P S and Singh Durga (2016).
Study on Adoption of Production Technology of
Soybean byFarmers in Mandsaur District of Madhya
Pradesh. J Krishi Vigyan 5(1) : 104-106.
Kaur P, Kaur A, Kaur B and Singh K (2014). Performance
of Front Line Demonstrations on Summer Moong in
Jalandhar district. J Krishi Vigyan 3(1) : 58-61.
Impact of KVK Training Programmes and Frontline
Demonstrations on Adoption of Pusa Basmati 1121 in
Kathua district of Jammu and Kashmir. J Krishi Vigyan
2 (2) : 44-48.
Accepted on 15/02/2019

152 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 149-152

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 153-157 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00026.6

Income Inequalities among Farm Households in

Hoshiarpur District of Punjab
Gaganpreet Singh
Department of Economics, Guru Teg Bhadhur Khalsa College for Women,
Dasuya-144 205, Hoshiarpur ( Punjab)

ABSTRACT
The main objective of the present study was to examine the inequalities in the levels, pattern and per
capita income among the different farm households in the rural area of Hoshiarpur district of Punjab.
Gini coefficients and Lorenz curve have been used to show the clear picture of income disparities
among farm households. The study revealed that the gap in the levels of income between the marginal
and the large farmers is increasing day by day. Majority of marginal and small farmers were living in
vulnerable conditions. They are failed to meet their basic requirements due to low income earnings
from agriculture sector. The annual income of average large farm households was 9.3 times greater
than the annual income of the marginal farm households. The average household income and per
capita income was directly associated with the farm-size in the rural of Hoshiarpur district of Punjab.
The study suggests that the socio-economic conditions of farm households could be improved by the
commercialisation of agriculture sector, cooperative farming and by providing the proper price of their crops.
Key Words: Coefficient, Farm,Households,Income,Inequality.

INTRODUCTION After green revolution, the uses of chemical

Inequality in the world has many dimensions.
There are inequalities in income, ownership of
land, health, access to education and in political
voice. Inequality in India is very complex and
diversified. During the last six decades, inequalities
in income and consumption expenditure of
households have been increasing in both rural as
well as urban India. In Punjab,inequality in income
as well as consumption also increased sharply after
1990s as documented by Das and Pathak (2012).
The income of farming community was largely
dependent on the monsoon rainfall as revealed by
Chakraborty and Acharya (2018). Punjab is one
of the productive states of the India. More than
60 percent population of Punjab is living in rural
area and directly or indirectly depending upon the
agricultural activities.The process of transformation
of Punjab agriculture from a traditional to a modern
has brought in its wake new opportunities for
investment in agriculture because of the high rate
of return to such investment.
Corresponding Author’sEmail: gaganpreetgs20@gmail.com
fertilizers, new variety of seeds and the use of new
mechanical implements have increased. It created
income disparities among different regions and
within the farm households. Kaur (2017) revealed
that in case of large and medium farm households,
a major part of income comes from farm business
income but due to low ownership of land and
income level, the participation of small and marginal
farmers in high yield variety was low.
Rural households earn their incomes from
various sources including cultivation, livestock,
agricultural wage labour and other non-farm
occupations. Income from agriculture is largely
related to land ownership and since land distribution
is highly unequal in India as resulted there is high
level of disparities in the income among rural
households revealed by Ranganathan et al (2016).
The main objective of the present study was to
analyze the disparities in the levels, pattern and per
capita income distribution of household income

153 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 153-157

 Singh G
among sampled households in Hoshiarpur district Further farm households categorised into five size
of Punjab. groups based on their size of land holding viz.
marginal, small, semi-medium, medium and large
MATERIALS AND METHODS farm households. At the last stage of sampling, 200
The present study is based on the primary sampled householdsin all, 60 from Talwara block,
data collected during 2017-18 with the help of 68 from Bhunga block and 72 from Tanda block
schedule from sampled households selected were selected from the selected villages. Further
through multi-stage sampling technique. In the different techniques such as average, percentage,
first stage, Hoshiarpur district was selected on the Gini-Coefficient and Lorenz curve were used to
basis of two parameters i.e. highest literacy rate draw the inference.
and highest sex ratio. In the second stage, out of
10 development blocks of Hoshiarpur district, only RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
three development blocks selected on the basis of The results revealed that an average sampled
geographical conditions namely, Tanda has been farm household earned Rs. 2,63,786 per annum
selected from plain area, Talwara from mountain from both agricultural and non-agricultural
area and Bhunga from mixture of both plain and resources as indicated in Table 1. The income
mountain area. At the third stage, one village earned from agricultural activities was higher than
selected from each development block and in non-agricultural activities. The results highlighted
totality three villages have been selected randomly. that among farm households, farm business

Table 1.Average Income of Household (Rs).

Sources of income MF SF SMF MEDF LF AFSHs
Farm business 49,793 91,667 1,45,563 2,40,000 4,33,333 1,23,867
Milk and milk products 12,586 17,333 30,938 40,667 43,333 22,978
Horticulture 6,207 31,667 65,625 1,16,667 2,83,333 52,056
Forestry 1,724 5,667 12,188 14,667 26,667 7,756
Sale of livestock 1,759 1,296 3,000 8,800 3,333 3,067
Rent from leased out land 862 5,000 12,500 26,667 30,000 9,444
Hiring out agri.labour 345 0 0 0 0 111
Sub total 73,276 1,52,630 2,69,813 4,47,467 8,20,000 2,19,278
Govt emp. 9,655 8,889 15,000 34,000 60,000 16,111
Private emp. 6,897 6,296 8,750 8,000 0 7,000
Artisan work 0 0 0 0 0 0
Wage work 2,069 0 0 0 0 667
Remittances 2,931 7,778 8,125 11,333 60,000 8,611
Pensions 8,448 5,111 15,000 8,000 40,000 9,589
MGNREGS 77 0 0 0 0 25
Trader 0 0 0 0 0 0
Others* 1,569 3,704 1,875 2,667 3,333 2,506
Sub total 31,646 31,778 48,750 64,000 1,63,333 44,508
Total 10,4922 1,84,407 3,18,563 5,11,467 9,83,333 2,63,786
Source: Field Survey, 2017-18.

154 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 153-157

 Income Inequalities among Farm Households
Table2.Percentage of Household Income among Farm Sample Households.
Sources of Income MF SF SMF MEDF LF AFSHs
Farm business 47.4 49.7 45.6 46.9 44.0 46.9
Milk & milk product 12 9.4 9.7 7.9 4.4 8.7
Horticulture 5.9 17.1 20.6 22.8 28.8 19.7
Forestry 1.6 3.0 3.8 2.8 2.7 2.9
Sale of livestock 1.6 0.7 0.9 1.7 0.3 1.1
Rent from leased out land 0.8 2.7 3.9 5.2 3.0 3.5
Hiring out agricultural labour 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04
Sub total 69.8 82.7 84.7 87.4 83.3 83.1
Govt employee 9.2 4.8 4.7 6.6 6.1 6.1
Private emp. 6.5 3.4 2.7 1.5 0 2.6
Artisan work 0 0 0 0 0 0
Wage work 1.9 0 0 0 0 0.2
Remittances 2.7 4.2 2.5 2.2 6.1 3.2
Pensions 8.0 2.7 4.7 1.5 4.0 3.6
MGNREGS 0.07 0 0 0 0 0.01
Trader 0 0 0 0 0 0
Others* 1.5 2.01 0.59 0.52 0.34 0.95
Sub total 30.1 17.2 15.3 12.5 16.6 16.8
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
Source: Field Survey, 2017-18.

MF=Marginal Farmers, SF=Small Farmers, farm households. The other sources such as income
SMF=Semi-Medium Farmers, MEDF=Medium from forestry, rent from leased out land and sale
Farmers, LF = Large Farmers AFSHs=All Farm of livestock also contribute in the income of farm
Sampled Household,Others*- Religious work, Sales households. It was found that marginal farmers do
and Exchange of assets, Income from commercial not show their tendency to do wage work because
vehicles etc. they consider wage work as against their social
income followed by income from horticulture and status. The annual income of average large farm
vegetables, milk and milk products, salaries and households was 9.3 times greater than the marginal
pensions were found to be important. There was farm households. The results prove that the income
a positive relationship between average income of inequalities among large and other farm households
farm households and farm size. The data clearly are increasing over period of time.
showed that as the farm size decreases, the average The result (Table 2) highlighted that out of the
income also decreased. total income, an average farm sampled household
Farm business income was the highestfor received more than 80 per cent of their income
large farm households followed by medium,semi- from agricultural activities in the rural area of
medium, small and marginal farm households. Hoshiarpur district of Punjab.Income earned from
Income earned from horticulture and vegetables farm business was the highest (49.7%) for small
was the second important source of income for farm households whereas, it was lowest (44.0 %) in

155 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 153-157

 Singh G
Table.3 Levels of Per Capita Income (INR ) of Farm Sampled Households
Sources of Income MF SF SMF MEDF LF AFSHs
Farm business 1,00,98 15,469 29,113 45,000 59,091 22,986
Milk & milk product 2,552 2,925 6,188 7,625 5,909 4,264
Horticulture 1,259 5,344 13,125 21,875 38,636 9,660
Forestry 350 956 2,438 2,750 3,636 1,439
Sale of livestock 357 219 600 1,650 455 569
Rent from Leased out Land 175 844 2,500 5,000 4,091 1,753
Hiring out Agrl. Labour 70 0 0 0 0 21
Subtotal 14,860 25,756 53,963 83,900 1,11,818 40,691
Govt emp. 1,958 1,500 3,000 6,375 8,182 2,990
Private emp. 1,399 1,063 1,750 1,500 0 1,299
Artisan work 0 0 0 0 0 0
Wage work 420 0 0 0 0 124
Remittances 594 1,313 1,625 2,125 8,182 1,598
Pensions 1,713 863 3,000 1,500 5,455 1,779
From MGNREGS 16 0 0 0 0 5
Trader 0 0 0 0 0 0
Others* 318 625 375 500 455 465
Sub total 6,418 5,363 9,750 12,000 22,273 8,259
Total 21,278 31,119 63,713 95,900 1,34,091 48,950
Source: Field Survey, 2017-18.
large farm households.Income earned from milk and The per capita income of the large farm
milk products was next important source of income households was 6.3 times more than the per capita
which accounts for 8.7 per cent of the total income income of marginal farm households and 4.3times
of farm households. The income from forestry, more than the per capita income of small farm
rent from leased-out land and sale of livestock was households, which clearly showed that there is high
found to be very small. degree of inequality exists across large, small and
The level of per capita income of farm sampled marginal farm households.
households showed that an average farm household Household Income Distribution
received per capita income of Rs. 48,950/- annually. Table 6 explains the inequalities in the
The per capita income earned from horticulture and distribution of total income across the various farm
vegetables were the highest (Rs. 38,636/-) for large sampled households in the rural area of Hoshiarpur
farm households whereas, it was the lowest (Rs. district. Gini coefficient ratio is a tool mainly used
1,259/-) in the case of marginal farm households. to measure the degree of inequalities. The highest
The results further revealed that as farm size value of Gini-coefficient ratio indicates highest
decreases, family size and per capita income of degree of inequalities.
various farm households also decreased. The other
sources such as income from forestry, rent from The value of Gini coefficient was0.3937 for
leased out land and sale of livestock also contribute farm households. Overall top 10 per cent of farm
in the per-capita income of farm households. sampled households enjoyed 28.5 per cent of the

156 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 153-157

 Income Inequalities among Farm Households
Table 6. Distribution of Household Income of Sampled Households.
Cumulative
Gini-
Percentage of 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
coefficients
Households
Farm Households 2.4 5.6 10.0 15.6 22.5 30.5 40.6 54.2 71.4 100 0.3937
Source: Field Survey, 2017-18.
total income. On the contrary side, the bottom 10 households is 9.3 times greater than the annual
per cent share wasonly 2.4per cent of total income. income of the marginal farm households.The
The percentage share of income of bottom 10 per percentage share of income of bottom 10 per cent
cent was almost 11.6times lower than the income is almost 11.66 times lower than the income earned
earned by the top 10 per cent of farm sampled by the top 10 per cent of farm sampled households.
households. For the equal and sustainable development there
is greater need to address the issues related to
inequality.
The study suggests thatefforts should be made
to increase the level of income among marginal
and small farm households by providing the
proper price of their crops, by providing debt at
low rates of interest, subsidizing the agricultural
seeds and other inputs. While fixing the minimum
support price, total cost of agricultural and income
earnings of marginal and small farmers should also
be taken in to account. It will be helpful to reduce
the inequalities between marginal and large farm
Figure1. Inequality in Income among Farm households.
Sampled Households Showing by Lorenz Curve
Lorenz curve has great utility in the study of REFERENCES
degree of inequality in the distribution of income Chakraborty A and Acharya S K (2018). Monsoon and farm
income: Different aspects and their impacts. J Krishi
and wealth. By viewing the respective Lorenz Vigyan 6(2): 163-167.
curve, it was observed that income inequalities are
Das D and Pathak M (2012). The growing rural-urban
more serious in case of farm households. disparity in India: Some issues. Int J Advancements in
Res & Tech 1(5), 1-7.
CONCLUSION Kaur K (2017). Disparities in ownership of assets and income
Inequalities in the income caused the greater among rural households in Punjab: A case study of
disparities in the living standard of rural households Sri MukstarShaib District. Unpublished M .
in India as well as in Punjab.The observation Phil. Dissertation, Department of Economics, Punjabi
showed that majority of marginal and small University, Patiala, India.
farmers are living in vulnerable conditions. They Ranganathan T, Tripathi A and Rajoriya B (2016).
R e t r i e v e d f r o m , h t t p s : / / w w w. r e s e a r c h g a t e . n e t /
are failed to meet their basic requirements due to
publication/301355952_Changing_Sources_of_
low income earnings from agriculture sector. The Income_and_Income_Inequality_among_Indian_Rural_
study concluded that there is a positive relationship Households, accessed on 24-05-2018-09-04.
between average income of farm households and Received on 11/02/2019 Accepted on 18/03/2019
farm size.The annual income of average large farm
157 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 153-157
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 158-162 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00027.8

Inspirational Cleopatra Dress Designing for Modern Age Girls

N Garg * and D Kaur **
Department of Apparel and Textile Science, College of Home Science
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004 (Punjab)

ABSTRACT
The investigation was carried out in Ludhiana city. Desired number of Cleopatra dresses were identified
and documented from the secondary sources. Participants’ preferences were taken for the development
of designs for the costumes through developed inventory from the three purposively selected colleges of
Ludhiana city. On the basis of the preference, ten designs were designed and developed on CorelDraw
X3. Then, these ten developed designs were shown to the panel of fifteen experts to shortlist six costumes
for the final construction. Six most preferred designs were constructed. The results of the study revealed
that the majority of the participants were between the age range of 21-24 yr, graduate and belonged to
business class, nuclear family and had a monthly income between Rs100,001/- to -Rs130,000/-. Flared
silhouette, Boat neckline, Plain sleeve and Peplum were most preferred by the participants whereas
straight/tubular silhouette, neck with collars, cap sleeve and cowls were least preferred by the participants.
Seventy one percent of the participants prefer two colours in the costumes whereas eighteen percent
and eleven percent participants prefer single colour and multiple colours, respectively. Crepe fabric
was most preferred by the participants whereas rayon fabric was least preferred by the participants.
Key Words: Costumes, Dress, Designing, Fashion, Peplum, silhouette.

INTRODUCTION were created for love and comfort but Egyptians

Fashion is subject to constant change, sometimes creatively expressed their culture, status and a
slowly and sometimes rapidly. The primary interest personality through fashion.
of women of all age groups and occupation is Egyptian Cleopatra culture strikes us mutually
“what’s nifty in clothes”. Every year new fashions
in its richness. Cleopatra, queen of Egypt stands
are created that are distinct enough from the positively in its idealism and strength of character. She
fashion of the previous year to satisfy them. New
is known as a fashion icon of a time and recognized
clothes seem to give them a sense of well-being
for her makeup and jewellery. Traditionally she was
and elegance. This feeling is more in adolescents
depicted wearing a skillful combination of both
or college going girls. Newspapers, magazines Greek and Egyptian element. She wore a large, flat,
and televisions spread fashion news in a couple of
circular neck piece accompanied with a variety of
hours to the whole world. Now a day’s celebrities,
traditional Egyptian headdresses. The Greek peplos
style magazines and electronic broadcasting are
style with tube like cloak belted at the waist and
professional features in influencing behavior and
cleverly folded to give the illusion of a flared bit
outlook to women. Egyptian ferocious statues and
of fabric at the back inspired today’s peplum. The
fence paintings have revealed a lot about fashion
lovely Egyptian style mixed by whole of the modest
history of ancient Egyptians. gown was the invention of the Queen of Nile which
The Egyptians clothes have been found and was similar like modern woman sequence designers
inspired from natural tombs and houses. These and styles both high and low. As depicted in art, her

Corresponding Author’s Email: devinderct@pau.edu

*M.Sc. Student, **Senior Scientist.

158 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 158-162

 Garg and Kaur
hairs was absolutely coiffed and direct, constantly weighted mean score (5.31) and given the first rank.
arranged in the “melon hairstyle” of the instant A-line, mermaid, ball and sheath silhouettes were
which combined with multiple braids into the bun having the weighted mean scores of close proximity
at the nape of the neck. 4.83, 3.92, 3.88 and 3.61 were given hierarchy of
Presently, time is the biggest constraint for any second to fifth rank, respectively whereas straight/
application which can be effectively overcome by tubular silhouette had least weighted mean score of
Computer-aided design CAD where less time is 2.77 and hence given sixth rank.
required to achieve good quality product as reported Table 1. Participants preferences for the type of
by Kaur (2015). CAD is the use of computer systems silhouette. n=90
to assist in the creation, modification, analysis, or Sr. No. Silhouettes WMS Rank
optimization of a design.
1 Flared 5.31 I
2 A-line 4.83 II
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was undertaken in Ludhiana city. 3 Mermaid 3.92 III
Documentation of various dresses worn by Cleopatra 4 Ball 3.88 IV
was conducted from secondary sources like books, 5 Sheath 3.61 V
internet, encyclopedia etc. An inventory was 6 Straight/tubular 2.77 VI
employed to study the preferences of ninety college WMS- Weighted mean score
girls age ranging 17-28yr comprising two sections.
The initial most section of the inventory assigns Distribution of participants according to types
with the background information of the participants of necklines
and the second section includes the information It was concluded (Table 2) that boat neck was
related to the types of silhouettes, necklines, sleeves, the most preferred neckline by the participants with
types of fabric, constructional features and colour the mean score of 6.49 and hence given first rank.
combinations. From the documented dresses and Jewel, V-neck and U-neck were placed at second to
collected information, ten dresses were designed fourth rank with the weighted mean score of 6.47,
and developed on CorelDraw X3 and were assigned 5.54 and 5.07 respectively. Square, deep/plunging,
various codes from D1 to D10. For the development cowl and halter with the weighted mean score of
of final six costumes, the team of fifteen experts 470, 4.46, 4.19 and 4.08 respectively were of close
were taken for final preferences which comprising proximity and were placed at fifth, sixth, seventh
faculty members and PG students of Department and eighth ranks respectively whereas neck with
of Apparel and Textile Science, College of Home collars was least preferred by participants with
Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. weighted mean score of 4.01and given ninth rank.
Six most preferred costumes were constructed on
Opinion of participants based on types of
the basis of the preferences given by the experts.
sleeves
Collected information was tabulated and analyzed
It was observed (Table 3) that plain sleeve was
statistically.
most preferred by the participants with the mean
score of 9.83 and hence given first rank. Bell, petal
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
and full circular sleeves were placed at second
Preferences of participants based on silhouettes to fourth rank with weighted mean score of 9.58,
The college going girls were asked about their 8.30 and 6.58, respectively. Bishop, sleeveless and
preference for type of the silhouette. It was observed umbrella sleeves with the weighted mean score of
(Table 1) that flared silhouette was most liked with a 6.40, 5.68 and 5.46 were of close proximity provided

159 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 158-162

 Dress Designing for Modern Age Girls
fifth to eighth ranks, respectively whereas cap taffeta and linen were ranked seventh, eighth and
sleeves were quite less preferred by the participants ninth with weighted mean score of 4.78, 4.39 and
with the weighted mean score of 4.90 were given 3.82 whereas rayon with weighted mean score 3.78
the ninth rank. was least preferred by the participants and given
Table 2. Participants distribution for different tenth rank.
types of necklines. n=90 Table 4. Participants and their opinion for fabric
Sr. Type of necklines WMS Rank
type n=90
No. Sr. No. Type of fabric WMS Rank
1 Boat 6.49 I 1 Crepe 7.81 I
2 Jewel 6.47 II 2 Georgette 7.42 II
3 V-Neck/ Broad V-neck 5.54 III 3 Scuba 6.81 III
4 Scoop/U-Neck 5.07 IV 4 Silk 5.88 IV
5 Square 4.70 V 5 Brocade 5.42 V
6 Deep/Plunging 4.46 VI 6 Cotton 4.92 VI
7 Cowl 4.19 VII 7 Chiffon 4.78 VII
8 Halter/ Halter strap 4.08 VIII 8 Taffeta 4.39 VIII
9 With Collars 4.01 IX 9 Linen 3.82 IX
WMS- Weighted mean score 10 Rayon 3.78 X
Table 3. Participants opinion regarding types of WMS- Weighted mean score
sleeves n=90
Preference of participants regarding colour
Sr. No. Types of sleeves WMS Rank combinations
1 Plain 9.83 I This part of the study assigns with the
2 Bell 9.58 II preference of participants on the basis of colour
3 Petal 8.30 III combinations for the dresses. Seventy one percent
4 Full circular 6.58 IV of the participants prefer two colour in the dress
5 Bishop 6.40 V whereas eighteen percent participants like single
colour dresses. Only eleven percent participants
6 Sleeveless 5.68 VI
like multiple colour in the dresses.
7 Umbrella 5.46 VII
8 Cap 4.90 VIII Opinion of participants for the type of
WMS- Weighted mean score embroidery
This part of the study deal with the opinion
Distribution of participants on the basis of their of participants regarding the type of embroidery.
opinion for fabric type Seventy nine percent of the participants preferred
The information that the fabric crepe was most machine embroidery whereas twenty one percent
preferred by the participants with the weighted participants preferred hand embroidery.
mean score of 7.81 and given first rank and fabrics
like georgette and scuba with the weighted mean Preferences of respondents for constructional
score of 7.42 and 6.81 were of close proximity and features
given second and third ranks followed by the silk Responses regarding the preferences of
(5.88), brocade (5.42), cotton (4.92) were given constructional features in Fig 1 show that peplum
fourth, fifth and sixth ranks, respectively. Chiffon, with the weighted mean score of 4.80 most preferred

160 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 158-162

 Garg and Kaur
by the participants. Pleats, gathers, tucks and ruffles
were in close proximity with the weighted mean
scores of 4.46, 4.11, 3.90 and 3.77. Cowls were
quite less preferred by the participants with the
weighted mean score of 3.43 were sixth ranks.
Fig 1.Distribution for constructional features
D1 D6
D2 D7
161 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 158-162
Preference of participants for embroidery
motifs
This section deals with the embroidery motif
used in the costumes. Eighty percent of the girls
prefer the B1 design whereas 13 percent and 7
percent were prefer B2 and B3 motifs respectively.
The most preferred motif B1 was further developed
through CorelDraw X3 to get it embroidered on
final costumes.
Details of the developed costumes
D1- The costume includes off shoulder top and a
palazzo having side slit made with scuba fabric. The
top was blue in colour and was having series of full
circular sleeves. The neckline of the top was jewel
neckline. The palazzo was in grey colour and having
blue taping at the side seam and buttons on it.
D8
D10
 Dress Designing for Modern Age Girls
D2- The costume was a long dress in golden colour
having a jewel neck made with brocade fabric.
The costume was having a georgette bell sleeve
which was green in colour having golden border.
The green colour georgette fabric was draped at the
waist which was having brooch at center front.
D6- The costume includes top and skirt was made
in crepe fabric. In this dress dupatta was attached
with the side seam of bodice and draped over the
shoulder. The bodice was having scoop/ U neck.
The skirt was draped at the waist and stitch till
knees with front slit.
D7- The mahroon scuba fabric dress was made with
layered petal sleeves and broad V-neckline. All the
petals of the sleeve were embellished with golden
chain. This dress was having jewel neck made of
laces.
D8- The crepe fabric dress in mustard and black
colour was having one shoulder styling and
embroidered peplum attached at neckline with plain
sleeves. The belt was having brooch on the center
front. The lower part was made with tubular skirt of
black colour and mustard pleated fabric was draped
around with front opening at the waist.
D10- The blue colour dress made of silk fabric was
having bishop sleeve including a top and a skirt.
The top was having glass neckline and embroidered
golden net fabric cape was attached at the back. The
umbrella skirt was having belt attached at the waist.
CONCLUSION
In the current study inventory was framed and
ninety college going girls were surveyed to get
the preferences regarding various design features. Mintel R (2006). Women’s wear retailing- UK. Mintel
Majority of the participants (91.11%) were in age
range of 21-24 yr were graduate and had a monthly
family income between Rs.1, 00,001/- to Rs. 1, Sarahamala (2016). Cleopatra and Egyptian fashion. www.
30,000/-. Flared silhouette was most preferred
by the participants and given first rank whereas Received on 20/02/2019
straight/ tubular silhouette given sixth rank. Broad
V- neck was the most preferred neckline by the
participants and hence given first rank whereas neck
with collars was least preferred by participants and
given ninth rank. Plain sleeve was most preferred
by the participants and given first rank whereas
cap sleeves were least preferred by the participants
were given the ninth rank. The fabric crepe was
most preferred by the participants and given first
rank whereas fabric rayon was least preferred by
the participants and given tenth rank. Seventy one
percent of the participants preferred two colour in
the costumes whereas eighteen percent participants
like single colour dresses. Only eleven percent
participants like multiple colour in the costumes.
Seventy nine percent of the participants preferred
machine embroidery whereas twenty one percent
participants preferred hand embroidery. Peplum
with the weighted mean score of 4.80 most
preferred by the participants whereas Cowls (3.43)
were least preferred by the participants were sixth
ranks. Eighty percent of the participants prefer
the B1 motif design whereas thirteen percent and
seven percent were preferred B2 and B3 motifs,
respectively.
REFERENCES
Dowall M (2013). Cleopatra: Queen of Egypt and men’s
heart- Woman of influence.www.thecultureconcept.com
Accessed June 10, 2018.
Kaur K (2015). Revival of Kasuti embroidery motifs in
knitted kurtis through Computer Aided Designing. J
Krishi Vigyan 3:84-88.
Michael C (2002). Cleopatra: Beyond the Myth. Cornell
University Press, 2002. www.cornelpress.cornell.edu
Accessed June 26, 2018.
International Group Ltd. www.tandfonline.com Accessed
12 November, 2016.
sarahamala.wordpress.com Accessed 25 May, 2018.
Accepted on 19/03/2019

162 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 158-162

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 163-167 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00028.X

Integrated Fish cum Poultry Farming for Self Employment and

Household Nutritional Security in Arunachal Pradesh
V K Misra, C P Singh, N D Singh, T S Mishra, N K Mishra1, A N Tripathi2 and Shashank Singh3
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, West Kameng 790 101 (Arunachal Pradesh)

ABSTRACT
The present study was aimed to assess the utility of integrated fish and poultry farming for self
employment and nutritional security purpose. The study was conducted in the five villages i.e. Salari,
Chug, Changpa, Pangsa and Sangti from Dirang circle of West Kameng district. The fish ponds and
poultry sheds were prepared by using standard methods and yield of fish, eggs and poultry meat
was evaluated and compared with farmer’s practice to analyze the cost-benefit ratio of integrated
fish and poultry farming system. The results revealed that there was high cost-benefit ratio observed
in this system as compared to traditional farmer’s practice. The study suggests that integrated fish
and poultry farming system is a viable option to increase the income of small and marginal farmers.
Key Words: Birds, Economics, Fish farming Integration, Nutritional security, Poultry.

INTRODUCTION Among various integrated fish farming technologies

The Dirang circle of West Kameng district of
Arunachal Pradesh is blessed with complex climatic
environmental conditions having foothill as well as
complex hill eco-system with the varying elevation
ranging about from 300-4200 m. The West Kameng
district of Arunachal Pradesh is lying approximately
between 91° 30’ to 92°40’ East longitudes and 26°
54’ to 28° 01’ North latitudes and covers about
7422 Sq.KM of geographical region accounting for
8.86 per cent of the total area of the state. On the
agricultural front, it is still at the stage of subsistence
level of farming. In this context, Integrated Fish
Farming may become a one of the best examples of
mixed farming for sustainable development of the
rural farming community.
Integrated fish farming also refers to the
simultaneous culture of fish or shell fish along with
other culture systems. It may also be defined as the
sequential linkage between two or more culture
practices. Fish culture can be integrated with
several systems for efficient resource utilisation.
Corresponding Author’s Email: vipin_misra_81@yahoo.com
1
FETC Colonelganj, Gonda (U.P)
2
K.V.K Lower Subansiri, Arunachal Pradesh
3
College of Fisheries, R.P.C.A.U Dholi, Bihar.
a simple and economically viable system of fish-
cum-poultry farming has been developed. Under
this system the nutrients from the poultry are
recycled in the pond and this allows for escalation of
production and income while reducing the affluent
along with the dumping of the wastes would have
had on the environment (Singh et al, 2014; Misra et
al, 2016). Direct use of livestock wastes is one of
the most widespread and conventionally accepted
forms of integrated fish farming and the practice
increases the efficiency of both chicken farming
and fish culture through the profitable utilization
of animal and feed waste products (Nnaji et al,
2009). The cost of formulated fish feed is usually
about 70per cent of production costs and the use
of animal manure considerably reduces operational
costs and makes it possible for low income fish
farmers to profitably engage in the enterprise.
Banerjee et al (2014) reported that the use of cow
dung and duck manure for practicing aquaculture
is a viable option for natural biodiversity.

163 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 163-167

 Misra et al
Bhuiyal et al (2014) documented that the integrated of cabbage/green maize as per their availability @
farming system improve the efficiency of marginal 5per cent of biomass.
and small farms that appeared to be the most efficient
performers in the integration and arrangement of Preparation of poultry sheds
farming enterprises. Hence, the present study was Poultry sheds prepared by using locally
available woods and bamboo was installed on the
aimed to assess the utility of integrated fish and
dyke of the fish ponds. The floor of each house was
poultry farming for self employment and nutritional
security. made of slated bamboo and the space between slats
was just enough to facilitate the wasted food and
MATERIALS AND METHODS chicken dropping to fall directly into the pond water.
Prior to shifting, proper disinfection procedure of
Location of study poultry house and equipments was also ensured.
The present study was conducted at farmer’s All the poultry birds were also vaccinated (Table 1.)
fields at 5 locations of district West Kameng against diseases. A total number of 250 chicks (20
Arunachal Pradesh Namely Salari, Chug, Changpa, d old) for all the 5 locations of local breeds which
Pangsa and Sangti from Dirang circle using about were well acclimated as per local environmental
0.45 ha pond area. conditions were introduced in poultry shed.
Preparation of fish pond Feeding of poultry birds
The fish ponds were prepared by the application Grower mash was provided to the birds during
of cow dung @ 10 t/ ha before one month of stocking the age of 9-20 wk @ 50-70 g/bird/ day, whereas
of fingerlings followed by application of lime @ 500 a layer mash was provided to the birds above 20
kg/ ha after 15 days interval. A total number of 5000 wk @ 80-120 g/bird/day. The feed was given to
fingerlings of Indian major carps and exotic carps the birds in feed hoppers to avoid wastage and an
in all the ponds in the proportion i.e. 20% Catla, ample supply of water was made available to all the
20% Rohu and 15% Mrigala from Indian Major birds at all the time. The feed were administered
carps and 20% Silver carp, 10% grass Carp and two times in a day by filling 3/4 of the feeders.
15% common carp from exotic carp were stocked
@ of stocking density 10,000/ ha considering the Evaluation of Integrated fish and poultry
10per cent mortality also. The fingerlings of all fish farming system
species were collected from hatchery and stocked Egg laying started when the birds becomes
at a time in each pond as per their capacity. Fish 20 wk old. Eggs were counted and removed from
were fed with a mixture of rice bran and oilcake the shed daily. Fish culture practice without any
in 1:1 ratio daily @ 4per cent of body weight as integration as farmer’s practice was compared to
farmer’s practice. In case of experimental ponds, no fish-cum-poultry integration as experimental trials.
supplemented feed was provided to the fish except Yield of fish, eggs and poultry meat was evaluated
grass carp which were fed with green grass/ leafs and compared with farmer’s practice.

Table 1. Vaccination schedule against some important disease.

Name of vaccine Age Dose Method
Lasota 21 days 2 drop 1drop in eye & 1 drop in nose
nd
IBD 2 28 days 2 drop -do-
Fowl pox 42 days 1 drop Wing web
R2B 8-10 weeks 0.5ml Subcutaneous

164 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 163-167

 Integrated Fish cum Poultry Farming
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The findings of present study on the various
aspects of the production from both the sites i.e.
farmers practice and experimental practice are
summarized in Table 2-4. The data (Table 2)
depict about the physiochemical parameter of
water i.e. Temperature, pH, Dissolved oxygen and
Conductivity. The pond water temperature was in
the range of 24.6 to 20.1 0C during the month of
August to October for both the treatments that was
observed good for growth of carps. After that it
goes down from November to March in the range
of 11.8 to 17.80C while again the increment in
temperature were recorded for both the treatments
in the month of April to June i.e. 20.9 to 23.40c
which were suitable for the growth of fishes. The pH
was observed in the range of 6.4 to 8.3 for both the
treatments during the whole culture period having
some fluctuations as per seasonal changes which
might be due to the change in water temperature.
The dissolved oxygen in the pond water was found
in the range of 6.91 to 8.42 mg/l, lowest in the month
of August and highest in the month of January. The
change in oxygen concentration could be due to the
change in the environmental conditions and feeding
demand of fishes according to seasonal changes.
The conductivity of pond water for all the sites
were found in the range of 158.6 to 182.4 which
was lowest in the month of August in both while
maximum values pattern vary for the highest in the
months of May and January, respectively.
Growth Performance
The significant increases in final weight of
fingerlings were recorded as mentioned in Table
3. In reference to Catla the maximum weight
at the time of harvest was recorded 620±30g in
experimental units against 530±20 in the farmers
practice unites having the weight of 3.5±0.5g at the
time of stocking. In case of Rohu the maximum
weight was found 510±20 g in experimental ponds
in comparison to 450±30g in the pond of practicing
farmers. The initial weight of fingerlings of Rohu
was 2.8±0.3g at the time of stocking. While In
reference to Mrigala it was found 570±40g in
experimental ponds in comparison to the farmers
practice ponds which were recorded 430±15g. In
case of exotic carp, significant growth was also
observed. In Silver carp the maximum weight was
630±25g in experimental ponds in comparison to
580±30g in the practicing farmer’s pond fishes. With
reference to Grass carp it was recorded 920±18g in
the experimental pond in comparison to 750±23g
recorded in practicing farmer’s pond. The highest
weight gain was recorded in the common carp of
experimental ponds i.e. 550±25g in comparison
to 520±50g recorded in the fishes obtained from
practicing farmer’s pond. The Significant increase

Table 2. Water quality parameters.

Parameter Month Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March April May June
D.O Mg/l F.P 6.91 7.20 6.83 7.65 7.86 8.42 7.73 7.61 7.64 6.92 7.43
Exp. 7.05 6.93 7.21 7.21 7.16 7.38 7.38 7.41 6.92 7.36 6.98
pH F.P 7.3 6.4 6.9 6.4 6.5 6.9 6.8 7.8 7.3 6.9 6.3
Exp. 6.7 7.4 6.7 6.8 7.8 7.6 7.8 6.4 6.4 6.8 8.3
Temp C
0
F.P 22.8 20.1 16.2 14.4 13.6 14.8 15.7 17.6 20.9 22.3 23.4
Exp. 24.6 20.6 13.6 11.8 12.9 15.3 16.2 17.8 21.4 23.2 22.8
Conductivity F.P 158.6 170.3 169.2 175.0 173.4 178.6 169.7 160.2 168.2 180.2 176.1
Micro- Exp. 164.2 172.4 172.1 176.2 170.8 182.6 180.2 168.4 173.4 169.6 172.4
Siemens/cm
(Values or mean of two year trial); F.P = Farmers Practice and Exp = Experimental growth performance unit

165 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 163-167

 Misra et al
in survival rate of fingerlings was also observed in
the fishes of experimental ponds in comparison to
the fishes of practicing farmer’s pond during the
experimental trials. It was found 62 per cent for
Catla in experimental ponds in comparison to 60
per cent in the pond of practicing farmers, 64.5 per
cent for Rohu in experimental ponds against 62 per
cent in the pond of practicing farmers, 62.3 per cent
in Mrigala in Experimental ponds in comparison
to 58.0 per cent in practicing farmer’s pond. The
same trend were also found in the case of exotic
carp fingerlings i.e. 70.8 per cent in Silver carps in
experimental ponds in comparison to 69.0 per cent
in practicing farmers pond while it was recorded
75.0 per cent in experimental ponds against 73.0
per cent in the pond of practicing farmers in case
of grass carp and 73.4 per cent in common carp
fingerlings in experimental ponds in comparison to
71.0 per cent in practicing farmer ponds.
Economic calculation
The data on economic aspect recorded from
all the experimental trials showed that the cost
of cultivation in farmer’s practice (Table 4.) was
observed as Rs. 31,000/-for an average of 300m2
(15x20m) pond including whole expenditure
incurred during the experimentation in compared to
the average outcome/return i.e. Rs. 75000/- from all
the locations after selling of the system produce like
fish, egg and poultry meat which shows about 2.4
fold increment in farms income of the region. The
main reason observed for increased income was
very less expense incurred in feeding of fish stock
due to the availability of direct chicken dropping
along with unused and undigested feed items which
was directly used by the fish stock and in other
way it acts as a fertilizer to increase the fish pond
productivity Misra et al (2016). About 80 per cent
of the chicken dropping represents undigested food
stuffs due to very short digestive tract of chicken
Sharma et al (2016).
CONCLUSION
Under reduction of cost of supplemental feed and
fertilizers for fish farming strengthening integration
of poultry cum fish farming which makes this
system viable in state environment for employment
generation and concerned aspects. As the poultry-
fish farms are ageing the farmers become fully
experienced and the profit margin would increase.
If increased fish production is encouraged, the
farmer’s income will increase and his poverty level
will be reduced while concomitantly there will be
more protein available for the farmer’s family, his
associates and the community at large especially
in the urban areas. On replication of this system
at farmers ‘level research would be nearer to the
goal. On the other hands land is a limited resource
and if more land is used in the farming, the forest
will be depleted to a degree that will be harmful
to the environment, correspondingly, the cost of

Table 3. Growth Performance and Survival of fingerlings after stocking.

Sr. No Species Initial weight during Weight of fishes during Survival (%)
stocking (g) harvest (g)
F.P E.P F.P E.P
1 Catla 3.2 530 ±20 620 ± 30 60.00 62.00
2 Rohu 2.8 450 ± 30 510 ± 20 62.00 64.50
3 Mrigala 3.9 430 ± 50 570 ±45 58.00 62.30
4 Silver Carp 5.3 580 ± 40 630 ±25 69.00 70.80
5 Grass Carp 4.7 750 ±50 920 ± 40 73.00 75.20
6 Common Carp 4.3 520 ± 50 550 ±40 71.00 73.40
(The values for weight at the time of stocking are mean of 20 specimens in both years for each species)

166 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 163-167

 Integrated Fish cum Poultry Farming
Table 4. Economics of Integrated Fish cum Poultry Farming System.
Expenditure Statement
Sr. No. Commodity / Item (Quantity/ No.) Cost Involved (Rs.)
1 Fingerlings (n=500) 5,000.00
2 Poultry Housing 2,000.00
3 Poultry Feed 9,000.00
4 Labour cost 10,000.00
5 Miscellaneous 5,000.00
Total cost involved 31,000.00
Outcome statement
S. No. Commodity (Quantity) Earning (Rs.)
1. Fish (180.0 Kg) 63,000.00
2. Egg (n=200) 10,000.00
3. Chicken (50.0Kg) 2,000.00
Total outcome 75,000.00

production of food will rise. Therefore, a method Misra V K, Singh N D and Singh C P (2016). Study on
needed to produce more food from existing farming integrated fish farming system for livelihood generation
and nutritional security in hilly areas of Arunachal
land in this context is integrated farming offers a Pradesh. Proceeding of Lead Papers on Fourth National
possible solution. Symposium on “Transforming Indian Agriculture
Towards Food and Nutritional Security” Organized by
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ICAR-Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute
Authors are highly thankful to Senior Scientist from 20th -21st Feb, P-100.
and Head KVK West Kameng to provide the Misra V K, Singh N D, Mishra B P and Tripathi A N (2016).
necessary facilities and financial support and Study on Integrated Horticulture cum Fish Farming in
District West Kameng, Arunachal Pradesh, Published
equally thankful to the farmers for their successful in Souvenir in the National Conference entilted
participation in the trial. “Horticulture in North Eastern Region”, Organized by
College of Horticulture and Forestry, Central Agricultural
REFERENCES University, Pasighat, Arunachal Pradesh from 16th – 18th
Banerjee S, Ruska N and Sudip B (2014). Study on the Jan, P- 225.
zooplankton production in ponds under different fish Sharma S K, Nainwal G C, Kumar P and Ujjaniia N C (2016).
farming system in West Bengal. J Krishi Vigyan 3(1):79- Integrated fish cum poultry cum Horticulture farming
83 System: An approach to uplift the socio economic status
Singh U P, Bisht H C S and Pandey N N (2014). Poultry of fish farmers. Int J Prog Res 11(1): 411-414.
cum fish culture as an effective tool for environmentally Received on 10/08/2018 Accepted on 15/03/2019
sustainable and economically viable technology for the
mid hills. Int J Adv Res 2(2): 854-860.
Bhuial M S U, Karim M M and Hossain S M A (2014). Study
on Integrated system model evelopment. J Bangladesh
Agri Univ 12(2): 325-336.

167 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 163-167

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 168-173 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00053.9

Perception and Preferences of Farmers for Agricultural Telecasts

in Namakkal district of Tamil Nadu
Sree Madhumitha G1 and Karthikeyan C2
Department of Social Sciences,
Agricultural College and Research Institute, Killikulam – 628 252( Tamil Nadu)

ABSTRACT
Agriculture is the major occupation and only source of livelihood for majority of the small and marginal farmers
in India. To enhance knowledge of the farmers, Government and extension agencies used communication
tools like television. The television programmes with agriculture related content were specially designed
for the farmers and were telecasted. This study assesses the perception and preferences of famers about
agricultural programmes telecast through television (TV). A random sample of 40 farmers from Namakkal
district was selected for the study and the data were gathered through pre-tested interview schedule. This
study implied that 55 per cent of farmers preferred to watch agricultural programme which had significantly
impact on farmers’ knowledge about overall farming practices. In order to make the agriculture sector
economically viable, special efforts should be taken by government and extension agencies to develop
more farming related programmes to transfer the recent technologies and to solve the farmer queries.
Key Words: Agricultural telecasts, Farmers’ perception, Preference, Television, Viewing pattern.

INTRODUCTION The information and communication

Agriculture holds a share of 17-18 per cent to technologies (ICTs) viz, television (TV) and other
National GDP and serves as the source of livelihood electronic and print media has important role in
for 70 per cent of its rural population with 82 per sustainable agricultural development (Sandhu et al,
cent of farmers being small and marginal (FAO, 2012). TV is acknowledged as the most important
2019). In this modern age of information explosion medium for communicating with the rural population
and globalization, a powerful communication of developing countries (FAO, 2001) which can be
tool is needed to transfer new technologies to used for agricultural technology transfer among
upgrade agriculture. Transferring new findings and farmers. Both radio and TV have been successfully
technologies to rural farmers remained a promising used in agricultural extension in many countries
strategy for increasing agricultural productivity. The (Ogunmilade, 1984). Radio and TV are the most
new idea must reach farmers’ farms and homes through effective media to enhance knowledge and to
effective extension and mass media channels, so that transfer technology among literate and illiterate
they can adopt new technologies and put them into farmers, even to a remote area within a short span
use. Broadcast media have the ability to disseminate of time. The audio-visual features and simplicity
information to large audiences efficiently and of TV, shows a positive impact in enhancing the
television can be an important channel (Movius et al, farmers’ knowledge.
2007). Ani and Baba (2009) stated that information It is a known fact that, TV can be used as an
and communication are essential ingredients needed effective tool for agricultural development and it
for effective transfer of technologies that are designed serves as an inevitable source for dissemination of
to boost agricultural production. information. However the preferences of farmers
Corresponding Author’s Email: angelinmadhumitha@gmail.com
1
PG Scholar, 2Professor and Head,

168 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 168-173

 Madhumitha and Karthikeyan
Table 1. Socio-personal characteristics of TV viewing farmer’s. (n=40)
Socio-personal Category Frequency Percentage
characteristic
Age <15 0 0.0
15-24 0 0.0
25-44 9 22.5
45-64 25 62.5
>64 6 15.0
Gender Male 39 97.3
Female 1 2.8
Education Nil 9 22.5
Primary 7 17.5
Matriculation 13 32.5
Secondary 11 27.5
Degree 0 0.0
Type of Farmer Small Farmer 11 27.5
Marginal Farmer 11 27.5
Big Farmer 18 45.0
Type of land Irrigated 17 42.5
Garden 13 32.5
Irrigated, Rainfed 1 2.5
Irrigated, Garden 9 22.5

towards the agricultural programmes disseminated
through various Tamil TV channels is not known.
Hence, there is a need to understand the information
through systematic research. A study was conducted
to know the TV viewing pattern and the profile of
farmers, the preference of farmer’s over agricultural
programmes and evaluate the farmer’s perception
over the content of the agricultural programmes
telecasted through TV.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Details of agricultural telecasts
In Tamil Nadu, there were four popular channels
which telecast agricultural programmes namely
‘DD Podhigai’ (‘Ponvilaiyum bhoomi’), ‘Makkal
TV’ (‘Malarum bhoomi’), News 18(‘Payir thozil
pazhagu’) and ‘Puthiyathalaimurai’ (‘Uzhavukku
uyirootu’). ‘DD Podhigai’ was a free channel which
telecast ‘Ponvilaiyum bhoomi’ during morning and
evening hours 5:30 -6:00, on daily basis. ‘Makkal
TV’ was a paid channel and it telecast Malarum
bhoomi during 5:30 -6:00 AM and 6:30-7:00 PM
, on daily basis. ‘Puthiyathalaimurai’ was also a
paid channel which telecast ‘Uzhavukku uyirottu’
during Saturday 4:30 PM -5:00 PM and Sunday
9:30 PM- 10:00 PM, on weekly basis. News 18 was
an another paid channel which telecast ‘Payir thozil
pazhagu’ during Saturday 8:30 PM-9:00 PM and
Sunday 11.30 AM – 12.00 PM, on weekly basis.
Data collection procedure
The study was conducted in Namakkal district
which comprised 64 blocks. Among these blocks,
Rasipuram block was selected purposively since it
was inhabited by farmers whose main occupation
was agriculture. The block had 108 villages. The four
villages with maximum number of direct-to-home
(DTH) connections namely Kattanachempatty,

169 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 168-173

 Perception and Preferences of Farmers for Agricultural Telecasts
Table 2. TV viewing pattern of farmers. (n=40)
TV viewing pattern Category Frequency Percentage

Purpose of watching Entertainment 15 37.5

Agricultural Programmes 13 32.5
News 10 25
Entertainment, Agricultural 5 12.5
programmes, News
Frequency of watching Very often 2 5
Often 21 52.5
Occasionally 15 37.5
Rarely 12 30
Preferred watching time Specific time 18 45
Specific programme 13 32.5
Flexible time 9 22.5
Preference to view agricultural Preferred 22 55
programmes
Not preferred 18 45

Malayampatty, Pudhupati. R and Rasipuram were
selected. From these 4 villages, a random sample of
40 farmers (10 farmers from each village) having TV
sets and DTH connections were randomly selected
for the study. Data from the respondents were
gathered through pre-tested interview schedule. The
data collected were classified according to standard
procedures. The age classification was done based
on International Standard on Age classification
(1982). Education classification was done based on
International Standard of Education. The data were
tabulated and analysed using suitable statistical
technique.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION preference of watching agricultural programmes
Socio-personal characteristics of farmers
The socio-personal characteristics of the
farmers like age, gender, education, type of farmer
(based on land holdings) and type of land (based on
irrigation) were studied and subjected to percentage
analysis(Table 1).
It can be seen that out of the total respondents
97.5 per cent were men and only 2.5 per cent women. to watch TV at a specific time followed preference
Most of the respondent were aged between 45-64
(62.5%) followed by the farmers aged between 25-
44 (22.5%). The farmers were mostly educated up to
matriculation level (32.5%) followed by secondary
level (27.5%). Most of the respondents belong to
the category of big farmers (45%) followed by small
(27.5%) and marginal farmers (27.5%). Majority of
the farmers had irrigated land (42.5%) followed by
garden land (32.5%).
TV viewing pattern of farmers
The TV viewing pattern of farmers was studied
by based on purpose of watching TV, frequency
of watching, preferred watching time and also the
(Table 2). It was evident that most of the farmers
preferred entertainment programmes (37.5%)
followed by agricultural programmes (32.5%). More
than half of the respondents (52.5 %) watched TV
often, 37.5 per cent farmers watched occasionally
and less than one third (30.0%) of the farmers rarely
watched TV programmes.
Majority of the farmers (45%) mostly preferred

170 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 168-173

 Madhumitha and Karthikeyan
Table 3. Farmers’ preference among agricultural telecasts.
Name of the Programme Number of respondents *
Number Per cent
Malarum bhoomi 17 42.5
Uzhavukku uyirootu 10 25.0
Payir thozil pazhagu 9 22.5
Ponvilaiyum bhoomi 7 17.5
*- Multiple response recorded
for specific programmes (32.5%). Majority of reported by Sharma et al (2012) indicating that the
the farmers (55%) preferred to watch agricultural farmers expressed un-satisfaction at the type of
programmes. information is transmitted by one way media like
TV.
Preference for TV programmes
The preference of agricultural programmes Majority of the farmers (77.28%) were not
telecasted by ‘Makkal TV’, ‘DD Podhigai’, News satisfied with the delivery of the content. Devi and
18, ‘Puthiyathalaimurai’ were recorded (Table Sabharwal (2014) also criticized that the mass media
3). were quick and economical but lack crucial elements
of empathy and feedback which were apparent in
It can be interpreted (Table 3) that most of face to face situation. Most of the farmer (95.45%)
the farmers preferred ‘Malarum bhoomi’ (42.5%) had the opinion that agricultural programmes used
followed by ‘Uzhavukku uyirootu’ (25%). Farmers farmer friendly language. It seems the main reason
preferred ‘Malarum bhoomi’ and ‘Uzhavukku for the popularity of TV lies in its simplicity for the
uyirootu’ over others Payir thozil pazhagu and audiences.
Ponvilaiyum bhoomi because of practicability of
the content. Farmers preferred these programmes About sixty percent farmers (59.09%) agreed
due to content related to stories of successful that the content and methods given were practicable.
farmers and discussion sessions. The great majority of farmers found the content
and results as real (81.81%) while some farmers
Perception of farmers about agricultural (18.18%) as exaggerated. About one half of the
telecasts farmers (54.54%) reported that program were not
The perception analysis of farmers on the timely i.e. according to crop season while 45.45%
content of the agricultural programmes were studied reported these programmes as timely. A great
through different attributes like satisfaction of the number of farmers i.e. 90.9% reported programme
content, delivering the needed content, farmer timings as suitable while remaining 9.09 per cent
friendly language, practicability, usefulness, extent found programme timing as un-suitable.
of adoption, timeliness, real and exaggeration of Farmers suggested re-telecasting of the
content (Table 4). programmes at night, since they remain busy
It was observed (Table 4) that, among the in fields at evening and morning times so they
farmers those who preferred to watch agricultural preferred night time. Even though, most of the
programmes; most of them were satisfied (77.23%) farmers were not practising the content (77.27%)
with the content while about one fifth (22.73%) but 22.73 per cent of total respondents reported that
of the farmers were not satisfied with the content they were practising learnt content. TV plays an
of agricultural programmes. Similar finding also important role in agricultural development and its

171 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 168-173

 Perception and Preferences of Farmers for Agricultural Telecasts
Table 4. Perception analysis of farmer about the content of the programme. (n=40)
Attributes Category Percentage of respondents

Satisfaction Satisfied 77.23

Unsatisfied 22.73
Delivering the needed content Satisfied 22.72
Unsatisfied 77.28
Farmer-friendly language Satisfied 95.45
Not satisfied 4.54
Practicability Practicable 59.09
Not practicable 40.91
Real or exaggeration Real 81.81
Exaggerated 18.19
Timeliness Timely 45.46
Not timely 54.54
Timing Suitable 90.9
Not-suitable 9.10
Adoption pattern of Farmers Adopted 22.73
Not-adopted 77.27
Usefulness Useful 59.0
Not useful 41.0
Preference for information Neighbours 31.8
Mass media 9.1
Extension Agents 13.6
Neighbours and Mass 45.5
media
Preferred media Newspaper 10.0
TV 62.5
Mobile & Internet 22.5
Radio 5.0
Discussion about the content Discussed 65.0
Not discussed 35.0
Improvements needed Yes 81.82
No 18.18
effects are evident at the knowledge and awareness (31.8%). They mostly preferred TV programmes
stages but its importance at other stages of adoption (62.5%) for transfer of technology over mobile
of innovation is also very high. About sixty & internet (22.5%). About 2/3rd (65.0%) of the
percent of the farmers agreed that the programme farmers discussed about the content of agricultural
were useful. The farmers mostly preferred their programmes with family, neighbours and with
neighbour along with the media tools (45.5%) for farming community. The majority of farmers
transfer of technology followed by neighbours alone (81.82%) had suggested improvements for the TV

172 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 168-173

 Madhumitha and Karthikeyan
programme. They suggested that the reason for low
adoption of practices by farmers was due to lack of
or low practicability of content and exaggeration.
They also reported that that the agricultural telecasts
were much more useful for big farmers and it was
difficult for them to adopt suggested technologies
due to lack of purchasing capacity and lack of
supply of inputs in nearby areas. They adoption
rate was even faster when the same technology
was transferred through their neighbours and media
tools. Majority of farmers gave first preference to
TV. Murty and Abhinav (2012) also stated that in
the context of India and Ethiopia TV played a most
vital role as a medium of diffusion information
about agriculture. Kavithaa and Vimal (2016) had
suggested that Government and extension agencies
should make special efforts to telecast agriculture
and animal husbandry related programmes to
promote economic development among them.
CONCLUSION
TV is an effective means for communication
and technology transfer since it involves audio-
visual features. Its simplicity; availability and
accessibility make it powerful tool for farmers
empowerment. Using TV information can be
spread to a large group of audience within a
short span of time and in a cost-effective manner.
From the study, it can be concluded that, most of
the viewer farmers were in old and middle aged
category with an educational qualification up to
matriculation. They mostly preferred entertainment
and agricultural programmes to watch at a specific
time. They mostly preferred ‘Malarum bhoomi’
programme of ‘Makkal TV’ and they preferred to
watch at night. Since, TV uses audio-visual feature,
it attracts the attention of more senses, which in
turn facilitates easy understanding of content. They
were satisfied with content and found content as
173 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 168-173
real and practicable. Some of them had adopted the
learnt practices implying the role of role of TV in
agricultural development. The farmers’ preference
towards these programmes can be increased further
by providing up-to-date content, timely information,
presenting information in regional dialect and
delivering more information on Government
schemes and policies.
REFERENCES
Ani A and Baba S (2009). Utilization of selected electronic
mass media as sources of agricultural information by
farmers in Northern part of Tarabastate, Nigeria. Trop
Agril Res & Ext 12(1): 17-21.
FAO (2001). Knowledge and information for food security
in Africa from traditional media to the Internet.
Communication for Development Group, Sustainable
Development Department. Rome: FAO.
Irfan M, Muhammad S, Khan G A and Asif M (2006).
Role of mass media in the dissemination of agricultural
technologies among farmers. Int J Agric Biol 8(3): 417-
419.
Kavithaa N V and Vimal N R (2016). Television viewing
behaviour of rural farm women in erode district of
Tamilnadu. Int J Sci, Environ &Tech 5(2):324 – 326
Movius L, Cody M, Huang G, Berkowitz M, Morgan S (2007).
Motivating television viewers to become organ donors.
Cases in Public Health Communication and Marketing.
Murty and Abhinav (2012). Electronic Media in Rural
Agricultural Business: A Promotional Injection. J Res in
Sci and Tech 1 (11): 63-68.
Sandhu H S, Singh G and Grover J (2012). Analysis of kisan
mobile advisory service in south western Punjab. J Krishi
Vigyan 1(1):1 – 4.
Sharma M, Kaur G and Gill M S (2012). Use of information
and communication technology in agriculture by farmers
of district Kapurthala. J Krishi Vigyan 1( 1) : 83 - 89.
Devi U and Sabharwal K (2014). Communication source
utilization pattern and constraints faced by farm women in
getting technical information about chickpea cultivation.
J Krishi Vigyan 2(2): 14-18
Received on 06/03/2019 Accepted on 30/03/2019
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 174-177 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00029.1

Performance of Ginger (Zingiber officinale )

Varieties under Organic Nutrition.
Bindu B# and Bindu Podikunju
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kollam, Kerala Agricultural University
Thrissur 680 656 (Kerala)

ABSTRACT
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kollam selected four ginger varieties Athira, Karthika, Aswathy and Varada
for the trial. Number of replications were ten. Organic ginger production package developed by Kerala
Agricultural University was followed for its cultivation. The trial revealed that ginger variety Varada
recorded highest yield (18.5 t/ha) followed by Aswathy (16.7 t/ha), while local variety recorded lowest
yield (10.0 t/ha). Highest B:C ratio (2.63) was obtained from Varada followed by Aswathy (2.38) and
Athira (2.32). Highest disease incidence (25.0%) was reported from local variety followed by Karthika
(8.0%) and lowest from Varada (5.2%). Pest incidence (15.4) was highest in local variety and lowest
(4.3 %) in variety Varada. The rhizomes of ginger variety Varada and Athira were bold while that
of variety Aswathy and Karthika medium bold. Varieties Varada , Athira and Karthika can be used
for fresh and dry ginger purpose while variety Aswathy for fresh ginger purpose. It was concluded
that ginger performed well under organic farming and helped in maintaining soil sustainability in
long run. Ginger variety Varada reported highest yield and benefit cost ratio and less pest and disease
incidence than other ginger varieties in Kollam district of Kerala under organic management practices.
Key Words : Amelioration, Ginger, Organic farming, Rhizome, Soil sustainability.

INTRODUCTION significant yield increase in ginger (Sharma et al,

Ginger ( Zingiber officinale Rosc.) is an
important spice crop of Kerala. Focus should
be given to increase the productivity of ginger.
Agroclimatic conditions and use of high yielding
varieties play a major role in getting higher yields
from ginger (Vadivel et al, 2006). In ginger
cultivation, application of organic manures
will increase the yield and quality of rhizomes.
Ginger is a heavy feeder and it demands nutrients
continuously in large amount and use of large
quantity of chemically formulated fertilizer is
not feasible as it results in progressive rise in
multi-nutrients deficiency, nutrient imbalance,
deteriorating soil health and productivity with time.
Thus organic farming is the best known alternative.
It is a crop that responds well to the application
of organic manures (Sadanandan and Hamza,
2016). Application of biofertilizers also showed
Corresponding Author’s Email: drbindusanthosh @gmail.com
2017) . Organic (adhoc) package of practices has
been given by KAU (KAU, 2009). Number of
studies conducted on organic farming indicated
that quality of agriculture produce was better than
inorganically grown produce. Organic manure has
the capacity to fulfill nutrient demands of the crops
adequately and promotes the activity of macro and
micro flora in the soil (Ramteke et al, 2018). Organic
manures help to increase biological activity of soil
microbes and improve soil structure, water holding
capacity and other physico-chemical properties of
soil (Singh and Kushwaha, 2018). Organic farming
has been the outcome of concerns relating to the
increased contamination of food and consequent
negative effect on human health . Keeping this in
view, the present study was initiated to find the
response of ginger varieties to organic nutrition and
popularization of best performing ginger variety in
Kollam district in the non-traditional areas.

174 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 174-177

 Bindu and Podikunju
Table 1. Growth attributes of different ginger genotypes under organic farming.
Treatment Plant height Number of Number of Stem girth
(cm) leaves/plant tillers/plant (cm)
T1 35.41 128.25 8.2 3.29
T2 51.45 156.30 16.0 3.82
T3 46.45 135.44 11.2 3.55
T4 38.26 145.8 10.05 3.33
T5) 41.55 139.5 9.8 3.41
CD (0.05) 7.57 38.5 2.8 0.23

MATERIALS AND METHODS was applied at the rate of 25 t/ha as basal and 3 t/ha
On farm testing was conducted by Krishi Vigyan each at 60 and 120d after planting.
Kendra, Kollam for assessing the performance of Neem cake was applied at the rate of 1.0 t/ha,
high yielding ginger varieties in Kollam district Azospirillum 2.5 Kg/ha and PGPR Mix –I 2.5 Kg/
under scientific crop management practices using ha Immediately after planting mulching was done
organic manures. The experiment also aimed to with green leaves. Mulching the ginger beds with
popularize the best performing ginger variety for green leaves is an essential operation to enhance
large scale cultivation in Kollam district under germination of seed rhizomes and to prevent
organic farming practices. The trial was replicated washing off soil due to heavy rain. This also helped
at ten farmer’s field. Treatments tried were T1 to add organic matter to the soil and conserve
(local variety ), T2 (Varada ), T3 (Aswathy), T4 moisture during the later part of the cropping season.
(Athira) and T5 (Karthika). Rhizome bits of 15g The first mulching was done with green leaves @15
weight were planted in small pits at a spacing of 2o t/ha at the time of planting. It was repeated at the
cm x 20 cm.  Beds of 15 cm height, 1 m width and rate of 7.5 t/ha at 45d and 90 d after planting. Cow
of convenient length were prepared giving 50 cm dung slurry or liquid manure was poured on the bed
spacing between beds. Before planting seed rhizones after each mulching to enhance microbial activity
were soaked in a solution containing pseudomonas and nutrient availability. Weeding was carried out
20 g/l for 30 min. Trichoderma enriched organic depending on the intensity of weed growth. Such
manure 100 g/pit were applied at time of planting materials was used for mulching. Earthing up of the
of rhizomes. In this trial various organic manures crop was done during first mulching. Farmers were
and biofertilizers were used. Farm Yard Manure trained for the organic crop management practices

Table 2 . Performance of selected ginger cultivars under organic farming

Treatment Size of rhizome Maturity Type of rhizome
(days)
T1 Medium 210 Dry ginger

T2 Bold 200 Fresh and dry ginger

T3 Bold 240 Fresh ginger
T4 Medium bold 240 Fresh and dry ginger
T5) Medium bold 240 Fresh and dry ginger

175 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 174-177

 Performance of Ginger
Table 3. Quality traits and pest and disease incidence of selected ginger cultivars.
Treatment Crude fibre Dry recovery Disease Pest incidence
(%) (%) incidence (%) (%)
T1 5.6 15.0 25.0 15.4
T2 4.3 19.6 5.20 4.33
T3 3.5 19.5 6.50 5.81
T4 3.4 22.0 6.98 6.50
T5) 3.7 21.0 8.00 7.30
CD (0.05) 5.62 3.37

in ginger cultivation. Different biometric and yield was least in variety Athira followed by variety
parameters were recorded during the study period. Aswathy and highest in local variety. Dry recovery
Pest and disease incidence were also noted. percentage was highest in variety Athira (22%)
followed by variety Karthika ( 21%) and lowest
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION in local variety (15 %). Varieties Varada , Athira
The results revealed that ginger variety Varada and Karthika can be used for fresh and dry ginger
recorded highest growth attributes under organic purpose while variety Aswathy is used for fresh
nutrition and also highest yield (18.5 t/ha) followed ginger purpose.
by variety Aswathy (16.7 t/ha), while local variety
recorded lowest yield (10.0 t/ha). Highest B:C CONCLUSION
ratio (2.63) was obtained from Varada followed It was concluded from the study that ginger
by Aswathy (2.38) and Athira (2.32) and lowest ( performs well under organic farming.Ginger variety
1.43) from local variety . Highest disease incidence Varada reported highest yield and benefit cost ratio
(25.0%) was reported from local variety followed and less pest and disease incidence than other ginger
by Karthika (8.0%) and lowest from Varada (5.2%). varieties in Kollam district of Kerala under organic
Pest incidence (15.4) was highest in local variety management practices. The rhizomes of ginger
and lowest (4.3 %) in variety Varada. The rhizomes variety Varada and Aswathy were bold, while
of ginger variety Varada and Aswathy were bold, that of variety Athira and Karthika medium bold.
while that of variety Athira and Karthika were Maturity period for variety Varada was 200d, while
medium bold. Maturity period for variety Varada that of varieties Athira , Karthika and Aswathy were
was 200d, while that of varieties Athira , Karthika 240d Crude fibre content was least in variety Athira
and Aswathy were 240d. Crude fibre content followed by variety Aswathy and highest in variety

Table 4. Yield attributes and B:C Ratio of selected ginger cultivars under organic farming
Treatment Yield (t/ha) Fresh yield Number of B:C Ratio
per plant (g) primary rhizomes
T1 10.0 180.5 3.70 1.43
T2 18.5 259.20 5.90 2.63
T3 16.7 235.80 5.10 2.38
T4 16.3 225.20 4.50 2.32
T5) 15.0 208.50 4.20 2.14
CD (0.05) 0.61 22.64 2.30 0.15

176 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 174-177

 Bindu and Podikunju
Karthika ( 21%) and lowest in local variety (15 Sharma S, Dohroo N P and Korla B N (2017). Effect of VAM
%). Varieties Varada , Athira and Karthika can be inoculation and other field practices on growth parameters
of ginger. J Hill Res 10 (1) : 74-76.
used for fresh and dry ginger purpose while variety
Aswathy is used for fresh ginger purpose. Singh K A and Kushwaha H S (2018). Assessment of Soybean
(Glycine max Merill L.) Based Cropping Systems through
Organic and Inorganic inputs in Bundelkhand Region.
REFERENCES J Krishi Vigyan 6(2): 7-12.
Kerala Agricultural University (2009). Package of Practices
Recommendations (Adhoc) for Organic Farming : Crops. Vadivel V, Senthilkumaran P and Madhusoodanan K J
Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, 129-132. (2006). Problems and perspective of ginger production.
Spice India 2(1): 38-42.
Ramteke L, Ashish B, Arvind N, Artiverma V and Vijay
J (2018). Use of Organic Inputs on the Economics of Received on 07/02/2019 Accepted on 15/03/2019
Scented Rice in Chhattisgarh. J Krishi Vigyan 6 (2): 257-
258.
Sasikumar B, Johnson K G and Ravindran P N (1996). IISR
Varada a new high yielding ginger variety,” J. Spices and
Aromatic Crops. J Spices and Aromatic Crops 12 (3) :
34-37.

177 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 174-177

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 178-183 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00030.8

Performance of Cultivars and Tillage Methods on Growth,

Yield and Economics of Lentil Under Rice-Lentil System in Garo
Hills, Meghalaya
Tanmay Samajdar, N Arunkumar Singh, Mokidul Islam*, Tarunkr Das and Sagarika Borah
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Sangsanggre,
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region,Dobasipara, Tura-794005 ( Meghalaya)

ABSTRACT
Frontline demonstrations were carried out at 859 farmers’ field of four districts covering an area of 238.68
ha in 89 villages of Garo Hill districts, Meghalaya during rabi season, 2013- 2016 to study the effect of
different cultivars and tillage methods on growth, yield and economics of lentil in rice fallow areas. The
cultivars of lentil evaluated were HUL 57, WBL 77, Patnai (local) and tillage methods were conventional,
relay and zero tillage. Results revealed that the higher significant values were recorded under conventional
sowing incorporating bio fertilizer (Rhizobium) in terms of seed yield (8.62 q/ha) and net return (Rs. 28,103/
ha). However, as per benefit cost ratio, highest values were found in relay cropping (2.80) in comparison to
other sowing methods. Significantly lower seed yield was recorded in zero tillage than conventional and
relay cultivation methods. Among the varieties tested, WBL77 produced the highest seed yield of 7.28 q/
ha which showed 45.30 per cent increase over the local variety, a net return of Rs.26643/ha and a benefit
cost ratio of 2.76. The lowest production and net returns were found in zero tillage cultivation method.
Key Words: Tillage methods, Lentil, Zero tillage.

INTRODUCTION Eastern states (Pande et al, 2010) and there exists a

Lentil (Lens culunaris L.) is the second most scope for expansion of area under pulse crops like
important winter legume crop of India, after Bengal lentil in rice fallows (Das et al, 2013).
gram (Singh et al, 2014a). It is one of the prominent In North Eastern region of India, where a large
sources of vegetable protein in the Indo-Gangetic part of the area remains fallow after the kharif rice
plain region, essentially grown as rainfed crop on (Das et al, 2012), lentil has a very good potential
the residual soil moisture of preceding crop (rice in for increasing farm income as well as cropping
general) (Ali et al, 2012). It contains high amount of intensity (Das et al, 2013). Thus, introduction of
digestible protein (35%), macro- and micronutrients, lentil in rice fallows with appropriate production
particularly iron and zinc and vitamins, thus provides technologies may usher in another green revolution
nutritional security to its consumers. It is primary in the backward, poverty ridden and deprived
constituent of native cropping sequences, and can region of the country. Furthermore, frequent
be used as an excellent soil fertility restorer (Singh occurrence of drought in these areas creates water
et al, 2015). Rice is energy exhaustive crop of India scarcity problem at the time of sowing of different
with and more than 10 mha of land in India is left crops. There is need of development of effective
fallow after rice harvest (Singh et al , 2019) among cropping system for rainfed area, so that farmers
which 82per cent areas of rice-fallow lies in the may get maximum output. Minimum tillage with
states like Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, crop residue management is found to reduce soil
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal and North water evaporation, soil sealing and crusting. Early
Corresponding author’s Email: tsamaj@rediffmail.com
*Senior Scientist & Head, KVK, Ribhoi, Umiam, Meghalaya

178 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 178-183

 Samajdar et al
maturing lentil varieties may escape the terminal moisture and one life saving irrigation was provided
moisture stress in rice fallow (Erskine et al, 2011) at flowering stage for better growth. Crops were
and could convert these mono-cropped areas harvested depending on the maturity of different
into double cropped and thus, increase legume varieties. Yield attributes (pods/plant, seeds/pod
production and sustain productivity of the rice- and 1000 test weight) and seed yield of lentil were
based systems. To improve land productivity, food recorded at harvest. Yield of lentil was estimated
and nutritional security in this region, rice- fallow from weight of sun dried seeds obtained from
areas must be brought under cultivation with pulse each net plot after threshing and cleaning at 12per
crops that can survive in residual moisture. In view cent moisture content. Variable cost of cultivation,
of the above facts, field technology demonstrations gross return, net return and benefit cost ratio were
were conducted to evaluate the productivity and calculated considering the wages of local labour,
economic performance of lentil in rice-fallow for input prices and selling of seeds at prevailing
nutritional security as influenced by cultivars and market prices. Data generated during the course
tillage methods. of experimentation were statistically analysed
(Cochran and Cox, 1967) using the Analysis of
MATERIALS AND METHODS Variance (ANOVA) technique as detailed by Gomez
Field technology demonstrations under rainfed KA and Gomez (1984).
condition were planned and executed for three
consecutive years on 238.68 ha area in West, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
South West, North and East Garo Hills districts of Yield attributes
Meghalaya during rabi season, 2013-14 to 2015- Among the varieties evaluated, WBL 77
16. In these demonstration, three lentil varieties viz. recorded the highest number of pods/plant (85.97)
HUL 57, WBL 77 and local cultivar patnai along and number of seeds/pod (1.41) followed by HUL
with three cultivation methods i.e. conventional, 57 and Patnai cultivars. The 1000 seed weight was
relay and zero tillage were evaluated in rice- lentil observed to be maximum in WBL 77 (23.90g) as
system in randomized block design (RBD) replicated compared with HUL 57 (22.53 g) and Patnai (17.30),
in 4 districts. The harvesting of kharif paddy was respectively. Results revealed that the maximum
done manually in the month of November. After number of pods/plant (92.74), number of seeds/pod
the harvest, lentil crop was sown in conventional, (1.35) and 1000 seed weight (22.05g) was observed
relay and zero tillage during 1st to 2nd fortnight of in conventional method of cultivation while the
November. The recommended dose of rhizobium lowest was recorded in zero tillage method.
inoculation @ 20g /kg of seed was done prior to
sowing of seeds. Seeds were sown at 2-3 cm depth Seed Yield
at 30 cm row distance. Farm yard manure @ 5t/ha, The seed yield of each variety under all the
20 kg N, 40 kg P2O5, 20 kg K2O, 20 kg S/ha and three sowing methods has been recorded, according
10 – 15 kg/ha ZnSO4 were applied as basal dose to which the significant maximum seed yield was
as well as other agronomic management practices observed in WBL 77 (7.28 q/ha) followed by HUL
were followed as per recommendations and were 57 (6.67q/ha) and Patnai (5.01q/ha). The greater
kept similar for all the treatments. number of pods per plant, seeds per pod and 1000
Foliar application of 2% urea/DAP (i.e. 200 seed weight in lentil resulted in higher seed yield
g/10 l water) at flowering and pod formation was in these cultivars. Similar type of results were also
also done. One hand weeding after three weeks of recorded by Maurya and Rathi (2000), Layek et al
sowing was performed to maintain optimum plant (2013). Data revealed that the conventional sowing
population. The crop was raised with residual soil method had significant advantage in terms of yield

179 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 178-183

 Performance of Cultivars and Tillage Methods on Growth
Table 1. Yield attributes and yields of lentil cultivars as influenced by sowing methods under rice-
lentil cropping system(pooled data of three years, 2013-16).
Treatment No. of pods/ No. of seeds/pod 1000 Seed yield (q/ha)
plant Seed weight (g)
Cultivars
HUL 57 82.19 1.37 22.53 6.67
WBL 77 85.97 1.41 23.90 7.28
Patnai (local cultivar) 74.03 1.19 17.30 5.01
SEM (±) 1.11 0.05 0.53 0.14
CD (p=0.05) 3.31 0.17 1.58 0.45
Sowing Methods
Normal 92.74 1.35 22.05 8.62
Relay 79.85 1.35 21.80 6.02
Zero tillage 69.61 1.28 19.91 4.32
SEM (±) 1.11 0.05 0.53 0.14
CD (p=0.05) 3.31 0.17 1.58 0.45

over relay and zero tillage methods for all the three to relay sowing and zero tillage method in all the
varieties under testing. yield parameters (Table 2). Among the varieties,
WBL 77 was found to be superior with highest seed
Interaction effect of sowing method and yield (10.22q//ha) when sown under conventional
varieties on yield components sowing method followed by HUL 57 (9.51q/ha) and
The results of interaction effect between variety patnai (4.42q/ha) as shown in Fig.1. The maximum
and sowing method revealed that conventional numbers of pods/plant, no. of seeds per pod and
sowing method produced better results compared
Table 2. Combined effects of varieties and sowing methods on yield components and seed yield of
lentil (pooled data of three years, 2013-16).
Interaction (varieties x No. of Pods/Plant No. of Seeds/ 1000 Seed Weight Seed Yield (q/ha)
sowing methods) Pod (g)
V1 x N 94.41 1.32 23.39 9.51
V1 x R 79.57 1.47 23.37 6.09
V1 x Z 72.61 1.34 20.83 4.42
V2 x N 98.02 1.47 24.85 10.22
V2 x R 86.84 1.40 24.81 6.85
V2 x Z 73.07 1.37 22.14 4.79
V3 x N 85.80 1.27 17.91 6.14
V3 x R 73.15 1.19 17.23 5.13
V3 x Z 63.15 1.13 16.77 3.77
SEM (±) 1.9333 0.1007 0.9250 0.2592
CD (p=0.05) 5.7441 0.2991 2.7483 0.7702
V1 = HUL-57; V2 = WBL-77; V3 = Patnai; N = Normal sowing; R = Relay sowing; Z= Zero tillage

180 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 178-183

 Samajdar et al
1000-seed weight (g) were contributing factor for conventional sowing method as compared to relay
highest seed yield in this treatment combination. and zero tillage sowing methods. The benefit-
The lowest seed yield (3.77q/ha) was recorded cost ratio was maximum in relay sowing method
in local cultivar patnai under zero tillage sowing (2.80) followed by normal (2.18) and zero tillage
method. sowing method (1.66). This might be due to less
requirement of extra cost for land preparation and
weeding operation in relay method of sowing.

Fig 1. Interaction effect of variety and sowing
method on seed yield of lentil
Comparison of Economics
Economic evaluation of any developed
technology is the key to know whether developed
technology is economically sustainable and feasible
or not (Singh et al, 2013b). Among the varieties
tested the highest net return of Rs. 43680/ha with
B:C ratio of 2.56 was recorded in WBL 77 (Table
3). The net returns per unit area were higher for
CONCLUSION
It could be concluded that the lentil variety
WBL 77 was found to be suitable in terms of seed
yield and economics for rice-lentil system under
conventional sowing method as compared to relay
and zero till technology. Hence, there is enough
scope for cultivation of lentil in lowland rice fallow
in Garo Hills, Meghalaya. Improved varieties from
different research institutes which are uniform in
podding should be tested at more locations of the
district of Garo Hills to further improve yield and
for higher returns.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors sincerely acknowledge the
International Center for Agricultural Research in
the Dry Areas (ICARDA), New Delhi, for funding
to undertake the study under National Food Security
Mission (NFSM) on Pulses during 2013-16.

Table 3. Economic performances of lentil cultivars as influenced by sowing methods in rice fallow
(pooled data of three years, 2013-16)
Treatment Gross cost (Rs.) Gross Return (Seed) Net Return B:C ratio
(Rs.) (Rs.)
Cultivars
HUL-57 18420 40020 21600 2.17
WBL-77 17037 43680 26643 2.56
Patnai (local cultivar) 14273 30060 15787 2.10
Sowing Methods
Normal 23617 51720 28103 2.18
Relay 12865 36120 23255 2.80
Zero tillage 15526 25920 10394 1.66
Note: Sale price: Lentil @Rs 600/q

181 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 178-183

 Performance of Cultivars and Tillage Methods on Growth
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Gangwar K S, Singh K K, Sharma S K, Tomar O K (2006).
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Yadav Y S, Datta M , Saha P ,Debbarma C(2015). Evaluation
of Lentil Varieties/Lines for Utilization of Rice Fallow in
Tripura. Indian J of Hill Farm. , 28 (2): 90-95.
Yadav G S, Babu S, Datta M, Das A and Saha P (2013). Zero
tillage cultivation of lentil in lowland rice fallow. Indian
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Gill J S (2013). Growth and yield of lentil (Lens culinaris
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Layek J, Chowdhury S, Ramkrushna G I and DAS A(2014).
Evaluation of different lentil cultivars in lowland rice
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(Oryza sativa L.) –lentil (Lens Cularis) cropping system
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Received on 07/02/2019 Accepted on 30/03/2019

183 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 178-183

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 184-189 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00031.X

Performance of Different Commercial Layer Feeds on Egg

Production in Hens during Summer
Tejbeer Singh*, Manoj Sharma and Gurinder Singh
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Langroya, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar-144 516 (Punjab)

ABSTRACT
This study was conducted to evaluate the feeding performance of commercial feeds available in the market
on egg production in hens during summer season for twelve weeks. All feeds were in mash form except one
layer feed in crumbled form. There were also variations in crude protein, crude fat and crude fibre contents of
the various feeds as analyzed. However, total number of eggs laid was significantly different among hens. The
highest cost of producing a dozen eggs was recorded with the crumbled feed. It was concluded that Treatment
4 consisting of readymade concentrate (35%) mixed with energy rich ingredients such as maize (43%) and
de-oiled rice bran (12%) found to be most economical amongst all other combinations. Hence, farmers must
be advocated not to use readymade crumbled feed in order to harness maximum profit from egg production.
Key Words: Commercial layers feed, Egg weight, White leg horn hens.

INTRODUCTION countries, this is not quite so in developing countries

Poultry industry is growing @ 6% per annum
in terms of egg production in India. Indian poultry
farms are producing 73 billion eggs per year (2014-
15). Although India ranks third in egg production,
but due to high population density, per capita
availability of egg is just 58 eggs/head/year which is
much below the recommended requirement of 180
eggs/head/year, as recommended by World Health
Organization (WHO). Poultry nutrition includes
study of different nutrients which plays important
role in maintenance, growth, breeding, health and
egg production. Poultry feed industry is growing
due to growth of poultry in the India. Poultry birds
need rations which should be enriched with amino
acids, vitamins, minerals and other nutrients. Poultry
farming is becoming modernized day by day and
more scientific from extensive ((Halima et al, 2007)
to cage system so all the nutrients must be balanced
within the feed to fulfill all the requirements of the
birds.
Feed production ethics and quality control
assurance is being implemented strictly in developed between humans and animals for high quality
like India. In India, there is no defined system of
evaluating the quality poultry feeds being sold to
poultry farmers by feed manufacturers. Poor quality
feeds results in high mortalities, low productivity,
and low product quality which lead to losses in
poultry industry. In overall poultry operations, feed
alone comprises 70-80 per cent of total production
cost, so the feed should be selected on the basis of
performance.
As birds have a thick feather coat and have no
sweat glands, so they can withstand cold conditions
but are most sensitive to heat. During hot weather
conditions, feed consumption decreases, egg
production and egg size reduces and thin shelled
eggs become a major concern. The ideal temperature
for egg production is 55 to 85o F. Every rise of 1oF
of environmental temperatures leads to reduction
of 1 g feed/bird/day. Therefore, the nutrient dense
poultry feed has to be provided to compensate
lower feed consumption.
Unfortunately in India, there is a competition

*Corresponding Author’s Email: drbirgi87@gmail.com

184 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 184-189

 Singh et al
protein and energy ingredients. This factor makes it Bomb Calorimeter.
difficult to use high proportion of good ingredients In this study, a total of eighty (80) white leg
to manufacture animal feeds so mainly leftover horn hens were selected and kept under similar
non- conventional feed ingredients are used for environmental condition having slightly different
animal formulation. To compete in the market, most body weights into four different groups and fed 4
of the feed industries try to cut the cost, by using different rations prepared after mixing different feed
non- conventional feed ingredients and are not very ingredients in the readymade layer concentrates
particular about the nutrients in the feed that’s why commonly available in the market (Table 1). The
the present study was conducted. Poultry farmers layers were reared in a ventilated shed, with a daily
get less value for their money while purchasing photoperiod of 16 hr of light. The birds were kept
commercial feeds. As most of the poultry farmers in cages whereas feed and water were provided ad
in Punjab depend on commercial feeds. This study libitum throughout the experimental period. Records
was conducted to evaluate the different commercial of feed intake, egg number and egg weight were
layer feeds commonly available in the market on taken daily for 3 months. Feeds used throughout
the egg production in layers during summer. the duration of the experiment were purchased
in batches not more than one month in stock to
MATERIALS AND METHODS minimize quality deterioration due to prolonged
The experiment was conducted at the Krishi storage. Feed samples for analysis were collected
Vigyan Kendra (KVK), Langroya, District Shaheed from different stocks, for each commercial layer
Bhagat Singh Nagar during Summer Season (1st feed, Sampling was done from each bag bought at
June to 31st August). Eighty white leg horn layers different times during period of study. The samples
were selected with initial body weight ranging from were pooled and properly mixed prior to chemical
1.29 to 1.33 kg. There were a total of 40 cages which analysis.
were divided into 10 cages each for four different
treatments. Each cage measured 15” in length, 12” Table 1. Composition of four treatment rations.
width having a total floor area of 180 square inches. (100 Kg)
Bottom of each cage was having a slope of 2 inches Ingredient T1 (kg) T2 (kg) T3 (kg) T4 (kg)
for rolling of eggs. Feeders and waterers were
Concentrate 100 25 40 35
provided in form of long channels throughout the
cage. So, overall there were 20 hens in 10 cages Maize - 50 40 43
for single treatment. There were four treatments
namely T1, T2, T3 and T4 for Godrej crum egg, Deoiled rice - 15 10 12
bran
De-Hues concentrate 25%, Godrej 40% and Godrej
35% , respectively (Table 1). All layers were fed Calcite - 4 6 6
powder
commercial diets, which consisted of variations
in CP contents as described in Table 3. Diets were Stone Grit - 6 4 4
analysed in duplicate for physical parameters Cost of feed 2400 1765 1778 1832
(weight of bag, texture, foreign bodies, smell and ( Rs/q)
flavour and moulds). Proximate parameters such as
crude protein (CP), dry matter (DM), ether extract Physical examination of feed
(EE), ash and crude fibre (CF) and macronutrients Every bag of feed for each brand was weighed
analysis {calcium, phosphorus) according to and the actual weight was recorded. The type of feed
AOAC (1990)}and metabolizable energy (ME) was bags used was also noted. Samples were examined
measured by using 25–30 atmospheres of oxygen in for presence of insects and moulds. The texture of

185 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 184-189

 Performance of Different Commercial Layer Feeds
Table 2. Physical evaluation of different commercial layer feeds.
Weight on Dustiness
Actual Weight Foreign Smell and
Brand of feed bag Texture Mould
bodies Flavour
(kg)
T1 50 49.8 Crumble Absent Absent Fresh Fresh
T2 50 50.3 Mash Absent Absent Fresh Fresh

T3 50 50.1 Mash Absent Absent Fresh Fresh

T4 50 49.6 Mash Absent Absent Fresh Fresh

the feed was noted whether it is in pellet, mash or of feeds is necessary to meet the nutrients
crumbled form. requirements of animals. The assessment of feed
is based on their ability to support animal life, its
Proximate analysis of feed growth and reproduction. Uchengu et al (2008)
The proximate analysis of feed was done using also reported slight variations in weight of feed
the method of AOAC (1990). Percentage Matter bags while investigation of physical characteristics.
(DM), crude protein (CP), crude fiber (CF), ether It is also commendable that feeds without insects,
extract (EE) and ash were analyzed. Calcium (Ca) moulds and any flavour must be ideal for feeding.
and Phosphorus (P) and content were determined.
Metabolizable Energy (ME) was referred to as heat Proximate and macronutrients evaluation
of combustion and measured in a Bomb Calorimeter. The data (Table 3) show the proximate and
macronutrient composition of different commercial
Performance evaluation of feeds in hens feed T1, T2, T3 and T4. The crude protein ranged
Different parameters like final body weight, from 17.5 to 21.3 per cent and the dry matter
feed intake, per cent egg layed, egg weight and between 88 to 90 per cent. The percent ether
feed per dozen egg were evaluated for all the four extract was very low in T2 (1.3%) as compared
different feeds. The comparison between individual to other three feeds. The percent total ash varied
feed was recorded. between 12.2 (T4) to 14.1 (T3) per cent. In case
Statistical analysis of macronutrients composition, concentration of
The Standard error (SE at 5% level) and least calcium was almost same in three feed i.e. 3.0 per
significance difference (LSD at 5% level) were cent in both T2 & T3 and 3.2 per cent in case of T4,
calculated for replicate data. while T1 have only 2.0 per cent. Similar trend has
been observed in phosphorus concentration.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The percent moisture content is very important
Physical evaluation of feed parameters for shelf life of any feed. Less the
The actual weight of different brands of feed moisture content more will be the shelf life of
i.e. Godrej crum egg, De-Hues concentrate 25%, feed. The moisture content of any feed is inversely
Godrej 40% and Godrej 35%, namely T1, T2, T3 proportional to dry matter. However on analysis
and T4, respectively was found slightly different the moisture content, it ranged between 10-12 per
from the weight mentioned on the bags. Godrej cent, which was in the range of recommendations
crum egg (T1) was crumble type feed while T2, T3 for proper storage. High moisture content causes
and T4 were mash type. None of the feeds showed fungal contamination in the feed when stored for
the presence of either insects or mould. Assessment too long (Vieira, 2003).

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 Singh et al
Table 3. Proximate and macronutrients evaluation of different commercial layer feeds.

Brand Proximate analysis (%) Macronutrients

of feed CP DM EE Ash CF Ca(%) P(%) ME(Cal/Kg)
T1 18.0±0.54 89.0±1.06 2.8±0.56 13.5±0.66 6.0±0.37 2.0±0.21 0.58±0.08 2500
T2 17.5±0.45 88.0±0.82 1.3±0.38 12.9±0.48 6.2±0.51 3.0±0.28 0.67±0.11 2650
T3 21.2±0.44 89.0±0.99 2.2±0.41 14.1±0.57 5.9±0.43 3.0±0.19 0.66±0.09 2650
T4 21.3±0.25 90.0±0.67 2.7±0.32 12.2±0.71 5.4±0.33 3.2±0.20 0.69±0.06 2600
LSD 0.5 0.89 0.8 0.6 0.06 0.05 0.06 10
CP: crude protein, DM: dry matter, EE: ether extract, CF: crude fiber, Ca: calcium, P: phosphorus, ME:
metabolizable energy; ± values indicate per cent standard error for triplicate data

Performance of different feeds with T4 (77.01%) followed by T3 (71.4%) then

Body weight
The initial body weights were almost similar
in all the different four groups whereas the final
body weight were significantly different in all the
four treatments with maximum body weight in
T1 (1.45 kg) followed by T2 (1.40 kg) whereas
T3 and T4 had almost similar final body weights
(1.32 kg and 1.34 kg), respectively. The maximum
final body weights of hens were observed in T1
feed while the lowest was observed in T3 and T4
(P≤0.05). Higher body weight in T1 group might
have occurred due to more amount of EE (2.8%)
and significantly more quantity of feed consumed
(9.03kg) compared to other dietary treatments.
Final body weight was reduced by 3.44 per cent
in T2, whereas in T3 and T4 it was reduced by
8.96 and 7.59 per cent, respectively. Reduction in
body weight was probably due to significantly low
feed intake observed in treatments T4, T# and T2
compared to T1.
T2 (69.18%) and minimum egg laying percentage
was recorded in T1 (66.14%). The group of hens
feeding on T4 feed laid maximum number eggs
per hen (70.84) followed by T3 (65.68) which was
comparable to T2 (63.48) and minimum number
of eggs laid per hen were observed in T1 (60.72).
Energy and protein concentrations in the diet play
an important role in livestock productivity and are
critical in the evaluation of poultry performance
(Dairo et al, 2010). It is generally accepted that
the poultry diet should be formulated precisely to
obtain an optimal performance (Li et al, 2011).
The nutrient concentration is important both in the
nutritional aspect and practical application in terms
of its economics, thus, feed formulation with lower
protein or energy concentration enables the decrease
of feed cost (Kamran et al, 2011). Feed consumption
in poultry is regulated by nutrient density in the diet
and more specifically consume the feed to fulfill the
requirement of energy and protein.

Feed intake Egg weight

Maximum feed intake was observed in case
of hens fed with T1 feed (9.03 kg/hen) while
minimum intake was seen in hens fed with T3 and
T4 feeds. The maximum egg laying percentage
was significantly different in all the four groups
There was no significant difference observed
in egg weight among all the four feeds. There was
a significant difference in consumption of feed for
producing a dozen eggs. Quantity of feed consumed
for producing dozen eggs was minimum in T4 (1.45
kg) followed by T3 (1.57 kg) the T2 (1.63 kg) and

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 Performance of Different Commercial Layer Feeds
Table 4. Performance of hens fed various commercial feeds.
Sr.
Parameter T1 T2 T3 T4 LSD
No.
1.
Initial Body Weight (Kg/hen) 1.31±0.08 1.33±0.11 1.29±0.09 1.32±0.10 NS

2. 1.40±0.08b 1.32±0.08c 1.34±0.09c

Final Body Weight (Kg/hen) 1.45±0.10a 0.06
(3.44↓) (8.96↓) (7.59↓)
3. 8.62±0.14b 8.51±0.09c 8.49±0.08c
Total feed Intake (Kg/hen) 9.03±0.12a 0.11
(4.54↓) (5.75↓) (5.98↓)
4. Egg laying 69.18±1.34c 71.4±1.07b 77.01±1.13a
66.14±1.11d 2.01
(%) (4.59↑) (7.95↑) (16.43↑)
5. 63.48±1.42b 65.68±1.18b 70.84±1.02a
Total no. of eggs laid /hen 60.72±1.22c 2.11
(4.54↑) (8.16↑) (16.67↑)
6. Average Egg weight
55.12±1.02 54.43±1.00 54.85±1.03 54.21±1.12 NS
(g)
7. 1.63±0.04b 1.57±0.05c 1.45±.004d
Feed per dozen eggs (Kg) 1.79±0.06a 0.06
(8.93↓) (12.29↓) (18.99↓)
8. 28.85b 28.00b 26.83c
Feed cost per dozen egg N 42.96a 1.07
(32.84↓) (34.82↓) (37.54↓)
LSD: least significance difference at 5% level (P ≤ 0.05); NS: non-significant;
a, b, c and d: indicating means within row differed significantly;
± Values indicate per cent standard error for duplicate data
↑ &↓: indicating percentage increase or decrease as compared to Treatment T1
maximum in T1 (1.79 kg). The cost of feed per percentage increase of 16.67 per cent was observed
dozen eggs was maximum in case of T1 feed (Rs. in T4 as compared to T1. Rama Rao et al (2011)
42.96/-) while it was minimum in case of T4 feed observed no significant effect on egg production,
(Rs. 26.83 only) which was comparable in T2 (Rs. Feed intake and FCR in WLH layers by incorporating
28.85) and T3 (Rs. 28/-). It is well known that egg various levels of protein (15-18%) in diet. Quantity
size usually increases as dietary protein increases; of feed consumed per hen for producing dozen eggs
however, the protein intake needed to achieve was decreased by 8.93 per cent in T2, 12.29 per
maximum egg size is unclear. cent in T3 and 18.99 per cent in T4 as compared to
T1. Cost of feed for production of dozen eggs was
Laying performance observed to be decreased by 32.84 per cent in T2,
The egg laying percentage was increased by 34.82 per cent in T3 and 37.54 per cent in T4 as
4.59 per cent in T2, 7.59 per cent in T3 and 16.43 compared to T1.
per cent in T4 as compared to T1. Total number of
eggs laid per hen was observed to be increased by The laying performance of hens in terms of
4.54 per cent in T2, 8.16 per cent in T3 and highest egg number was significantly increased in T4

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 Singh et al
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conditions. The egg production was observed to be Sci 2(1): 1-9.
increased by 16.67 per cent in T4 as compared to Vieria S I (2003) nutritional implications of mould
T1. Although cost per bag was higher for T4, but development on feedstuffs and alternatives to reduce the
mycotoxin problems in poultry. World Poul Sci J 59: 111-
it proved to be value for money in terms of cost 22.
of production/egg. Therefor, farmers were advised
Whitehead C C (2002) Nutrition and Poultry welfare. World
to use nutrient rich feeds especially during summer Poult Sci J 58: 349-56.
months for profitable poultry farming during hot
Received on 10/02/2019 Accepted on 30/03/2019
weather.

189 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 184-189

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 190-193 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00032.1

Physio and Organoleptic Characteristics of Tomatoes and

Ketchup Prepared from Different Varieties of Tomato
Shikha Bathla, Manoj Sharma and Renu Bala
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Langroya, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar-144 516 (Punjab)

ABSTRACT
Tomatoes are a boots of nutrient enriched with antioxidants and essential mineral that are vital for growth,
fighting cancer, increasing immunity, improved vision and fighting against infections etc. Moreover,
tomatoes ranked top among the canning and value addition food industries for making culinary products
for storage. During the glut season, food preservation is a sound approach to store the product for further
use to meet the domestic and commercial demands at reasonable price by storing them in off-season. In
the present research work, three varieties of tomato namely TH1, TH1251 and TH SHIVA were evaluated
in terms of physical parameters i.e. shape, size, colour and firmness etc. Tomatoes were processed and
further evaluated organoleptically in terms of colour, flavor, taste, texture and over all acceptability on a
nine point hedonic scale for ketchup making so that the best variety should be utilized for making tomatoes
ketchup for food preservation. The results concluded that there was statistically significant difference
found among the three different varieties of tomato and TH 1 had overall high acceptability (1.25±0.37)
in terms of colour (1.14±0.37), flavour (1.14±0.37), texture (1.42±0.37) and taste (1.25±0.37) as well.
Key Words: Flavour, Ketchup, Taste, Texture, Tomato.

INTRODUCTION cent share due to commercial crops (Anon, 2018).

Tomato belongs to Solanaceae family and
considered as culinary vegetable due to its significant
contribution in cooking and nutritional aspects.
Tomatoes are used in variety of products for making
salads, dressings, curries, purees, ketchups, paste,
soup etc. Apart from this, tomatoes are a real boost
of nutrients like dietary fibre, antioxidants, minerals
and vitamins etc. Tomatoes helps in protecting
various kind of metabolic disorders like cardio
vascular diseases, osteoporosis and different types
of cancers i.e. lung, prostate, stomach, cervical,
breast, oral, colorectal, esophageal, pancreatic etc
(Vallverdu-Queralt et al, 2011). Tomatoes also
help in improving vision, increasing immunity and
normalize blood glucose and cholesterol levels
(Bhowmik et al, 2012).
In India, the major state cultivating tomatoes are
Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka
contributing to 25.01, 12.30 and 9.01 per cent
share, while Punjab is contributing only 1 per
Corresponding Author’s Email: shikha_bathla@yahoo.com
Tomatoes are highly perishable commodity as it
has moisture content more than 90 percent (Arah et
al, 2016; Derje et al, 2019). Due to high moisture
content, it has shelf life less than three days in the
tropical regions. So, post harvest losses of tomatoes
are great challenge in the developing countries
where cold chain facilities are limited (Arah et
al, 2015; Muhammad et al, 2011). It is therefore,
extremely important to process the tomatoes into
value added products like paste, puree, juice and
ketchup etc. to utilize for further consumption.
Processing of tomatoes helps to protect these
losses that occur in between the harvest to final
consumption stage (Kader 2005; Pila et al, 2010).
Thus, food preservation is a sound approach to
utilize the tomatoes during off season by storing
them in form of some product for future use. There
is also a great scope in the food processing sector
through value addition of tomatoes in the form of
puree, paste, juice and ketchup to generate income

190 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 190-193

 Bathla et al
as well. Currently, there are few companies those Processing of Tomatoes
are commercializing value added products from Tomatoes ketchup was prepared by using the
tomatoes at large scale so this can be an opportunity ingredients such as : tomatoes puree (1kg), salt
for the farmers to sell their produce in the form (20g), sugar (225g), vinegar (60ml), red chilli
of processed product to generate more profit with powder (2g) and whole spices (cardamom, cloves,
good nutritional significance. The present work was cinnamom, black pepper,cumin-1g each) and
undertaken with the objective to assess the physio discussed the procedure in flow chart:
and sensory properties of different varieties of Fresh and firm tomatoes of different varieties
tomato and ketchup prepared so that the best variety (Shiva JI, TH 1214, and TH 1) were selected
can be assessed for value addition. ↓
Washing of tomatoes in running water to remove
MATERIALS AND METHODS impurities
Three different varieties of tomato i.e. Shiva Ji, ↓
TH 1214, TH 1 were procured from the KVK farm Chopping of tomatoes and boil in it water
of Langroya. Fresh fruits of tomatoes were collected ↓
from the farm and further passed into grading for Add salt in it
processing purpose. ↓
Grading of tomatoes After boiling, extract the pulp by sieving through
Tomatoes were graded on the basis of physical wire mesh
parameters like weight (g), shape, skin colour and ↓
firmness. The physical parameters were evaluated Collect the pulp in a pan and add half amount of
on the basis of standard classification as discussed sugar in it
below: ↓
Cook the pulp and add spice bag in it for ten min
Table 1. Classification for grading of tomatoes. ↓
Sr. No. Parameter Grading When the consistency becomes thick, remove the
spice bag from it
1 Weight (g)
↓
70-80 Most Preferred
Finally add vinegar, remaining sugar and salt in it.
50-70 Moderate Preferred
↓
<50 & >80 Least Preferred Stir it continuously till the volume of tomatoes
2 Shape remains half.
Round Most Preferred ↓
Oval Moderate Preferred Then keep the flame off.
Flat/Peared Least Preferred ↓
3 Skin Colour Cool it and fill it in the sterilized air-tight bottles
Deep Red Most Preferred for consumption.
Red Moderate Preferred Sensory Evaluation
Light Red Least Preferred The prepared ketchup from three different
4 Firmness varieties of tomatoes was further evaluated
Firm Most Preferred organoleptically in terms of colour, flavor, taste,
Semi Soft Moderate Preferred texture and over all acceptability on a nine-point
Soft Least Preferred
hedonic scale (i.e. 9=Dislike extremely, 8=Dislike
very much, 7= Dislike moderately, 6= Dislike
191 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 190-193
 Organoleptic Characteristics of Tomatoes and Ketchup
Slightly, 5= Neither like or dislike, 4=Like Slightly, Sensory Parameters
3=Like Moderately, 2=Like Very Much, 1=Like Colour is an important attribute for assessing
Extremely) by a panel of ten judges. the quality of tomato. Tomatoes contain red
colour due to the presence of carotenoids that are
Statistical analysis also known as polyene compounds ranging from
Computation of some descriptive statistical yellow to red. Similarly, flavour is also essential
measures such as percentage distribution, mean characteristics of tomato product that is affected by
and standard deviation for different variables was agricultural practice, harvesting time and package
performed to analysis the data. of practice followed etc. The sensory parameters
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION of tomato ketchup like colour, flavor, texture, taste
and overall acceptability was highly observed for
Physical Parameters TH 1 as compared to Shiva Ji and TH 1214. But
The grading of commodities into weight, size, the appearance scores were estimated more for
shape and firmness is a very crucial phenomenon to tomatoes variety TH 1214 as shown in Table 2.
determine the quality parameter of tomatoes. The The flavor of tomatoes ketchup was due to the
standardized product can be obtained after grading hydrolysis of glycosides compound present in the
and further used for processing purpose. Grading tomato fruit. The results further elucidated that TH
also helps in minimizing the post harvest losses and 1 was the best variety for making tomato puree and
increase the market value of standardized product ketchup due to high organoleptic scores.
as reported by Londhe et al (2013). The data (Fig
1) revealed that the average weight of varieties CONCLUSION
i.e. Shiva Ji, TH 1214, TH 1 was 50.02±10.7g, The results revealed that three different varieties
68.12±11.8g and 65.98±21.7g, respectively. All the of tomato i.e. Shiva Ji, TH 1214, TH1 were light
varieties falls under the category of most preferred red, firm texture, round or oval shape and having
due to standard weight. The shape of tomatoes was average fruit weight falls between 50-70g. The
round for variety Shiva Ji and TH 1214 while TH 1 tomatoes selected for ketchup preparation were fit
had a combination of both round and oval. All the to meet the physical standard of grading except in
varieties were having light red colour in skin peel terms of colour due to maturity stage. After sensory
and also well firmed texture. The results further evaluation, the TH1 had higher overall acceptability
showed that the different varieties of tomatoes were for colour, flavor, texture and taste. So this variety
physically acceptable for further processing into can be used for tomato processing for value addition
tomato ketchup. so that it can be used for future consumption at
domestic and commercial scale.

REFERENCES
Anonymous (2018). Horticulture Statistics. Division,
Department of Agriculture, Co-operation, and Farmers
Welfare. Ministry of Agriculture and Famers Welfare.
Government of India.
Bhowmik D, Kumar S, Paswan S and Srivastava S (2012).
Tomato- A natural medicine and its health benefits. J
Pharma Phytochem 1(1): 33-43.
Arah I K, Ahorbo G K, Anku E K, Kumah E K and
Fig 1. Grading of tomato varieties on the basis of Amaglo H (2016). Postharvest handling practices and
treatment methods for tomato handlers in developing
mean fruit weight (g)
192 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 190-193
 Bathla et al
Table 2. Organoleptic scores of tomatoes ketchup.
Variety Colour Appearance Flavour/Smell Texture Taste Overall
Acceptability
SHIVA JI 1.28±0.48 1.85±0.69 2.0±1.52 2.71±0.48 3.28±1.25 2.22±0.53

TH 1214 1.71±0.75 1.28±0.48 1.42±0.53 2.57±0.78 2.85±1.46 1.97±0.62

TH 1 1.14±0.37 1.57±0.78 1.14±0.37 1.42±0.53 1.00±0.0 1.25±0.37

Values were expressed as Mean±SD

(Key to scores: 9=Dislike extremely, 8=Dislike very much, 7= Dislike moderately, 6= Dislike Slightly,
5= Neither like or dislike, 4=Like Slightly, 3=Like Moderately, 2=Like Very Much, 1=Like Extremely)

countries: A mini review. Adv Agri 1-8. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1155/2016/6436945.
Dereje A, Jezik, Weingartemann H and Gretzmacher R (2009).
Change in color and other fruit quality characteristics of
tomato cultivars after hot-air drying at low final-moisture
content. Int J Fd Sci Nutr 60 (S7):308-15.
Arah I K, Kumah E K, Anku E K, and Amaglo H (2015). An
overview of post-harvest losses in tomato production in
Africa: causes and possible prevention strategies.  J Bio
Agri Healthcare 5(16): 78-88.
Muhammad R H, Bamisheyi E, and Olayemi F F (2011). The
effect of stage of ripening on the shelf life of tomatoes
(Lycopersicon esculentum) stored in the evaporative
cooling system (E.C.S). J Dairy Food & Home Sci 30(4):
299-301.
Kader A A (2005). Increasing food availability by reducing
postharvest losses of fresh produce. Acta Hort 682 (1)
2169-276.
Pila N, Gol N B and Rao T V R (2010). Effect of post harvest
treatments on physicochemical characteristics and shelf
life of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) fruits
during storage. American Eurasian J Agri Env Sci 9(5):
470-79.
Londhe D, Nalawade S, Pawar G, Atkari V and Wandkar S
(2013). Grader: A review of different methods of grading
for fruits and vegetables. Agri Engg Intern CIGR J 15:
217-230.
Vallverdu-Queralt A, Medina-Remon A, Martinez-Huelamo
M, Jauregui O, Andres-Lacueva C, Lamuela-Raventos, R
M (2011). Phenolic profile and hydrophilic antioxidant
capacity as chemotaxonomic markers of tomato varieties.
J Agri Fd Chem 59: 3994–4001
Received on 28/02/2019 Accepted on 30/03/2019

193 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 190-193

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 194-198 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00033.3

Problems Encountered by the Tribal Livestock Farmers of

Southern Rajasthan.
Dileep Kumar, M P Verma and Pankaj Lawania
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Keshwana, Jalore 343 001, Agriculture University, Jodhpur (Rajasthan)

ABSTRACT
The study was conducted in Sirohi district of Southern Rajasthan, to identify the problems faced by the
tribal farmers and work out the relationship of problems with socio-economic and psychological traits of the
respondents. The findings revealed that major problems faced by the tribal farmers were economic problem,
less profit from domesticated animals, non availability of green fodder, non availability of superior male
animal, harassment by the forest personnel in open grazing, lack of access to veterinarian, absence of
scientific farming etc. The analysis revealed that occupational and family income from animal husbandry
had positive and highly significant (P<0.01) influence on problems of livestock rearing. On the other
hand, livestock unit showed negative and highly significant influence on problems of livestock rearing.
Key Words: Farmers, Livestock, Problems, Rearing, Tribal.

INTRODUCTION subjected to some problems peculiar in nature

India is among the few nations in the world for
its tribal population. The tribal population of India
is 51.6 million which constitute 7.76 per cent of the
total population. In Rajasthan, tribal population is
12 per cent of the state population: more than 45
per cent resides in Southern Rajasthan covering the
Aravali ranges which run through the South west
boarder of the state.
The livestock sector plays an important role in
the economy and contributes about 22.9 per cent
of total income. Mostly tribal’s live on hilly top of
Aravali and utilize the flaxy on plain area, wherever
available between the hills for cultivation crops and
keep normally 1-3 milch animals including cow,
buffalo, goat and as a part of mixed farming system.
These animals are non-descript type and their up
keep is far away from scientific lines. Even though
this tribal belt is rich in total animal strength yet
the progress of animal husbandry does not seem to
be satisfactory. The tribal livestock farmers keep
domestic animals not only as a mark of tradition,
culture or ritual but also to meet the economic
and agricultural needs in other parts of state but
due to geographical location. Sharma et al (2013)
reported that that very few farmers were practicing
dairy business on commercial scale (2.4%) and
majority of farmers (93.3%) were having up to
15 animals. Further, it was also noticed that dairy
farmers (74.9%) were possessing cows with daily
milk yield varying from 4 to 10 l./d and 85.8 per cent
of farmers were keeping buffaloes with daily milk
yield ranging between 2 to 8 l./d. Major problems of
the small dairy farmers were cow dung management
while for semi commercial and commercial farmers
mastitis was the major problem. Training in the
area of feed management was the top priority for
domestic and semi commercial farmers. Similarly,
it was revealed that poor knowledge about the
nutritive value of feed ingredients (86.5%), high
cost of raw feed ingredients (28%), shortage of
skilled and committed labour (32.5%) were found
to be major bottlenecks regarding adoption of cattle
feed formulation technology at the dairy farms
(Sharma, 2015). Therefore, a study was undertaken
to identify the major problems faced by the livestock
farmers and relationship of those problems with

Corresponding Author’s Email: dileep251174@yahoo.com; mpverma_78@rediffmail.com

194 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 194-198

 Kumar et al
socio-personal, economic and psychological traits scope for better remuneration from livestock. Non-
of the farmers. availability of green fodder was actually on out fall
of high intensity of agriculture leaving no land for
MATERIALS AND METHODS fodder cultivation. Similar findings were reported
The study was carried out in Sirohi District (Thammi Raju et al, 2006). Likewise 96.24 percent
of Sothern Rajasthan. There are five blocks in the of the respondents opined that less training on
district, out of which two blocks namely Abu and scientific farming, non availability of organized
Pindbada were selected on the basis of maximum market and lack of easy accesses to veterinarians
number of tribal population. Three villages from were other problems. Again each of the problems
each identified block were selected for sampling of viz. lack of milk cooperative societies, harassment
data.Propability proportionate random techniques by the forest personnel in open grazing area and
was used to draw sample. For the study total 120 high cost of concentrate ration were recorded 94.12
respondents were selected from six randomly percent of the farmers. Lack of the infra-structural
selected villages of the Abu and Pindbada block facility was reported as one of the problems faced
of the Sirohi district. All these tribal farmers by the 90 percent farmers. Transportation problems
constituted the sample of respondents for the study. and market operators demand huge commission
The socio-economic and personalvariables were also the problem for 86.60 per cent, and 82.02 per
asked by direct questions where as inventories were cent respondents reported that rampant theft case
developed for psychological variables. Similarly problems faced.
an inventory was prepared concerning problems The problems revealed in the study were
perceived by tribals by putting 14 specific problems harassment by the forest personnel in open grazing,
areas. The respondents were asked to place their lack of easy accesses to veterinarians. Huge
agreement or disagreement in different degrees commission demanded by the market operators as
by putting tick (√) mark in appropriate column another area which needed urgent action from the
against the problem areas in any degree they felt concerned authorities. Livestock farmers being
agreeable to them. Further in the selection of the the weaker section in the society and having no
problem areas sensitive methods of item collection organized plate form were the main target of the
was adopted and items revealed nothing except market operators for exploitation. These indicated
the problems of livestock rearing /management that there were huge areas which need Government
and therefore the instrument was valid. Data were intervention for the welfare of livestock farmers.
collected personally by the researchers through Further, lack of milk cooperatives, less training
interview method and analyzed. on scientific farming definitely needed extension
intervention on regular basis. It would be an urgent
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION duty of State Animal Husbandry Department
The data (Table1) revealed that economic to venture appropriately among the farmers for
problem and less profit from domesticated animals their capacity building and starting farmers level
were the major problems faced by 100 percent organizations. The observations were in close
of the tribal farmers, while non-availability of proximity to the findings of Thammi Raju et al
green fodder and lack of breeding male were the (2006).
problems faced by 99.07 per cent of thefarmers.
Table 2 revealed that out of 19 variables,
The majority of first two problems were due to
the village being land locked condition. This occupational and family income from animal
situation could be altered by providing some link husbandry had positive and highly significant
with better communication with main land having (P<0.01) influence on problem of livestock

195 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 194-198

 Problems Encountered by the Tribal Livestock Farmers
Table1. Distribution of respondents on different areas of problems relating to livestock rearing.
Sl.No Problem Percentage
1 Non-availability of green fodder 99.07
2 Economic problems 100.0
3 Rampant theft cases 82.02
4 Lack of milk cooperatives 94.12
5 Less training on scientific farming 96.24
6 Lack of organized market 96.24
7 Harassment by the forest personnel by in open grazing area 94.12
8 High cost of concentrate ration 94.12
9 Lack of easy accesses to veterinarians 96.24
10 Transportation problem 86.60
11 Profit from domesticated animals is less 100.0
12 Market operators demanded huge commission 86.60
13 Lack of breeding male for breeding purpose 99.07
14 Lack of infra-structural facilities. 90.00

rearing. This might be due to the fact that higher
the occupation, higher was expected income.
Further, it was observed that those farmers who
had some occupation in addition to livestock
rearing, usually had better livestock but time was
a constraint. Hence, unidirectional graph of higher
occupation better livestock and better production
definitely invited lot of responsibilities to manage
the livestock and other livestock related matter
including labour, feeding, care and management and
marketing. It was largely because of this situation
that respondents with better occupation and higher
income from livestock showed highly positive
influence on the problems. Because they rightly and
rightfully realized the problems in greater degree
than others. Management/health care showed a
positive and significant influence on problems of
livestock rearing. This was due to the differences
which existed between livestock raised on zero
input and those on intensive care. The respondents
who had better or improved livestock need to be
more careful for their livestock which naturally
required better care and management. Therefore,
similar to occupation and income better health care/
management was associated with the realization of
more problems. Similar findings were reported by
(Singh and Upadhyay, 2009).
Education and labour engagement pattern
showed negative and significant influence (P<0.05)
on problems of livestock rearing. The respondents
with higher education in the State including the
study area engaged themselves in livestock rearing
only for passing time and kept on working for
other alternative engagement. They, therefore, paid
less attention upon it as a means of livelihood and
hence realized fewer amounts of problems. The
negative influence on labour engagement pattern on
problems could be justifiable explained by the fact
that whenever some job in any kind of farm was
left to others i.e. labourers, many problems arose.

196 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 194-198

 Kumar et al
Table 2. Multiple regression of independent variables on problems of tribal livestock farmers.
Sr.No Independent variable Values
Regression Coefficient “t” value for b
b value
1 Age -17.00 -0.63
2 Education -282.78 -2.14*
3 Family size 4.39 0.04
4 Occupation 868.31 2.58**
5 Total family income 0.00 -0.42
6 Family income from animal husbandry 0.10 7.85**
7 Own income 0.00 0.54
8 Livestock unit 502.32 -3.74**
9 Rearing system of livestock -22.28 -0.46
10 Time devoted to animal husbandry practices 6.58 1.48
11 Labour engagement pattern 280.93 -2.06*
12 Extension contact 99.52 0.23
13 Frequency of exposure 15.86 0.12
14 Risk orientation 84.93 0.36
15 Economic motivation -79.77 -0.34
16 Breeding -34.67 -0.27
17 Feeding 137.82 1.77
18 Housing -305.36 -1.08
19 Management/ Health care 282.90 2.05*
R2=0.291,’F’ value for R = 4.65**
*indicate significant at 0.05 level of probability **Indicate highly significant at 0.01 level of probability

The best method of livestock rearing was therefore, were many more issues and determinants which
always the self employment. might be influencing the problems in livestock
The converted livestock unit was found to rearing and was left out in the present study. The
have negative and high significant (-3.74, P<0.01) ‘F’ value for R (4.65) in case of livestock farmers
influence on problems of rearing. More the livestock was found to be highly significant. This indicated
lesser were the problems realized. The reason were that influence on problems of livestock rearing was
that, by and large agriculture was the mainstay of significant.
the respondents who far having more number of
livestock could take the advantage for ploughing CONCLUSION
,manure,fuel,and extracting food of animals origin The major problems faces by the tribal livestock
and hence never encountered any other problems farmers were economic problems, non availability
from more number of livestock. The co-efficient of green fodder, less profit from domesticated
of multiple determination (R2) with independent animals, lack of improved breeding mail, lack of
variables could explain 59.1 per cent variation of the easy accesses to veterinariansetc. Out of 19 variables
problems of livestock rearing.The implies that there occupational and family income from livestock

197 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 194-198

 Problems Encountered by the Tribal Livestock Farmers
rearing had positive significant (P<0.01) influence Singh S V and Upadhyay R C (2009). Impact of temperature
on problems of livestock rearing. Management/ rise on physiological function, thermal balance and milk
of production of lactating Karan fries and Sahiwal cows.
health care showed a positive and significant Indian Vet J 86(2): 141-144.
(P<0.01) influence on problems of livestock rearing.
Thammi Raju D, Gnana Prakash M, Viroji Rao S T and
Srinivasa Reddy M (2006). Socio-economic and livestock
REFERENCES aspects of different production system – Indian case
Sharma M (2015). Bottlenecks in adoption of feeding practices
for dairy animals in district Kapurthala. J Krishi Vigyan study. Livestock Res Rural Dev 18(12): http://www.lrrd.
3(2) : 12-18 org/lrrd18/12/raju18174.htm
Sharma M, Singh G and Shelly M (2013). Technological Received on 19/03/2019 Accepted on 10/04/2019
problems and training needs of dairy farmers. J Krishi
Vigyan 2(1) : 59-63

198 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 194-198

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 199-205 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00054.0

Production Technologies of Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum L.)

Followed By Farmers in District Karimnagar, Telangana
N Venkateshwar Rao1, PK Jain2, N Kishor Kumar3 and M Jagan Mohan Reddy4
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Jammikunta, Karimnagar-505 122 (Telangana)

ABSTRACT
The paper was discussed on the knowledge and adoption levels of 90 selected farmers on cotton
production technologies. Ex post facto research design was adopted for this study. High level of
knowledge and extent of adoption were observed among the KVK adopted farmers whereas low
level of knowledge and low extent of adoption were observed among the non adopted farmers.
Key Words: Adoption, Cotton, Farmers, Knowledge, Production, Technologies .

INTRODUCTION of various technologies adopted by farmers in

Knowledge is the key in application of any Karimnagar district of Telangana state.
technology. It reflects an array of information
possessed by an individual. It plays a pivotal role MATERIALS AND METHODS
in understanding the intricacies involved in any An ex-post facto research design was used for
given phenomena. The Krishi Vigyan Kendras the study. KVK, Jammikunta selected 15 adopted
(KVKs) are rendering a great help to the farmers villages for the study. A sample of 60 cotton
in increasing the knowledge base on various growing farmers who were adopting the KVK
crops by conducting different programmes to technologies and 30 cotton farmers not covered by
enlighten the farmers on various crop production KVK were selected from the adopted villages. A
technologies. A farmer has to understand, analyze schedule was developed with 26 technologies to
and get satisfied before implementation of any assess knowledge of the cotton growing farmers,
technology. Technology adoption is a graded measured on 2 point continuum i.e. yes or no, to
process in which a farmer has to pass through adopted and non-adopted with the scores of 2 and
different stages like awareness, interest, evaluation, 1, respectively. Accordingly the respondents were
training and adoption. The full scale application of
grouped on the basis of frequency and percentage.
technologies is considered as adoption. Adoption is
Similarly, another schedule was developed with 26
a holistic process where in farmer has to understand
technologies to assess the adoption level among the
the intrinsic as well as extrinsic factors. Cotton is
cotton growers, which was measured on 3 point
one of the important crops of Karimnagar district.
continuum i.e. fully adopted, partially adopted
Farmers follow a number of different production
and non-adopted with the scores of 3, 2 and 1,
technologies than the recommended by the research
respectively. Accordingly the respondents were
institutes. Therefore, present study was undertaken
grouped on the basis of frequency and percentage
to delineate the knowledge and adoption level

Corresponding Author”s Email: neelamrao2000@gmail.com

1
Senior Scientist and Head, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Jammikunta, Dist: Karimnagar (TS)
2
Assistant Professor, School of Agriculture, IGNOU, New Delhi
3
Scientist ( Extension) ,Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Malyal, Mahaboobabad (TS)
4
Principal Scientist and Head, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Palem , Mahaboobnagar (TS)

199 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 199-205

 Rao et al
Table 1. Distribution of respondents according to their knowledge level in cotton crop.
KVK adopted farmers (n=60) KVK non adopted farmers (n=30)
Category Low Medium High Low Medium High
(26- 34) (35 – 43) (44 -52) (26- 34) (35 – 43) (44 -52)
Frequency 14 19 27 16 12 02
Percentage 23.33 31.67 45.00 53.33 40.00 6.67
Mean 51.25±1.0 33.36±2.35
Z value 5.32*
*Significant at 0.01 level of probability

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
It was observed (Table1) that majority (45.0%)
of the KVK adopted farmers had high level of
knowledge followed by medium (31.67%) and
low (23.33%) whereas, majority (40.0%) of the
KVK non-adopted farmers had medium level of
knowledge followed by low (53.33%) and high
(6.67%). These findings were in line with the
results of Prashanth (2011) and Rao et al (2012).
It was evident (Table 1) that calculated Z Value
(5.32) was greater than table Z value at 0.01 level
of probability. So the null hypothesis was rejected
and hence it could be concluded that there exists a
significant difference between mean scores of KVK
adopted and non-adopted farmers. Results were in
tune with Anon (2002),
It was observed (Table 2) that majority (45.0%)
of the KVK adopted cotton farmers had high extent
of adoption followed by medium (31.67%) and
low (23.33%) whereas, majority (66.67%) of the
KVK non adopted cotton farmers had low extent
of adoption followed by Medium (26.66%) and
high (6.67%). These results were in conformity
with the results of Prashanth (2011) and Rao et al
(2012). It was evident from that calculated Z Value
(3.53) was greater than table Z value at 0.01 level
of probability. So the null hypothesis was rejected
and hence it could be concluded that there exists a
significant difference between mean scores of KVK
adopted and non adopted farmers. These results
were in conformity with Bhagwat and Gohad
(2003) and Christain et al (2003).
The item analysis revealed that the technologies
on which the respondents had high level of
knowledge were closer spacing , stem application
with monocrotophos to control sucking pests.
Boll guard II tolerant for both Helicoverpa and
Spodoptera ranked first followed by application of
Trichoderma viridi culture to reduce wilt incidence,
growing of second crop after Bt cotton under
irrigated conditions, foliar spray with water soluble
fertilizers under stress conditions, soil drenching
with COC to reduce wilt incidence and Poison bait is
effective for Spodoptera control (2nd ), soil sample
collection, soil test based fertilizer application (3rd ),
seed treatment, providing irrigation at critical stages
(4th), usage of recommended fertilizers, growing
of trap crops, spraying of NSKE (5th ), sowing of
refuge crop (6th), respectively.
The KVK adopted farmers had lowest level of
knowledge on installation of yellow sticky traps
and pheromone traps. Whereas non-adopted KVK
farmers had high level of knowledge on practices
like boll guard II tolerant for both Helicoverpa and
Spodoptera and mono cropping increases pest and
disease incidence ranked 1st followed by closer
spacing, stem application with monocrotophos to
reduce sucking pest complex, growing of second
crop after Bt cotton under irrigated conditions
(2nd), providing irrigation at critical stages (3rd ),
wilt management with Trichoderma viridi, usage
of recommended fertilizers (4th ), seed treatment,
sowing of refuge crop, fertigation, growing of trap
crops, poison bait for Spodoptera control (5th), soil

200 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 199-205

 Production Technologies of Cotton
Table2. Distribution of respondents according to extent of adoption of cotton production technologies.
KVK adopted cotton farmers (n=60) KVK non adopted cotton farmers (n=30)
Category Low Medium High Low Medium High
(33-55) (56-78) (79-100) (33-55) (56-78) (79-100)
Frequency 14 19 27 20 08 02
Percentage 23.33 31.67 45.00 66.67 26.66 6.67
Mean 56.58±3.02 34.73±3.16
Z value 3.53*
*Significant at 0.01 level of probability
test based fertilizer application, spraying of post- knowledge of these non adopted farmers on the said
emergence herbicides, installation of yellow sticky technology could be these farmers were impressed
traps (6th ) etc. with the performance of the technologies taken by
The item wise analysis indicates that adopted the KVK adopted farmers. This inquisitiveness
cotton farmers had high level of knowledge on closer might have derived the non adopted cotton farmers
spacing, stem application with monocrotophos for to have more knowledge on the said technologies
sucking pest management, cultivation of boll guard for their betterment.
II hybrid, practicing the application of Trichoderma The technologies on which the respondents had
viridi culture against the wilt incidence, taking high adoption were closer spacing, stem application
up of second crop after Bt cotton under irrigated with monocrotophos for sucking pest management
conditions, taking of foliar spray with water soluble and boll guard II is tolerant for both Helicoverpa
fertilizers under stress conditions, soil drenching and Spodoptera are ranked 1st followed by soil
with C.O.C. for wilt control, poison bait against drenching with COC for wilt management (2nd ),
Spodoptera, collecting the soil samples, soil test- growing of second crop after Bt cotton under irrigated
based fertilizer application etc. The reasons could conditions (3rd ), application of DAP fertilizer as
be the existing technologies have been assessed and basal (4th ), sowing of refugy crop, application of
tried to refine to fit to address the local problems and Trichoderma viridi for wilt management, foliar
demonstrated and disseminated for best application spraying of water soluble fertilizer for early
by the farmers. This exercise has been evaluated recovery of crop (5th ), soil sample collection and
by the KVK scientists for better adoption of the spraying of post emergence herbicides for effective
above technologies. Hence, the farmers had high weed control (6th ) respectively, where as adopted
knowledge on all these said technologies. Whereas farmers had lowest extent of adoption on installation
the adopted farmers had lowest level of knowledge of yellow sticky traps and pheromone traps. Most
on usage of yellow sticky traps and pheromone of the non adopted KVK farmers practices like
traps due to non availability of these inputs in local boll guard II is tolerant for both Helicoverpa and
market. Spodoptera were ranked 1st followed by growing
The non-adopted cotton farmers had high level of second crop after Bt cotton(2nd ), application of
of knowledge on cultivation of boll guard II hybrid, pesticides based on ETL, spraying of water soluble
closer spacing, stem application against sucking fertilizers for early recovery of the crop (3rd ), closer
pests, taking second crop under irrigated conditions, spacing, providing irrigation at critical stages (4th
giving irrigation at critical stages, wilt management ), drip irrigation reduces water usage (5th ), use of
with Trichoderma viridi etc. The high level of micro nutrients, growing of trap crops (6th ) etc.

201 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 199-205

 Rao et al
Table 3. Knowledge level on cotton production technologies by KVK adopted farmers (n=60).
Level of knowledge
Sr. Total Mean
Cotton technologies Yes No Rank
No. score score
F % F %
1 Closer spacing in Bt cotton increases the yield. Stem 60 100.0 0 0.0 120 2.00 I
application with monocrotophos @ 1:4 with water at
20, 40 and 60 d effectively controls sucking pests and
improves natural enemy population and boll guard II
tolerant for both Helicoverpa and Spodoptera.
2 Application of Trichoderma viridi culture (2 kg 58 96.7 2 3.3 118 1.96 II
Trichoderma viridi in 100 kg FYM) at the time of
sowing under optimum moisture conditions will
reduce wilt incidence, Bt cotton crop period is less.
After Bt cotton cultivation of maize, sesame and
other pulses increases the net returns. Foliar spray of
urea @ 2%, 19:19:19 @ 1% and potassium nitrate @
1% facilitates early recovery of plants under stress
conditions, Soil drenching with COC @ 3 gm /lt of
water or carbendazim @ 1 g/L of water reduces wilt
incidence and Poison bait is effective for Spodoptera
control.
3 Soil samples collected up to 15-20 cm depth in V shape 57 95.0 3 5.0 117 1.95 III
for soil testing and Soil test based fertilizer application
is economical.
4 Seed treatment with Trichoderma viridi @ 8 g/kg 54 90.0 6 10.0 114 1.90 IV
reduces wilt incidence and providing irrigation at
critical stages is important.
5 Recommended DAP fertilizer applied as basal to 53 88.3 7 11.7 113 1.88 V
improve the yield in Bt cotton, Recommended dose of
urea and potash fertilizers applied with equal dose at
20, 40, 60 and 80 DAS increases the yields, Spraying
2% potassium nitrate at flowering and boll formation
stages increases the yields, Growing of trap crops
is good for monitoring of pests and Spraying of 5%
NSKE controls the hatching of insect eggs and 1st in
star larva.
6 Sowing of refuge crop around the main crop is essential 52 86.7 8 13.3 112 1.86 VI
to sustain the Bt technology

The item analysis of extent of adoption of cotton application with monocrotophos for the control of
adopted farmers indicated that majority of them sucking pests due to KVK scientists assessed and
had high adoption on closer spacing because of the refined this technology in farmer fields by designing
KVK scientists assessed this technology for 3 yr and suitable bottles with marking for easy application.
refined the spacing based on the farming situations Presently, KVK is also supplying these bottles to
and also conducted several demonstrations. The the cotton farmers of entire state. The extent of
adopted farmers also had high adoption on stem adoption was high on other technologies like usage
202 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 199-205
 Production Technologies of Cotton
Table 4. Level of knowledge on cotton production technologies by KVK non-adopted farmers
n=30
Level of knowledge Total Mean Rank
Sr.
Cotton technologies Yes No score score
No.
F % F %
1 Boll guard II tolerant for both Helicoverpa and 27 90.0 3 10.0 54 1.88 I
Spodoptera.
2 Closer spacing in Bt cotton increases the yields, Stem 25 83.3 5 16.7 55 1.83 II
application with monocrotophos @1:4 with water at
20,40 and 60 d effectively controls sucking pests and
improves natural enemy population.
3 Providing irrigation at critical stages is important for 24 80.0 6 20.0 54 1.80 III
achieving higher yields.
4 Application of Trichoderma viridi culture (2 kg/100 kg 22 73.3 8 26.7 52 1.73 IV
FYM) at the time of sowing under optimum moisture
conditions will reduce wilt incidence, Recommended
dose of urea and potash fertilizers applied with
equal doses at 20,40,60 and 80 DAS increases the
yields, Foliar spraying of urea 2%, 19:19:19 1% and
potassium nitrate 1% facilitates early recovery of
plants under stress conditions
5 Seed treatment with Trichoderma viridi @ 8 g/kg 20 66.6 10 33.3 50 1.66 V
reduces wilt incidence, Sowing of refuge crop around
the main crop is essential to sustain the Bt technology,
Recommended DAP fertilizer applied as basal to
improve the yields in Bt cotton,soil drenching with
COC @ 3 g /L of water or carbendazim @ 1 g/Lof
water reduces wilt incidence, Growing of trap crops is
good for monitoring of pests.
6 Soil test based fertilizer application is economical, 15 50.0 15 50.0 45 1.50 VI
Spraying of quizalfop ethyl 400 ml and bispyribac
sodium 250 ml in 200 L of water reduces all the weeds,
Spraying 2% potassium nitrate at flowering and boll
formation stages increases the yields, Installation of
yellow sticky traps reduces the white fly incidence and
Spraying of 5% NSKE controls the hatching of insect
eggs and 1st star larva.

of boll guard II hybrid, wilt management, growing field schools on integrated crop management in
of second crop after Bt cotton under irrigated cotton aspects in adopted villages. The adopted
conditions, application of complex fertilizer as farmers were observed each and every operation of
basal, sowing of refugee crop, foliar spraying of production technologies by practical involvement
water soluble fertilizers under stress conditions, which facilitated for more adoption. The adopted
usage of post emergence herbicides. The reasons farmers had lowest extent of adoption on installation
could be the KVK scientists conducted farmer of yellow sticky traps and pheromone traps due to
non availability in the local market.
203 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 199-205
 Rao et al

Table 5. Extent of adoption of cotton production technologies by KVK adopted farmers (n=60)
Extent of adoption
Sr. Fully Partially Not Total Mean
Cotton production technologies Rank
No. adopted adopted adopted score score
F % F % F %
1 Closer spacing in Bt cotton increases 60 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 180 3.00 I
the yields, Stem application with
monocrotophos @ 1:4 with water at 20,40
and 60 d effectively controls sucking
pests and improves natural enemy
population and Boll guard II tolerant for
both Helicoverpa and Spodoptera.
2 Soil drenching with COC @ 3 g/lt of 52 86.7 8 13.3 0 0.0 172 2.86 II
water or carbendazim @ 1 g/L of water
reduces wilt incidence
3 Bt cotton crop period is less. After Bt 50 83.3 10 16.7 0 0.0 170 2.83 III
cotton cultivation of maize, sesame and
other pulses increases the net returns
4 Recommended DAP fertilizer applied as 46 76.6 10 10.7 4 6.7 162 2.70 IV
basal to improve the yields in Bt cotton
5 Sowing of refuge crop around the 53 88.3 7 11.7 0 0.0 159 2.65 V
main crop is essential to sustain the Bt
technology, Application of Trichoderma
viridi culture (2 kg/100kg FYM) at the
time of sowing under optimum moisture
conditions will reduce wilt incidence and
Foliar spray of urea 2%, 19:19:19 1%
and potassium nitrate 1% facilitates early
recovery of plants under stress conditions
6 Spraying of quizalfop ethyl 400 ml and 42 70.0 13 21.6 5 8.4 157 2.61 VI
bispyribac sodium 250 ml in 200 L of
water reduces all the weeds and Soil
samples collected up to 15-20cm depth in V shape
for soil testing

Most of the non adopted farmers had high extent
of adoption on usage of boll guard II hybrid due
to easily availability in the local market. The non
adopted farmers also had high extent of adoption
on growing of second crop after Bt cotton under
irrigated conditions, spraying of water soluble
fertiliser, closer spacing, providing irrigation at
critical stages, drip irrigation etc. The reasons
for high adoption are seeing is believing. The
non adopted farmers have seen the performance
of technologies in the fields of adopted farmers.
Electronic and print media also helps in educating
the non adopted farmers for adoption of the above
technologies.
CONCLUSION
Higher levels of knowledge and adoption of
cotton production technologies were seen among
the farmers adopted by the KVK Jammikunta

204 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 199-205

 Production Technologies of Cotton
Table 6. Extent of adoption of cotton production technologies by KVK non adopted farmers (n=30)
Extent of adoption
Sr. Fully Partially Not Total Mean
Cotton production technologies Rank
adopted adopted adopted score score
No.
F % F % F %
1 Boll guard II tolerant for both 30 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 90 3.00 I
Helicoverpa and Spodoptera
2 Bt cotton crop period is less. After Bt 18 60.0 10 33.3 2 6.7 76 2.53 II
cotton cultivation of maize, sesamum
and other pulses increases the net
returns

3 Application of pesticides based on 15 50.0 15 50.0 0 0.0 75 2.50 III

ETL levels was more economical and
Foliar spraying of urea 2%, 19:19:19
1% and potassium nitrate 1% facilitates
early recovery of plants under stress
conditions
4 Closer spacing in Bt cotton increases 20 66.6 0 0.0 10 33.4 70 2.33 IV
the yields

5 Drip Irrigation reduces the water usage 13 43.3 13 43.3 4 13.4 69 2.30 V
and facilitates good crop growth and
higher yields
6 Use of micronutrients is as much 10 33.3 12 40.0 8 26.7 62 2.06 VI
important as the use of NPK, Soil
drenching with COC @ 3 g/L of water
or carbendazim @ 1 g/L of water
reduces wilt incidence.
compared to the non adopted farmers. This Bhagwat M R and Gohad V V ( 2003). Adoption of
could be due to the multiplicity of the transfer of Dryland Cotton cultivation technology by the farmers.
Maharashtra J Ext Edu 22(2): 108-110.
technology mechanisms followed by the KVK
scientists. Before adoption of these technologies by Christain B M, Vyas H U and Patel K F( 2003). Adoption of
IPM strategy by Cotton growers. Agric Ext Rev 15(2):
the farmers, the KVK scientists were disseminating 10-11.
these technologies by scrupulous assessment careful
Prashanth P(2011). A Study on adoption of organic farming
refinement and showing the value or skill involved in cotton in Karimnagar district of Andhra Pradesh.
in these technologies by conducting well planned M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural
method and result demonstrations. University, Hyderabad.
Rao N V, Ratnakar R and Jain P K ( 2012). Impact of farmer
REFERENCES field schools in KVK adopted villages on improved
Anonymous ( 2002). Comparison of cost and returns per practices of cotton. J Communic Stud 30 (1) : 11-17.
hectare moong, gram, maize, wheat, mustard and cotton. Received on 01/02/2019 Accepted on 20/03/2019
Agril Situation in India 24(2) : 73-78.

205 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 199-205

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 206-210 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00034.5

Response of Kharif Maize (Zea mays L.) to Planting Methods and

Nitrogen Management Approach by Leaf Color Chart
Bikramjit Singh and Amarinder Singh
Department of Agriculture, Khalsa College Amritsar-143002 (Punjab)

ABSTRACT
A field investigation entitled Response of Kharif Maize (Zea mays L.) to Planting Methods and Nitrogen
Management approach by Leaf Color Chart (LCC) was conducted during the kharif of 2016 at the Students’
Research farm, Khalsa College, Amritsar. The soil of the experimental site was sandy loam in texture with
normal soil PH and electrical conductivity, medium in organic carbon and low in available N, medium in
available P and high in K. Bed planted maize had significant higher grain yield (41.86 q/ha) and yield attribute
as compared to ridge (36.57 q/ha) and flat (35.95 q/ha) planted Maize, but at par with zero tillage method
planted maize (39.83 q/ha). However the growth attributes, straw yield and benefit cost ratio were higher
in maize sowing by zero tillage. Among nitrogen management treatment, nitrogen applied by NLCC5 had
significantly higher growth, yield and yield attributes than NLCC4 and Control No whereas at par with NLCC6.
Key Words: Leaf Colour Chart, Maize Planting methods, Nitrogen management.

INTRODUCTION more efficiently and resolutely towards growth and

Maize (Zea mays L.) can play an important role
in the crop diversification in Punjab. It is used in
poultry and animal feed and for the manufacturing
of starch, glucose and corn flakes. It is also used as
a human food during winter season. Traditionally
maize was grown as kharif crop and now sowing
during rabi season has also been started in some
districts with the development of new varieties
and hybrids. Maize can be grown successfully
during spring season. Singh et al (2014) revealed
that majority of farmers prefer to sow seeds of two
hybrids namely 31Y45 and DKC 9108 with an
average yield around 96q/ha during spring season.
On the other hand, in order to boost up maize
production during kharif, adoption of modern agro-
management practices seems imperative and one of
the major techniques is the use of proper method of
sowing. Among the agronomic practices, planting
technique is of considerable importance as proper
adjustment of plant in the field not only ensures
optimum plant population, but also enables the
plants to utilize the land and other input resources
Corresponding author’s Email : amarinder.pau@gmail.com
Assistant professor, Department of Agriculture, Khalsa College Amritsar
development and yield of maize.
Imbalanced use of nitrogen at wrong time
may lead to bad quality of grain as well as makes
plant succumb to lodging and attract to insect
pests and diseases. Singh et al (2016) reported that
farmers were applying urea in recommended dose
but the time of application was different than the
recommendations. As per recommendations, urea
needs to be applied in three equal splits during
basal, vegetative and tasseling stage whereas
farmers were applying 75 per cent urea only during
vegetative stage and 24 per cent during tasseling
stage. In case of DAP, 63 per cent of farmers were
adding higher quantity of phosphate fertilizer than
the recommended dose. So, in maize also there is
need to adjust nitrogen fertilizer application with
timing of plant requirement to enhance nitrogen
use efficiency because nitrogen requirement of
maize plant is not same throughout the growing
period. This adjustment should be based on leaf
color intensity of crop because it is directly related
to leaf chlorophyll content and leaf nitrogen status.

206 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 206-210

 Singh and Singh
Leaf color chart is technique for real time nitrogen stacked in upright position in the field for seven
management (Singh et al, 2002) which can be used days. The cobs were dehusked manually and were
for rapid and reliable monitoring of relative green allowed to dry for seven and thereafter the threshing
color of the leaf as an indicator of leaf nitrogen status. was done using maize dehusker cum thresher. The
The present study was planned to study the effect of maize grain yield was recorded from each plot at
planting methods and application of nitrogen based uniform moisture and expressed in q/ ha.. Statistical
on LCC on growth and yield of maize. analysis of the data was done as per split plot design.

MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The present investigation was conducted Growth
during the kharif of 2016 at the Students’ Research Growth of maize was significantly different due
farm, Khalsa College, Amritsar. The soil of the to different planting methods and nitrogen levels.
experimental site was sandy loam in texture with Maximum growth parameters like plant height,
normal soil PH and electrical conductivity, mediumleaf area index (LAI) and dry matter accumulation
in organic carbon and low in available N, medium in
(Table 2) were recorded in zero tillage which was
available P and high in K. The experiment was laidstatistically at par with bed planting. Further, it
out in split plot design heaving three replications. In
was observed that planting techniques zero and
each replication there nine treatment combinationsbed planting methods produced significantly more
heaving four planting methods viz., zero tillage, flat,
growth than flat. Growth was significantly higher in
ridge and bed in the main plots and three nitrogenplot which treated with NLCC6, NLCC5 and NREC over
levels in sub plots including N0, NRec, NLCC4, NLCC5
NLCC4 and N0 plots. Treatment NLCC6 produced tallest
and NLCC6. After the seed bed preparation, beds ofplants which remained significantly superior over
67.5cm width were prepared by bed planter, ridge NLCC4, NREC and N0 plots where as it was statistically
of 60cm width were prepared. The pre treated seedsat par with NLCC5 plots. The increase in plant height
of variety PMH 1 were sown on 15th June, 2016 with respect to increased nitrogen application
by kera method. 5 irrigations were applied as per rate indicates maximum vegetative growth of the
the requirement of the crop. Three hoeing were plants under higher nitrogen availability due to the
performed after a interval of 15 days using khurpaincrease in cell elongation as nitrogen is essential
(no chemical used in weed management). for plant growth process including chlorophyll
The maize crop was harvested manually with which is responsible for dark green color of stem
sickles on 16th Sept., 2016 when more than 80 per and leaves which enhance vigorous vegetative
cent of the cobs turned yellowish brown, grains growth and branching.
become hard. The cobs along with stalk were Greater leaf expansion in maize was ascribed

Table 1. Dose and time of application of nitrogen Fertilizer.

Treatment Total N fertilizer Dose and Time of application
dose (kg/ha)
N0 0 -
NRec 125 / at sowing, 1/3 knee height (22 DAS) and 1/3 pre-tassling (45 DAS)
1 3

NLCC4 90 30 kg N/ha each applied at sowing, 31 DAS and 50 DAS.

NLCC5 120 30 kg N/ha each applied at sowing, 24 DAS, 40 DAS and 52 DAS.

NLCC6 150 30 kg N each/ha applied at sowing,18 DAS, 29 DAS, 42 DAS and 55 DAS.

207 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 206-210

 Response of Kharif Maize to Planting Methods and Nitrogen Management
Table 2. Effect of planting methods and nitrogen on growth of maize.
Treatment Plant height (cm) Leaf Area Index (LAI) Dry matter accumulation (q/ha)
Method of Planting
Zero 174.0 3.83 114.2
Flat 163.2 3.32 102.1
Ridge 167.7 3.49 105.5
Bed 171.2 3.79 113.2
CD (p= 0.05) 7.4 0.26 9.2
Nitrogen Level
N0 131.2 3.12 79.7
NRec 174.1 3.61 116.1
NLCC4 170.6 3.55 109.6
NLCC5 176.8 3.80 118.6
NLCC6 177.4 3.99 122.7
CD (p= 0.05) 6.3 0.37 6.9
Interaction NS NS NS

to higher rate of cell division and cell enlargement.
Promotive effect of N on LAI of maize has been
reported by Andera et al (2006). The results were
in agreement with reported by Karasu (2012) to
obtained significant increase in various growth
parameters of maize with higher rates of nitrogen
fertilizer. Interaction effects were found no
significant results.
Yield attributing characters
Planting methods did not show any significant
difference in number of cobs per plant and test
weight (Table 3). Higher number of cobs per plant
and test weight was recorded in bed planting and
minimum was in flat planting. Maximum cob length
and number of grains per cob were recorded under
bed planting which was statistically at par with
planting method zero tillage whereas both these
planting methods produced significantly higher
number of grains per cob than planting methods
ridge and flat. The minimum number of grain
per cob was recorded in Flat. The highest length
(20.73 cm) was recorded in Bed planting and lowest
length (16.06 cm) was recorded in flat planting.
Cob length was recorded in zero (19.95 cm) and
ridge(18.89 cm) planting methods.
Treatment NLCC6 produced significantly higher
number of grains per cob over NLCC5 , NLCC4 , NREC
and N0 whereas cob length was found statistically
at par with NLCC5.The maximum number of grains
per cob and cob length were obtained from NLCC6
and lowest number of grains per cob and cob length
were obtained from N0.The probable reason for
lesser grain number cob was N deficiency which
reduced biomass production traits i.e. leaf area
and light capture of plant which could be primarily
relate to number of grain. These results substantiate
the findings of Rasheed et al (2004) who concluded
that increasing level of N enhance the number of
grains cob. Similarly, NLCC6 plots had significant
higher test weight and number of cobs per plant
than N0, whereas it was at par with NLCC5, NREC, NLCC4
.However, data in table shows that among nitrogen
levels, trend of test weight and number of cobs per
plant was NLCC6 > NLCC5 > NREC > NLCC4 > N0 .The
result suggested that the adequate N supply might
have enhanced the source efficiency (more dry matter
accumulation per unit area) as well kernel weight. An
increase in grain weight of maize in response to N

208 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 206-210

 Singh and Singh
fertilization has been reported by Imran et al (2015).
Jaidka et al (2018) studied correlation analysis of
all the parameters with grain yield and revealed a
significant and highly positive correlation of maize
cob weight, cob weight, grain weight per cob and cob
girth at top with grain yield of hybrids.
Grain yield
Grain yield is a net result of interaction of various
factors influencing growth and yield attributing
characters during the life cycle of the crop .The data
with respect to grain yield showed that different
methods had significant effect on grain yield of
maize. Higher grain yield (40.36 q/ha) was obtained
from Bed planting followed by (39.43 q/ha) zero
tillage planting method. The planting methods, bed
and zero tillage were statistically at par with each
other but significantly superior over flat and ridge
planting method. The higher grain yield in bed and
zero tillage methods might be due to more number
of cobs per plant, length of cobs, and more number
of grains per cob and 1000-grain-weight. Similar
results were observed by Lashkari et al (2011).
The data (Table 3) revealed that effect of different
nitrogen levels on grain yield of maize was significant.
The treatment NLCC6 recorded highest grain yield
(46.50 q/ha). It was significantly higher than N0
(25.27 q/ha) but statistically at par with NLCC5 (43.05
q/ha).Where maximum grain yield was observed
with NLCC6 (46.50 q/ha) followed by NLCC5 (43.05 q/
ha), NREC (40.36 q/ha) ,NLCC4 (34.50 q/ha) and N0
(25.27 q/ha) .Greater grain yield at higher nitrogen
application was probably due to higher grain weight,
per cob as well as more 1000-grain weight, which
was due to better vegetative growth of crop plant.
These results were in line with finding of Ahmad et
al (2009) who also found that grain yield increased
by increasing nitrogen levels. Similarly, the data
showed that all the four planting methods did exhibit
significant difference in stover yield . Stover yield of
planting methods bed (87.28 q/ha) was followed by
zero (84.28 q/ha) ,ridge (80.0 q/ha) and flat (78.21q/
ha). In case of nitrogen treatments maximum stover
yield was observed in NLCC6 (93.38 q/ha) followed
NLCC5 (86.80 q/ha) ,NREC (81.91 q/ha ) , NLCC4 (79.54
q/ha) and N0 (71.86 q/ha). Interaction effects of
planting methods and nitrogen in maize were found
to be non significant.

Table 3. Effect of planting methods and nitrogen on yield attributing characters of maize.
Treatment Cob length Number of Test Weight Grain Yield Stover Yield
(cm) grains per cob (g) (q/ha) (q/ha)
Method of Planting
Zero 19.94 300.13 20.72 39.43 84.28
Flat 16.06 282.33 19.60 35.25 78.21
Ridge 18.90 289.20 20.20 36.27 80.50
Bed 20.70 308.53 21.40 40.36 87.28
CD (p=0.05) 2.17 15.69 NS 3.43 6.68
Nitrogen Levels
N0 13.62 213.75 17.91 27.27 69.86
NRec 19.73 312.33 20.48 40.36 81.91
NLCC4 17.40 286.75 20.23 36.27 79.54
NLCC5 21.43 325.58 21.33 43.05 86.80
NLCC6 22.33 328.33 22.41 4514 90.38
CD (p=0.05) 2.21 10.14 3.01 3.88 4.36
Interaction NS NS NS NS NS

209 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 206-210

 Response of Kharif Maize to Planting Methods and Nitrogen Management
Benefit Cost Ratio (B: C ratio) maize inbred lines response to nitrogen availability. Crop
The data (Table 4) revealed that among all Sci 46:1266-276.
the sowing methods maximum income was Imran S, Muhammad A, Khan A, Khan M, Shah W and Abdul
obtained with bed planting method (Rs 62040/ ha) L (2015). Effect of nitrogen levels and plant population
on yield and yield component of maize. Adv Crop Sci and
followed by zero tillage planting (Rs 59145/ ha), Tech 3(2): 2-7
ridge planting (Rs 54405/ha) and flat planting (Rs
Jaidka M, Brar N S and Sharma M (2018). Evaluation of
52815/ha) methods. The data also revealed that all spring maize hybrids under irrigated conditions. Int J
the nitrogen management treatments gave higher Curr Microbiol App Sci 7 (08): 3212-3217
income over control (no nitrogen). Maximum Karasu A (2012). Effect of nitrogen levels on grain yield and
income obtained with LCC6 (Rs 65453/ha) and some attributes of some hybrids maize (Zea mays L.)
minimum was obtained with N0 (Rs 39541/ha). cultivar grown for silage as second crop. Bulagrian J
Agric Sci 18(1): 42-48
CONCLUSION Manan J, Sharma M , Singh G and Singh G( 2016).Effect of
It may be concluded that bed planting method and application of various inputs by the farmers and the yield
of spring maize hybrids. J Krishi Vigyan 4(2) : 22-27
zero tillage were superior than flat and ridge. Among
the different nitrogen levels the application using leaf Rasheed M, Al H, Tariq M (2004).Impact of nitrogen and
sulphur application on growth and yield of maize (Zea
color chart (NLCC5) was more beneficial than other
mays L.) crop. J Res Sci 15(2): 153-57
treatments which had higher benefit cost ratio.
Sharma M, Singh O, Singh G and Kaur G ( 2014). A snap
shot of spring maize cultivation in Kapurthala and
REFERENCES Jalandhar district under central plain zone of Punjab. J
Ahmad I, Iqbal M, Ahmad B, Ahmad G and Shah N (2009). Krishi Vigyan 3 (1) : 1-4
Maize yield, plant tissue and residual soil nitrogen
as affected by nitrogen management. J Agric Bio Sci Singh B, Singh Y, Ladha J K, Bronson K F, Balasubramanian
1(1):19-21 V, Singh J and Thind C S (2002). Chlorophyll meter and
leaf colour chart based nitrogen management for rice and
Andrea D, Cirilo A G and Eyherabide G H (2006). Genotypic wheat in Northwest India. Agron J 94: 821-29
variability in morphological physiological traits among
Received on 24/01/2019 Accepted on 20/03/2019
Table 4. Comparative economics of planting method and nitrogen management in Maize.
Treatment Benefit cost ratio
Method of Planting Total cost Total income Net profit B:C
(Rs/ha) (Rs/ha) (Rs/ha)
Zero 35,780 59,145 23,365 1.65
Flat 37,580 52,815 15,775 1.40
Ridge 38,230 54,405 16,175 1.42
Bed 38,810 62,040 23,230 1.59
Nitrogen Levels
N0 35,730 39,541 3,811 1.10
NRec 39,250 58,522 19,272 1.49
NLCC4 38,215 48,241 10,026 1.26
NLCC5 39,500 64,597 25,097 1.63
NLCC6 40,550 65,453 24,903 1.61

210 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 206-210

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 211-216 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00056.4

Role Performance and Job Satisfaction among Trainers of Krishi

Vigyan Kendras in Maharashtra
Narendra Khode1, B P Singh2 and D M Badukale3
College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Udgir
District Latur– 413 517 (Maharashtra)

ABSTRACT
The present study was conducted to ascertain the role performance in conducting training and job
satisfaction among the trainers of Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs). Five KVKs each were randomly selected
from the State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) and Non-Government Organizations (NGO), and data
were collected using questionnaire from 43 respondents. The study revealed that majority (45.45%) of
respondents of NGO-KVKs perceived high level of role performance in comparison to medium level by
most of the respondents (47.62%) working in SAU-KVKs. In both streams, delivery of well prepared
lectures and measurement of training impact were the most and the least performed role with mean score
value 4.46 and 3.63, respectively. Overall role performance level of NGO based KVK trainers’ in organizing
training was found slightly at higher side with mean score 42.0. Most of the respondents were satisfied with
professional social prestige (1.74), while least satisfied with promotion (0.28). Majority (53.49%) of the
trainers from both type of KVKs had medium level of job satisfaction. Trainers working in NGO-KVKs
had medium to low level of job satisfaction whereas, it was medium to high level among trainers of SAU
based KVKs. Therefore, there is a need to clarify roles in organization of training and to promote team
work among trainers as well as to sort out their issues related to job satisfaction for better role performance.
Key Words: Role performance, Job satisfaction, Training, Trainer, Krishi Vigyan Kendra

INTRODUCTION rural youth were able to gain self employment. It

Training has been considered as an essential
component for appropriate human resource
development in order to meet new challenges. The
KVK being an educational institution of the farmer
offers an opportunity by organizing training to
work closely with trainees in developing a skilled
and educated work force. In KVK, every scientist
has to play a set roles related with their position and
different mandatory activities. The Comptroller and
Auditor General (CAG, 2008) reported that 65 per
cent KVKs did not assess location specific training
needs based on interaction with farmers, 53 per cent
of the KVKs did not conduct impact assessment of
training and only 0.34 per cent of the total trained
has been mentioned that the main training areas
preferred by trainers for self training were use
of training methods, monitoring and evaluation
and training need assessment techniques which
emphasized that there is a need for basic minimum
competence in KVK trainers’ skill.
Job satisfaction refers to an overall affective
orientation on the part of individuals towards work
roles which they are presently occupying. Success
of any organization depends mainly on the role
performance and job satisfaction of the stakeholders
that affects turnover of organization and job
performance. In case of KVK, it was assumed

Corresponding Author’s Email:khodenarendra@gmail.com

1
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Vety. & A.H. Extension Education, COVAS, Udgir (MS)
2
Principal Scientist, Division of Extension Education, IVRI, Izatnagar (UP)
3
Assistant Professor, Post Graduate Institute of Veterinary Science, Akola (M.S.)

211 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 211-216

 Khode et al
that success of training depends on effective role
performance by trainers, which probably might be
affected with their overall job satisfaction level. It
was suggested to initiate an objective and scientific
evaluation of all KVKs so that a case-by-case
assessment could be made to guide the type and
level of any further support (Chander, 2015).
It is common observation that the KVKs being
run by NGOs are doing well as compared to the
performance of KVKs hosted by SAUs, ICAR
institutes and others (Meena et al, 2013). Nath et al
(2017) also supported it and concluded that KVKs
managed by NGO were performing better, due to
its commitment and flexibility in simple operational
procedure. The situation deserves to come across
and look into factors that make the difference in
performance of KVKs managed by different host
institutions across the country. Hence, the present
study was conducted with the objectives to ascertain
role performance in organization of training and
job satisfaction perceived by KVK trainers at work
place.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Present study was purposively conducted in
Maharashtra state in year 2017, where 45 KVKs are
functioning, out of which, majority (60.0%) of KVKs
are under administrative control of NGOs (27) and
35.55 per cent are working under SAUs (16). Each
five SAU-KVKs (Yavatmal, Chandrapur, Wardha,
Aurangabad and Solapur districts) and NGO-KVKs
(Washim, Jalgaon, Akola, Ahmednagar and Nanded
districts) were selected randomly. The respondents
were KVKs’ trainers including Heads, Subject
Matter Specialists and Programme Assistants those
directly involved in organization of the training.
The data were collected by using structured mailed
questionnaire from 21 trainers of SAU-KVKs and
22 trainers working in NGO-KVKs comprising the
total sample size of 43 respondents for the present
study. Role performance of trainer in organization
of training was measured by using scale developed
by Kumar and Kaur (2014) on five point continuum
in terms of most often, often, sometimes, seldom
212 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 211-216
and never. The scale developed by Hanumanaikar
et al (2011) was used to measure job satisfaction
on a three point continuum not satisfied, some
extent satisfied and satisfied. The obtained data
were analyzed with the help of mean, frequency,
percentage and Pearson chi-square test.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. Role performance in organization of
farmers’ training
(i) Overall mean role performance score across
host institute
Results (Table 1) depict that the delivery of
well prepared lectures to the trainees was the most
performed role by KVK trainers with mean score
4.46 followed by assessment of the training needs
of the farmers (4.32), development of need based
curriculum (4.28), preparation and distribution of
the training material amongst trainees (4.28), and
organization of discussion session for the better
understanding of the subject matter (4.25). Whereas,
arrangement of field trips to the demonstration
sites (4.21), careful selection of the trainees (4.09),
modification in training programme on the basis of
feedback (4.05), use of proper AV aids (3.88) and
measurement of training impact (3.63) were the least
performed roles by the trainers, which are otherwise
important sub-components in organization of
training. These roles need enough time, team work
and extension skill. Probably, the findings might be
due to overlapping mandatory activities, individual
efforts and responsibility, inadequate extension skill
as well as focus on number of activities by trainers
belonged to different disciplines. The findings of
the study were in line with Kumar and Kaur (2014).
However, there were slight differences in role
performance priority amongst trainers of SAU and
NGO based KVKs. Assessment of the training
needs was the most performed role in training
organization by SAU based KVKs’ trainers (4.43),
followed by equally (4.33) developing need based
curriculum and delivering well prepared lectures to
the trainees each, while the most performed role by
 Role Performance and Job Satisfaction among Trainers
Table 1. Distributions of respondents according to role performance score in organization of training.
Sr. Role item SAU-KVK NGO-KVK Pooled X2
No. n=21 n=22 N = 43 Value
MSV* Rank MSV* Rank MSV* Rank
1 Assessment of training needs of 4.43 1 4.23 5.5 4.32 2 0.90
the farmers of the district
2 Careful selection of the trainees 4.14 5 4.04 8 4.09 7 3.06
for a training programme
3 Developing need based 4.33 2.5 4.23 5.5 4.28 3.5 0.59
curriculum
4 Use of proper AV aids 3.90 8.5 3.86 9 3.88 9 3.50
5 Preparing and distributing 4.24 4 4.32 4 4.28 3.5 4.88
the training material amongst
farmers and extension staff
6 Delivering well prepared 4.33 2.5 4.59 1 4.46 1 1.87
lectures to the trainees
7 Organizing discussion session 4.09 6 4.41 3 4.25 5 2.86
for the better understanding of
subject matter
8 Arranging field trips to the 3.90 8.5 4.50 2 4.21 6 6.71
demonstration sites, experiment
fields and other relevant places
9 Measuring the impact of training 3.57 10 3.68 10 3.63 10 2.20
programme
10 Modifying training programme 3.95 7 4.14 7 4.05 8 3.75
on the basis of feedback
received
Overall role performance 40.90 - 42.00 - 41.46 - 11.78
*MSV-Mean Score Value
trainers of NGO based KVK was delivering well by subject matter specialists and they frequently
prepared lectures (4.59), followed by arranging used field trips, discussion and monitored outputs
field trips (4.5) and organizing discussion session of course. Results (Table 1) revealed that there
(4.41). Further, it was observed in both SAU and was no significant difference between trainers of
NGO-KVK that measuring the impact of training SAU-KVKs and NGO-KVKs in relation to various
programme was the least performed role by trainers role items and overall role performance score in
with 3.57 and 3.68 mean score, respectively. The organization of training. This finding underlined
findings were in line with the Comptroller and that the trainers working in SAU-KVKs were
Auditor General (CAG, 2008), which had underlined performing as good as to their counterparts of
that 53 per cent of the KVKs did not conduct impact NGO-KVKs in organization of training.
assessment of training. The findings were supported
by Ramakrishnan (2013), who conducted a study (ii) Role performance across host institute
in Tamil Nadu and reported that training needs of The data (Table 2) indicate that majority
almost 78 per cent of trainees had been assessed (44.19%) of the respondents belonged to medium

213 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 211-216

 Khode et al
Table 2. Distributions of respondents according to role performance level.
Level of role performance Host Institute Pooled
SAU-KVK NGO-KVK N=43
n=21 n=22
Low(30 to 36 score) 4(19.05) 3(13.64) 7(16.28)
Medium (37 to 43 score) 10(47.62) 9(40.91) 19(44.19)
High (44 to 50 score) 7(33.33) 10(45.45) 17(39.53)
Mean ± S.D. 40.90± 4.70 42.00± 5.34 41.46 ± 5.01
*Figures in parentheses indicate percentage.
level of role performance in organization of incentives and rewards (1.26), while they were least
training, followed by 39.33 and 16.28 per cent satisfied with promotion (0.28), allowance like PF/
of the respondents in high and low level of role pension etc. (0.49) and service security (0.79).
performance, respectively. Further, it revealed that The findings were in line with Hanumanaikar et al
majority (45.45%) of trainers working in NGO (2011), who reported the similar observations in a
based KVK had perceived their role performance study conducted in Karnataka state. However, there
level as high in organization of training, while it were slight differences in perceived job satisfaction
was considered medium level by the most (47.62%) level regarding its various sub-components across
of respondents of SAU-KVK. The findings were in host institute. At some extent, trainers working in
line with Kumar (2004) in case of trainers working in SAU and NGO-KVKs were preferably satisfied with
SAU-KVKs with medium level of role performance salary (2-rank 1st and 1.36 – rank 2nd), professional
and Ramakrishnan (2013) regarding trainers of social prestige (1.81-rank 2nd and 1.68-rank 1st),
NGO-KVKs with high level of role performance. and professional official prestige (1.62 and 1.32-
Comparatively, overall role performance of NGO each rank 3rd), respectively. Although, noticeable
based KVKs’ trainers in organization of training differences were found in job satisfaction across
was found slightly at higher side with mean score host institute in giving priority to its various sub-
42.0 than the trainers of SAU-KVKs with mean components viz. leave facility; incentive and
score 40.9. Findings was supported by Nath et rewards. Data further revealed that trainers from
al (2017), who had reported better performance SAU and NGO-KVKs were least satisfied with
of KVKs managed by NGOs. Probably, it might promotion policy with mean score 0.24 and 0.32 as
be due to three possible reasons viz. flexible and well as allowance like PF/pension etc. with mean
simple operational procedures at NGO-KVK, at score 0.52 and 0.45, respectively. It might be due
some extent discrimination in response because of to the limitation in hierarchical growth in KVK
the role ambiguity or role conflict, and possibly due setup and revised pension policy applicable to the
to the lower service experiences of trainers working employee joined later 2004.
in SAU based KVKs. No significant difference was found among
B. Job satisfaction level of trainers trainers in relation to overall job satisfaction
level as well as about its various sub-components
(i) Job satisfaction score across host institute viz. professional social prestige, promotion, job
It is clear from the results (Table 3) that overall authority, professional official prestige, work
respondents were mostly satisfied with professional distribution, service rules, allowance and leave
social prestige with mean score (1.74), followed by facility while working in KVKs under different
salary (1.67), professional official prestige (1.46), administrative control. However, there were

214 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 211-216

 Role Performance and Job Satisfaction among Trainers
Table 3. Distribution of respondents according to job satisfaction score.
Sr. No. Sub components of Job SAU-KVK NGO-KVK Pooled X2 Value
satisfaction n=21 n=22 N=43
MSV* Rank MSV* Rank MSV* Rank
1 Professional social prestige 1.81 2 1.68 1 1.74 1 1.38
2 Incentives and rewards 1.57 4 0.95 8 1.26 4 8.00**
3 Salary 2.00 1 1.36 2 1.67 2 10.86*
4 Promotion 0.24 11 0.32 11 0.28 11 0.31
5 Job authority 1.38 5.5 1.09 6.5 1.23 5.5 3.71
6 Professional official prestige 1.62 3 1.32 3 1.46 3 3.43
7 Service security 1.14 7.5 0.45 9.5 0.79 9 8.13*
8 Work distribution 1.38 5.5 1.09 6.5 1.23 5.5 2.91
9 Service rules 1.14 7.5 1.14 4.5 1.14 7 0.21
10 Allowance like PF/ Pension 0.52 10 0.45 9.5 0.49 10 4.69
etc.
11 Leave facility 0.95 9 1.14 4.5 1.05 8 0.59
Overall job satisfaction 13.76 - 11.00 - 12.35 - 14.98
*MSV-Mean score value
**Significant at 5% level

significant differences in relation to job satisfaction of SAU-KVKs than the trainers of NGO-KVKs.
components viz. incentives and rewards; salary and
service security amongst the trainers of both stream CONCLUSION
as indicated in Table 3. Training being a core activity of KVKs involves
various sub-roles, which requires to be properly
(ii) Job satisfaction across host institute followed by the trainers to achieve the desirable
In context to the level of job satisfaction outcome. Most of the trainers in NGO-KVKs
perceived by the trainers (Table 4), it was revealed perceived high role performance in organization
that majority (53.49%) of respondents of both type of training compared to the trainers of SAU-KVKs
of KVKs had medium level of job satisfaction, with slight differences in role performance priority.
followed by high and low level by 27.91 and 18.60 Study indicates the role ambiguity or conflict that
per cent respondents with average score 23.34. leads to response discrimination at some extent about
Similar observations were made by Ramakrishnan various roles among trainers. Impact assessment,
(2013) in Tamil Nadu, while it contradicts with use of audio-visual aids, arranging field trips etc
Rajput (2011), who reported the low level of job are crucial roles in training organization, involves
satisfaction among trainers of KVKs in J&K, physical efforts, skill and require sufficient time, but
Punjab, Delhi and Uttarakhand. Data further depict these were the least performed roles by the trainers.
that respondents of NGO-KVKs had medium to low Probably, it might be due to inadequate extension
level of job satisfaction, whereas, it was medium skill amongst trainers, overlapping and time bound
to high in SAU-KVKs with average score 24.76. mandatory activities; and lack of team-work in
Probably, it might be due to the comparatively organization of training, which needs to be addressed
stronger service security feelings amongst trainers

215 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 211-216

 Khode et al
Table 4. Distributions of trainers according to job satisfaction.
Job satisfaction level of KVK trainers Host Institute Pooled
SAU-KVK NGO-KVK N=43
n=21 n=22
Low(13 to 19 score) 1(4.76) 7(31.82) 8(18.60)
Medium (20 to 26 score) 12(57.14) 11(50.00) 23(53.49)
High (27 to 32 score) 838.10) 4(18.18) 12(27.91)
Mean ± S.D. 24.76 ± 3.57 22 ± 4.84 23.34 ± 4.44
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage.
through training with intent to upgrade extension Hanumanaikar RH, Malshet KK and Nagaraja MS (2011).
skill and acquaint clarity by trainers about different A study on work environment among subject matter
specialists of Krishi Vigyan Kendras in Karnataka. Agri
roles as well as needs to promote team efforts in Update 6:53-56.
organization of trainings. Overall, no significant
Kumar P and Kaur P (2016). Role performance of subject
difference in relation to role performance indicates matter specialists in Krishi Vigyan Kendras of Northern
that trainers working in SAU-KVKs perform as India. J Comm Mobil and Sustain Dev 11(1) :9-18.
good as to their counterparts of NGO-KVKs. Most Meena BS and Singh Baldeo (2013). Perceived constraints
of the trainers of both type of KVKs had medium and suggestions for effective functioning of Krishi
level of job satisfaction and most of them were not Vigyan Kendras. Agri Update 8(3): 332-335.
satisfied with promotion, allowance like provident Nath D, Jain PK, Talukdar RK and Hansra BS (2017).
fund/pension and service security, which need to be Performance of KVKs in north eastern region of India
sorted out at the earliest. The findings of the study under different administrative units. J Comm Mobil and
are beneficial in developing training policies and Sustain Dev 12(1): 87-99
action plan for effective organization of training Rajput A (2011). Designing strategy for KVK trainers’
and smooth functioning of KVKs. training in trainers’ skills through distance learning – a
study in North India. Unpublished Ph.D thesis submitted
to G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology,
REFERENCES Pantnagar (Uttarakhand)
CAG( 2008). Performance Audit of Agricultural Extension
Ramakrishnan K (2013). A multidimensional approach on
activities of ICAR, Office of the Comptroller and Auditor
training management pattern in Krishi Vigyan Kendras
General (CAG), Government of India, Report No. PA 2 of
of Tamil Nadu. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis submitted to
2008 (Scientific Departments).
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
Chander M (2015). The Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) in
India: The full potential yet to be unleashed. Agricultural Received on 20/03/2019 Accepted on 10/04/2019
Extension in South Asia, Blog No. 46, April 2015.

216 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 211-216

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 217-221 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00035.7

Rolling Stem Applicator - An Eco-Friendly, Low Cost,

Input Saving and Drudgery Reducing Tool for Managing Sucking
Pests of Cotton
K Ravi Kumar, J Hemantha Kumar, D Srinivas and P Raghu Rami Reddy
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Wyra, Khammam-507 165 (Telangana)

ABSTRACT
The present study was taken to assess the performance of Rolling stem applicator in comparison with
normal traditional method of hand spraying in cotton for sucking pests. The study revealed that Rolling
stem applicator was more efficient than spraying for increased crop protection and reducing cost of
cultivation. With the rolling stem applicator, the time period and quantity of insecticide required for the
application were lesser as compared to spraying, subsequently the cost was also reduced. Even the quantity
of spray fluid required for the rolling stem applicator was very less i.e. 750-1250 ml/ha. The number of
labour required for application was less for making use of rolling stem applicator i.e. 2-3 labour to cover
one hectare area which ultimately reduced the cost incurred for labour on plant protection. Even, the time
required for application by rolling stem applicator was found to be less and therefore, within a span of 6 hr
of time by rolling stem applicator 1.6-2.4 ha area could be covered in a day. Thus, use of the rolling stem
applicator reduced the cost of cultivation to a farmer, drudgery, saved input and safe to natural enemies.
Key Words: Hand Spraying, Pesticides, Rolling stem applicator, Sucking pests.

INTRODUCTION pests scourge (Kalkal et al, 2009; Murugesan et al,

Cotton one of the major commercial crop
grown in India by majority of the farmers. In India,
cotton ecosystem harbours about 162 insect pest
species and the monetary value of estimated yield
losses due to insect pests has been estimated to
be Rs 3,39,660 million annually (Dhaliwal et al,
2010). Pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella),
American bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera) and
spotted bollworm (Earis spp.) are the major boll
feeders (Babar et al, 2013). After introduction
of Boll guard technology (Bt) in 2002, the
productivity of cotton increased, losses due to
insect pests decreased and the insecticide use was
also reduced. Transgenic Bt cotton can effectively
control specific Lepidopetrous species, but there
is lack of resistance against sucking insect pest
(Sharma and Pampathy, 2006). Even though the
recently introduced Bt cotton hybrids are resistant
to bollworms, most of them succumb to the sucking
2009). After the introduction of Bt technology, most
of the pesticides spray were reduced because of the
less bollworm incidence. In cotton, sucking pests
are the major problem which mainly includes thrips,
white flies, aphids and mealy bugs. The sucking
pests start it’s feeding by sucking the plant sap from
the plant right from the sowing to harvesting. The
pests, if not properly managed in the early stages,
cause damage to the plant which includes reduction
in the plant growth, effect on the flowering, fruiting,
and transmission of viral diseases and ultimately
reduction in yield. In an unprotected field, the effect
on yield losses in Bt cotton due to sucking pests
was about 26.21 per cent (Makwana et al, 2018).
Farmers to manage the pest problem mainly go for
Hand spraying of different pesticides at different
intervals of the crop period. Hand spraying is
a tedious and laborious process which includes
mixing of chemicals in more quantity for number

Corresponding Author’s email: wyrakvkinfo2@gmail.com

217 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 217-221

 Kumar et al
of times, increase cost of cultivation due to more pests in cotton, two pesticides i.e. Monocrotophos
number of labourers required for spraying and and water (1:4) at 30, 45 days of sowing and
more quantity of pesticides, increase risk of human Imidacloprid and water (1:20) at 60d of sowing
beings to the hazardous chemicals, indirect toxic were taken and applied to the cotton field with
effect on the beneficial insects and other creatures. rolling stem applicator. The control plot was
Non-availability or shortage of labour during peak maintained where the application of pesticides
crop stages make the farmer to postpone or delay in done by traditional hand spraying. All the factors
spraying which ultimately increase the pest load and regarding the quantity of insecticide required, time
cause difficult to manage the pests after its severity. taken for application, cost of chemical and labour,
Keeping in view of all the problems faced ease of application were studied (Image 1).
by the cotton farmers, to combat the difficulty
in spraying the pesticides for sucking pests, by
studying all the factors and taking into consideration,
KVK, Wyra, Khammam has developed a simple
technology of controlling the sucking pests without
spraying i.e. Rolling Stem applicator. Hence, study
was conducted to assess the general attributes, its
Image 1. Rolling Stem applicator
use and the performance, cost incurred of Rolling
stem applicator and its comparison with hand
spraying of pesticides. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The rolling stem applicator consisted of a 2.5
feet length pipe with 2.5 cm diameter, , a foam
MATERIALS AND METHODS
holder with high density foam (Sponge) and the
The study has been conducted in Nacharam
weight of the applicator is 250g. The applicator
village under NICRA of Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
can be easily operated by simply dipping the high
Wyra, Khammam district, Telangana State. The
density foam (Sponge) into the spray fluid prepared
advantages and benefits of hand spraying and
in a small bucket by mixing the enough quantity
rolling stem applicator were compared.
of chemical and water. Once it is dipped into the
Specifications of Rolling Stem Applicator spray fluid bucket, the spray fluid will be absorbed
• High density foam (35 mm X 160 mm) into the high density foam (Sponge) and easily it
can be applied to the base of the stem for about 15-
• Plastic handle (Length 2.5 feet, 2.5 cm 20 plants. Likewise, the application can be done
diameter) with two pesticides i.e. Monocrotophos and water
• Foam holder (1:4) at 30, 45 days of sowing and Imidacloprid and
• Weight of the applicator (250g) water (1:20) at 60 days of sowing for the control
of sucking pests. With one rolling stem applicator
The cost involved in hand spraying and rolling by hiring one labour, the chemical can be applied
stem applicator and quantity of insecticide required to any number of plants and any number of acres
for hand spraying and rolling stem applicator were of land. The applicator can be again reused for the
assessed. Under NICRA Project at Nacharam next season crop and many number of crop seasons
village of Khammam District, Telangana State, the (Image 2). Moreover, unlike the disadvantages of
rolling stem applicator was assessed in cotton fields hand spraying, all the drudgery, drift hazard, risk
of farmers and compared with hand spraying. As to human beings and other beneficial insects were
per the recommendation of pesticides for sucking reduced in case of rolling stem applicator.

218 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 217-221

 Rolling Stem Applicator
Table 1. Output of Rolling Stem Applicator in Cotton over Hand Spraying.
Sr. No Parameter Rolling Stem Applicator Hand Spraying
1 Quantity of insecticide required/ha Monocrotophos - 375 ml 625- 1250 ml
- 500 ml
Imidacloprid – 62.5 -75 ml 100-125 ml
2 Time required/ha 2.5-3.75 hr 3.75-5.0 hr
3 Drudgery Very less More
4 Quantity of insecticide solution required/ 750-1250 ml 450-500 lt
ha
5 No. of labour required/ ha 2-3 4-5
6 Area covered/day (6 hr) 1.6-2.4 ha 1.2-1.6 ha
7 Money spent on insecticide/ ha Rs.300/- Rs.977/-
8 Drift losses No Yes
9 Toxicity to natural enemies Negligible More
10 Environmental pollution Nil More
11 Inhalation of pesticide while application Negligible more
12 No. of plants covered/hour 3200 2400
13 Ease of application Very easy and comfortable Highly laborious and
require more energy
In the time period of 2.5-3.75 hr, with an spray fluid, the application by rolling stem applicator
quantity of 375-500 ml of Monocrotophos and 62.5- was easy and the number of labour required for
75 ml of Imidacloprid, the application of chemical application was very less i.e. 2-3 labour is sufficient
can be done easily by the rolling stem applicator to cover one hectare which ultimately reduces the
unlike the time period of 3.75-5 hr with an quantity cost incurred for labour for plant protection, unlike
of 625-1250 ml of Monocrotophos and 100-125 the traditional spraying method where more number
ml of Imidacloprid. As the quantity of chemical of labour required i.e. 4-5 (2 or 3 men + 2 woman)
required for application by rolling stem applicator which increases the cost of cultivation to farmer.
was very less, subsequently the cost was also The time of application by rolling stem applicator
reduced. The cost incurred for the monocrotophos was very less and within a short time more number
was Rs. 170/- for application by rolling stem of area can be covered i.e. within a span of 6 hours
applicator and Rs.420/ for application by spraying. of time by rolling stem applicator 1.6-2.4 Ha can
Similarly, the cost incurred for imidacloprid was be covered in a day whereas 1.2-1.6 Ha of area
Rs. 130/- for application by rolling stem applicator per day can be covered in the span of 6 hours of
and Rs. 257.5/- for application by spraying. Even time period by spraying. Thus, more area can be
the quantity of spray fluid required for the rolling covered in a short time which enables the farmer to
stem applicator was very less i.e. 750-1250 ml as go for timely plant protection measure of a larger
compared to spraying which require 450-500 litres area in a shorter time period. Thus, in overall the
of solution per hectare. With the small quantity of application by rolling stem applicator reduces the

219 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 217-221

 Kumar et al

KVK Scientists explaining the stem application Conducting of method demonstration with Rolling
usage in field. Stem Applicator

Stem application with cotton Stem application

Image 2. Application of chemical by Rolling Stem Applicator in Cotton
cost of cultivation to farmer, drudgery, input saving 7. Insecticide saving because the chemical will
and safe to natural enemies. be absorbed into the sponge will be directly
applied to the plant without any wastage as
Advantages like hand spraying where the chemical wasted
1. The technique is well suited for areas where because of drift and more requirement of
there is severe water scarcity because small water.
quantity of water is required.
8. No environmental pollution because the
2. It does not need any costly equipment and chemical is not exposed to environment.
involves no skill.
9. Labour saving because the application can be
3. No harm to natural enemies as the chemical is done easily as the requirement of water is less,
not exposed to the wind. quantity of chemical is less and once the spray
4. No drudgery because the applicator can be fluid is ready, it can be applied.
easily carried without much energy and not 10. Risk of exposure to human beings is less
require to bag it on the shoulders. because the chemical is not drifted or not
5. No drift hazards as like spraying the chemical exposed to the wind.
will be drifted when applied to the plants 11. Cost incurred is very less as the amount of
because of wind and other factors. chemical reduced.
6. Easy in application because the equipment is
light in weight.

220 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 217-221

 Rolling Stem Applicator
CONCLUSION
Cotton is an important crop and sprayings
done by the farmers for control of sucking pests
require more number of labour and more quantity
of chemical required which increases the cost of
cultivation of the farmers for growing the crop and
also also risk of exposure to human beings and
beneficial insects is increased. Even, the drudgey
produced during spraying is more which cause
pain to the labour engaged for application. For a
small and marginal farmer, it will be a more burden
when the cost of cultivation increases. Rolling stem
applicator will serve as an effective eco friendly
tool in the IPM strategy of cotton as it is very easy
to handle and apply, less risk to human beings,
environment and beneficial insects, no drift hazard
and overall reduces the cost of cultivation to the
farmers which benefits the poor small and marginal
farmers.
221 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 217-221
REFERENCES
Babar T K, Karar H, Hasnain M, Shahzad M F, Saleem M
and Ali A (2013). Performance of some transgenic cotton
cultivars against insect pest complex, virus incidence and
yield. Pak J Agric Sci 50(3): 367-372.
Dhaliwal G S, Vikas Jindal and Dhawan A K (2010). Insect
pest problems and crop losses: changing trends. Indian J
Ento 37(1):1-7.
Kalkal D, Dahiya K K, Lal R (2009). Impact analysis of
genetically modified (Bt) cotton cultivars on natural
enemies. J Cotton Res Dev 23(1):11–116.
Makwana D K, Chudasama K A and Balas T K (2018).
Estimation of yield losses due to major sucking insect
pests of Bt cotton. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci 7(05):
956-959.
Murugesan N and Kavitha A (2010). Host plant resistance in
cotton accessions to the leaf hopper Amrasca devastans
(distant). J Biopestic 3 (1):526–533.
Sharma H C and Pampathy G (2006). Influence of transgenic
cotton on the relative abundance of damage of by target
and non target insect pests under different protection
regimes in India. Crop Prot 25(1): 800-813.
Received on 13/02/2019 Accepted on 20/03/2019
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 222-226 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00036.9

Standard of Living of National Horticulture Mission Beneficiaries

in Davanagere District of Karnataka
J Raghuraja, M Madhumathi and S Shashikumar
ICAR-Taralabalu Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Davanagere 577 001 (Karnataka)

ABSTRACT
The study was conducted in six talukas of Davanagere district to analyze shift in the standard of living
of beneficiaries before and after participation in NHM programme. A total of 144 beneficiaries from
randomly selected 24 villages formed the population of the study. The data were collected using pre
tested structured schedule through personal interview method. The components of standard of living
included were annual income, social status, employment generation and re-investment pattern. The
results revealed that social status of the beneficiaries increased by 197.7 per cent compared to before
and after participation in NHM followed by 178.1 per cent value addition in education, 68.1 per cent
in investment on social functions, 30.5 per cent in annual income, 21.8 per cent in investment on
savings, 20.9 per cent in employment generation and 6.8 per cent in investment on assets. The overall
standard of living of beneficiaries after participation in NHM was raised by 76.6 per cent. This
confirmed the positive effects of the NHM programme on the living standards of the beneficiaries.
Key Words: Beneficiaries, National Horticulture Mission, Standard of Living, Social Status.

INTRODUCTION taluks. Mankar et al (2013) documented the impact

The rapid growth in population of the country
necessitated the increase in food production to
ensure food security and nutritional requirement.
One of the biggest challenges today in agricultural
sector is to increase productivity of crops to augment
food production and alleviate poverty in the
country. National Horticulture Mission (NHM) was
launched in 2005-06 by the Central Government to
promote holistic growth of the horticulture sector
and improve nutritional security and income support
to farm households and other sector through an area
based regionally differentiated strategies.
The main activities under NHM includes
increased area under horticulture crops through
subsidies, farm mechanization, integrated pest
and disease management, integrated nutrient
management, support to drip and sprinkler irrigation
system, post harvest processing units, trainings
and extension activities. NHM was launched in
Davanagere district during 2008-09 in all the six
of NHM on its beneficiaries in Vidarbha region
of Maharashtra reported that level of impact of
NHM had created a moderate impact on 68.3 per
cent beneficiaries followed by high impact on 15.0
per cent beneficiaries. Further, impact of NHM
showed that before participation in NHM majority
of beneficiaries (29.1%) had income of Rs. 1.01 to
1.50 lakh/yr. After participation in NHM majority of
beneficiaries (38.3%) seen in Rs. 1.51 to 2.00 lakh
income category/yr. Before participation in NHM
majority of beneficiaries each (24.1%) exhibited in
the category of 51 to 100 and 101 to 150d in their
employment in terms of man days per year. After
participation in NHM, majority of beneficiaries
(68.3%) exhibited above 250d category in their
employment in terms of man days per year. This
present study was thus, undertaken to know the
impact of the NHM on the standard of living of the
beneficiaries in Davanagere District of Karnataka.

Corresponding Author’s Email: raghuraja92@yahoo.com

222 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 222-226

 Raghuraja et al
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted in all the six talukas
of Davanagere district namely Channagiri, Honnali,
Davangere, Harihara, Jagalur and Harapanahlli.
Four villages from each talukas were selected
for their coverage of highest activity under NHM
programme. Six beneficiaries each from each
selected villages were selected randomly thus, a
total sample for the study was 144 beneficiaries
from 24 villages. The data were collected using
structured interview schedule through personal
interview method during June to September 2018.
The collected data were analysed using statistical
methods like mean, standard deviation, frequency,
percentage and paired t test to draw meaningful
conclusions. The beneficiaries were classified in
to low, medium and high category using mean and
half standard deviation as measure of check. Ex-
post facto research design was employed for this
study. The standard of living has been analysed
through annual income, social status, employment
generation and re-investment pattern. Further,
re-investment pattern has been analysed through
value addition in education, investment on assets,
investment on savings and investment on social
function.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The data (Table 1) revealed the categorization
of NHM beneficiaries based on standard of living
and its components. The annual income of NHM
beneficiaries indicated that before participation in
NHM programme, majority of the beneficiaries
belonged to medium income group (73.6%)
followed by 15.9 per cent to low and 10.4 per cent
to high income group. After participation in NHM,
76.3 per cent of beneficiaries belonged to medium
income group followed by 15.9 per cent to low and
7.6 per cent to high income groups. Social status
of the NHM beneficiaries shows that before NHM,
majority of the beneficiaries had medium level
social status (73.6%), followed by 13.8 per cent
high level and 12.5 per cent had low level social
status, while, after participation in NHM, 75.6 per
223 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 222-226
cent had medium social status followed by 12.5 per
cent low and 11.8 per cent high social status.NHM
45.1 per cent of beneficiaries belonged to medium
employment generation categories followed by 29.1
per cent low and 25.6 per cent high category. After
participation in NHM, 36.1 per cent of beneficiaries
belonged to high followed by 34.7 per cent low
and 29.1 per cent medium category. Before NHM
majority of beneficiaries (45.8%) belonged medium
category of reinvestment pattern followed by low
31.9 per cent and high 22.2 per cent high category.
After NHM 54.8 per cent belonged to low and
45.1 per cent high category. Before NHM 69.4
per cent of NHM beneficiaries belonged medium
category of value addition in education followed by
15.9 per cent low and 14.5 per cent high category.
After NHM majority (70.1%) belonged to medium
category followed by 15.9 per cent high and 13.8
per cent low category.
Data ( Table 1) also revealed the investment
on assets by NHM beneficiates. Majority of
beneficiaries before NHM belonged to medium
category (97.9%) and 2.08 per cent high category
while, after NHM 65.9 per cent belonged to medium
category followed by 22.2 per cent low and 11.8
per cent to high category. It was observed from that
more than half of the (52.0%) NHM beneficiaries
belonging to medium level investment on savings
followed by 31.9 per cent belonged to low level
and 15.9 per cent to high level before NHM. After
NHM, 43.0 per cent of beneficiaries falling under
medium level of investment on saving following by
38.1 per cent belong to low and 18.7 per cent to
high level. Majority (56.9%) of NHM beneficiaries
belonged to low level investment on social function
followed by 37.5 per cent high level and 5.56 per
cent medium level before NHM. while, after NHM
52.0 per cent belonged to low level of investment
on social function followed by 26.3 per cent and
21.5 percent of beneficiaries belonged to high and
medium level, respectively. The overall standard
of living of NHM beneficiaries reveals that before
participation in NHM programme majority belongs
medium category (68.0%) followed by 27.0 per
 National Horticulture Mission Beneficiaries
Table 1. Categorization of NHM beneficiaries based on Standard of Living and its components.
(n=144)
Before NHM After NHM
Component Category Mean Standard Per Mean Standard
No Per cent No
Score deviation cent Score deviation
High 23 15.9 23 15.9
Annual income Medium 106 73.6 177389 163033 110 76.3 231558 269613
Low 15 10.4 11 7.6
High 18 12.5 18 12.5
Social status Medium 106 73.6 3.52 1.24 109 75.6 10.48 1.47
Low 20 13.8 17 11.8
High 42 29.1 50 34.7
Employment
Medium 65 45.1 127.40 29.46 42 29.1 153.89 32.63
generation
Low 37 25.6 52 36.1
High 32 22.2 79 54.8
Reinvestment
Medium 66 45.8 5.15 0.83 0 0.0 5.51 0.96
pattern
Low 46 31.9 65 45.1
High 23 15.9 20 13.8
Value addition
Medium 100 69.4 7.22 2.75 101 70.1 20.08 2.70
in education
Low 21 14.5 23 15.9
High 0 0 32 22.2
Investment on
Medium 141 97.9 411493 126655 95 65.9 439562 105557
assets
Low 3 2.0 17 11.8
High 46 31.9 55 38.1
Investment on
Medium 75 52.0 145384 183592 62 43.0 177083 187092
savings
Low 23 15.9 27 18.7
High 82 56.9 75 52.0
Investment on
Medium 8 5.5 269944 314854 31 21.5 454028 661978
social function
Low 54 37.5 38 26.3
Overall High 39 27.0 87 60.4
Standard of Medium 98 68.0 1241.8 1958.73 45 31.2 2194.16 4692.09
Living Low 7 4.8 12 8.3

cent high and 4.3 per cent low category while,
after participation in NHM programme majority
belonged to high category (60.42%) followed by
31.2 per cent medium and 8.3 per cent low category.
The annual income of the NHM beneficiaries
(Table 2) showed 34.9 per cent increase in income
from other sources followed by 34.6 per cent dairy,
27.3 per cent from horticulture, 23.5 per cent daily
wages and 12.6 from agriculture. Paired t-test
reveals significant increase was found in agriculture,
horticulture and dairy activities of the beneficiaries.
This may be due to the fact that farmers who became
beneficiaries in NHM programme were exposed
to extension agency and gained knowledge in
agriculture allied activities. This has helped in not
only getting higher yields but also realizing higher

224 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 222-226

 Raghuraja et al

Table 2. Annual Income of the beneficiaries from different sources before and after participation in
NHM. (n=144)
Sr. Annual income (Rs) Per cent Paired P-level
Source of income Increase t-test
No. Before NHM After NHM
1 Agriculture 46711 52625 12.66 2.1875* 0.0303
2 Horticulture 135871 172965 27.30 2.9323** 0.0039
3 Dairy 1830 2464 34.64 2.3296* 0.0212
4 Daily wages 17 21 23.53 1.0000 0.3190
5 Others sources 4375 5903 34.93 1.7862 0.0762
* Significant at 5% level ** Significant at 1% level

income. The results also indicated increased income
from many sources contributing increased standard
of living. It was evident that there has been 68.5 per
cent increase in employment generation through
agriculture related subsidiary activities followed by
20.9 per cent in agriculture activities and 4.5 per cent
directly through NHM (Table 3). Overall before the
NHM, the employment generation was 127.3 man
days and after NHM it was increased to 153.9 and
found increase of 20.9 per cent. This may be due
to the fact that the components of the NHM were
either structures based or activities based. These
horticulture crops based activities involves physical
works and not season specific. It was observed
that employment generation through agriculture
related subsidiary activities was more indicating
that farmers once became beneficiaries of the NHM
programmes might have acquired information and
benefits from other extension agencies like dairy,
poultry, nursery management among others.
The mean values of different dimensions of
standard of living before and after participation
in the NHM programme was presented in Table
4. The social status of the beneficiaries was found
197.7 per cent increase compared to before and
after participation in NHM followed by 178.1 per
cent in value addition in education, 68.1 per cent
in investment on social functions, 30.5 per cent
in annual income, 21.8 per cent in investment on
savings, 20.91 per cent in employment generation
and 6.8 per cent in investment on assets. The overall
standard of living of beneficiaries considering all the
dimensions was found to be 76.6 per cent increase
indicating positive impact of NHM programme.
The statistical analysis of data revealed that annual
income, social status, employment generation,
value addition in education and investment on
social function was found to be highly significant at
one per cent level where as, investment on saving
was found to be significant at five per cent level and

Table 3. Employment generation of beneficiaries before and after participation in NHM. (n=144)
Employment generation (Man days)
Sr. No. Activity Per cent Increase
Before NHM After NHM
1 Agriculture activities 125.4 151.7 20.9

Agriculture related subsidiary

2 0.3 0.5 68.5
activities (Excluding NHM)

3 NHM 1.5 1.60 4.5

Total 127.3 153.9 20.9

225 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 222-226

 National Horticulture Mission Beneficiaries
Table 4. Mean values of different dimensions of standard of living before and after NHM. (n=144)
Mean values
Percent Paired ‘t’ test
Sr. No. Dimensions of standard of living Before
After NHM increase value
NHM
1 Annual income (Rs.) 177389 231557 30.53 3.305**
2 Social status (Score) 3.52 10.48 197.73 77.094**
3 Employment generation (Man days) 127.33 153.96 20.91 13.341**
4 Value addition in education (Score) 7.22 20.08 178.12 57.639**
5 Investment on assets (Rs.) 411493 439562 6.82 0.152
6 Investment on savings (Rs.) 145384 177083 21.80 2.407*
7 Investment on social functions (Rs.) 269944 454028 68.19 3.743**
Overall(units) 1241.80 2194.16 76.69 2.695**
* Significant at 5% level ** Significant at 1% level
investment on assets found to be non-significant. REFERENCES
The overall dimensions for standard of living Gaurav P, Bharadwaj N, Kashap S K and Sunetha S (2017).
found to be highly significant at 1.0 per cent. The Socio-personal, communication characteristics and
information needs of vegetable growers of hill region of
technologies and extension services received by the Uttarakhand. J Krishi Vigyan 6(1):191-196.
beneficiaries under NHM programme have resulted
Kale N M, Manker D M and Wankhade P P ( 2015). Impact
in an increase in annual income, social status, of Government packages on livelihood sources of suicide
employment generation and re-investment pattern prone farmer’s families, Karnataka J Agric Sci 28(1):
and there by increased standard of living. (63-66).
Manker D M, Wankhade P P and Shambharkar Y B(
CONCLUSION 2013). Impact of National Horticulture Mission on its
The study on the standard of living of NHM beneficiaries. Int J Ext Edu 9: 72-80.
beneficiaries before and after the programme Parvathamma ( 2012). Impact of water shed project on socio-
implementation has resulted in significant economic status of women beneficiaries in Chitradurga
district of Karnataka, Ph. D (Agri.) thesis (Unpub.).,
increase in standard of living. The components of
Univ. of Agric. Sci., Bangalore.
standard of living namely; annual income, social
status, employment generation, value addition in Vinay Kumar R, Narayana Gowda K, Nataraju M S and Anand
T N ( 2015). Impact of rural bio-resource complex project
education, investment on assets, investment on on standard of living of its stakeholders in Karnataka,
savings and investment on social function have Mysore J Agric Sci 49(3):536-541.
found to be significantly increased after NHM. It Received on 09/02/2019 Accepted on 16/03/2019
is evident from the results that by becoming NHM
beneficiaries, they have received extension services
and benefits from other development agencies. This
confirms the need for convergence of extension
activities at least at the district level to save all sorts
of resources.

226 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 222-226

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 227-233 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00037.0

Storage Behavior of Juice Prepared from Nagpur Mandarin

Orange (Citrus reticulata)
Z A Faizi1, V P Kad2 , J K Dhemre4 and A M Musmade 3
Post-Harvest Technology Centre, Department of Horticulture,
Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, Ahmednagar 413 705 (Maharashtra)

ABSTRACT
The present investigation was carried out during 2015–2016 at Post Harvest Technology Centre, Department
of Horticulture, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri. The storage behavior of juice extracted by
screw type pulper using different preservative levels packed in different packaging materials and stored at
ambient and cold storage was studied. The data regarding chemical composition revealed that there was
increase in TSS, acidity, total sugars, reducing sugars while pH, ascorbic acid, decreased in all treatment
combination of juice during 180d of storage. The sensory scores viz., colour, flavour, taste and overall
acceptability of juice during 180d of storage was decreased in all treatment combination. The microbial
quality viz., yeast and mould count were found to be increased during 180d of storage. The microbial
growth was observed within acceptable level in all treatment combination of juice stored in cold storage
and 350 ppm sodium benzoate treated juice packed in glass bottle stored in ambient conditions (T7).
The Nagpur mandarin juice could be stored for 180d at cold storage (5±2°C) by using 350ppm sodium
benzoate packed in glass bottles (T16, S2P3B1) followed by juice packed in PET bottles (T17, S2P3B2)
was found to be superior in respect of chemical composition, sensory evolution and microbial quality.
Key Words: Chemical Composition, Juice, Mandarin, Nagpur, Orange, Packaging, Sensory Evaluation,
Quality.

INTRODUCTION These properties are due to the phyto- vitamins and

Mandarin orange (Citrus reticulata Blanco) is nutrients present in the citrus fruits (Aslin, 2014).
one of the most popular citrus fruit having attractive Nagpur mandarin orange is the most important
bright colour, appealing taste and flavour, also commercial cultivars containing abundant juice,
known as the mandarin, kinnow. In Maharashtra, 4 to 11 seed (Chattopadhyay, 2007). Presently,
mandarin is grown in an area of 1.35 lakh ha area 95 per cent of the production goes for fresh fruit
with the production of 7.425 lakh MT with the market. It is notable that due to poor post-harvest
productivity of 5.5 MT per hectare (Anonymous, infrastructure, wastage of mandarin is around 25-
2015). Mandarin orange, a world famous cultivar 30 per cent and that only 5 per cent of the total
popularly known as Nagpur Santra is the main cash production is processed presently (Anonymous,
and fruit crop is grown on a large scale in Amravati 2015). Therefore, the present investigation was
and Nagpur division of Maharashtra and famous carried out to study the storage behavior of juice
for its taste and quality (Bhargavaramireddy and prepared from Nagpur mandarin orange.
Balakrishnan, 2014). A single orange is said to have
about 170 phyto nutrients and over 60 flavonoids MATERIALS AND METHODS
with anti-cancer, anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, Juice preparation
blood clot inhibiting and antioxidant properties. Fully ripened, mature, fresh and sound fruits
Corresponding Author’s Email:vikramkad2014@gmail.com
1
M. Sc Student of Fruit Science, 2Assistant Professor of Agril. Process Engineering,
3
Professor of Horticulture and 4Assistant Professor of Horticulture

227 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 227-233

 Faizi et al
were procured from Nagpur mandarin orange
growers located in Ahmednagar district of
Maharashtra for preparation of juice. The fruits were
washed with tap cold water and then removed the
peel manually. The juice of mandarin orange was
extracted by using screw type pulper. The peeled
fruits were fed into juice extractor. The juice and
the pomace were separated and collected separately
in two outlets. The juice was filtered through a clean
muslin cloth. The extracted juice was pasteurized
at 65°C for 15min by adding sodium benzoate as
a preservative. Then, at that temperature juice was
filled in the pre-sterilized 200 mL glass bottles, 200
mL pet bottles, 200mL stand pouches and sealed
with crown cork and pouch sealer. All packed juice
samples were sterilized. The sterilized packed juice
was stored at ambient (19.80-27.60°C and 43.00-
70.60% R.H.) and cold (5±2°C and 92-95% R.H.)
condition for a period of 180d.
Observations recorded
Physical parameters of fresh mandarin fruit
The physical parameters such as fruit weight
(g), peel weight (g), seed weight (g), juice weight
(g), pomace weight (g), peel thickness (cm), fruit
length (cm), fruit breadth (cm) and segment (pcs)
were recorded.
Chemical analysis
The chemical parameters such as TSS, titratable
acidity, pH, ascorbic acid (vitamin C), total sugars
and reducing sugars were determined by the
standard method as suggested by A.O.A.C. (1990)
and Ranganna (2005).

Experimental detail
The experimental details were shown below for preparation and storage of juice.
1. Crop :
Mandarin Orange
2. Variety :
Nagpur Orange
3. Design :
Factorial Complete Randomized Design (FCRD)
4. Replications :
Three
5. Storage :
Ambient Storage (S1) and Cold Storage (5±2oC) (S2)
6. Preservative Levels :
Sodium Benzoate: 150 (P1), 250 (P2), 350 ppm (P3)
7. Packaging :
Glass Bottles (200 mL) (B1), Pet Bottles (200 mL) (B2), Stand
Pouch (200 mL) (B3)
8. No. of Treatment Combi- : 2x3x3 =18
nations
9. Treatment detail
Treatment Treatment Combinations Treatment Treatment Combinations
TI S1P1B1 T10 S2P1B1
T2 S1P1B2 T11 S2P1B2
T3 S1P1B3 T12 S2P1B3
T4 S1P2B1 T13 S2P2B1
T5 S1P2B2 T14 S2P2B2
T6 S1P2B3 T15 S2P2B3
T7 S1P3B1 T16 S2P3B1
T8 S1P3B2 T17 S2P3B2
T9 S1P3B3 T18 S2P3B3

228 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 227-233

 Storage Behavior of Juice
Sensory evaluation into monosaccharide and oligosaccharides during
For assessing sensory quality attributes, storage. The results were in agreement with the
evaluation was carried by panel of 8-10 judges by research work carried out by Obenland et al (2011)
using 9-point hedonic scale as given by Amerine et on mandarin juice; Pareek et al (2011) on Nagpur
al (1979) and Ranganna (2005). mandarin juice.
Microbial quality 2. Acidity (%)
The microbial (yeast and mould) analysis of The acidity of Nagpur mandarin juice was
Nagpur mandarin juice was carried out as suggested found to be statistically not significant up to 90d
by Adedeji and Oluwana (2013). of storage period afterward found to be significant
(Table 1). The minimum acidity was recorded in
Statistical analysis S2P3B1 (0.62 to 0.73 %) followed by S2P3B2
The experiments were planned and carried out (0.62 to 0.74%) during 180 days of storage. The
using Factorial Completely Randomized Design acidity increased during storage might be due to
(FCRD) with three replications for the statistical decrease in pH, degradation of pectic substances
significance according to the procedure given by into soluble solids and release of acid from juice
Panse and Sukhatme (1985). particles. The results were in agreement with the
research work carried out by Pareek et al (2011) on
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Nagpur mandarin juice.
Physico-chemical composition of fresh fruit
The data revealed that the fresh Nagpur 3. Ascorbic acid (mg per 100 mL)
mandarin had 128.8 g fruit weight, 19.59 g peel The ascorbic acid of Nagpur mandarin juice was
weight (15.21%), 3.10 g seed weight (2.41%), 68.39 found to be statistically significant. The maximum
g juice weight (53.09%), 37.72g pomace weight ascorbic acid was recorded in S2P3B1 (from 43.46
(29.29%), 0.24 cm peel thickness, 5.6 cm fruit to 35.21 mg/100mL) followed by S2P3B2 (from
length, 6.21 cm fruit breath, 11 pieces of segments, 43.46 to 34.23 mg/100mL) during 180 days of
10.720B total soluble solids, 0.621 per cent acidity, storage. The decrease in ascorbic acid content might
3.89 pH, 43.46 mg/100 mL ascorbic acid, 9.68 per be due to oxidation of ascorbic acid, oxidation of
cent total sugars and 3.89 per cent reducing sugars. ascorbic acid by enzymes and various treatments
Similar results were also recorded by Verma et al applied, conversion of L-ascorbic acid into dihydro
(2012) in Nagpur mandarin. ascorbic acid oxidase (ascorbinase) because of
heat processing and the presence of air at the head
Chemical composition of Nagpur mandarin space of packaging materials. Similar results were
juice during storage also reported by Bhardwaj and Mukherjee (2011)
1. Total soluble solids (TSS) (˚B) in kinnow mandarin juice and Bhardwaj and Lal
The Total soluble solids (TSS) content of (2013) in kinnow mandarin juice.
Nagpur mandarin juice were found to be increased 4 . Total sugars (%)
significantly in all treatment combinations (Table 1). The total sugars content of juice was increased
The minimum TSS was recorded in S2P3B1 (10.72 significantly with advancement of storage (Table 1).
to11.73°B) followed by S2P3B2 (10.72 to 11.87°B) The minimum increase in total sugars was recorded
during 180d of storage. The TSS content of juice in S2P3B1 from 9.68 to 11.17 per cent followed
increased might be due to reduction of moisture by S2P3B2 from 9.68 to 11.30 per cent during
content, conversion of insoluble carbohydrates into 180d of storage. The maximum total sugars were
soluble sugars and hydrolysis of polysaccharides recorded in S1P1B3 from 9.68 to 11.69 per cent

229 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 227-233

 Faizi et al
followed by S1P1B2 from 9.68 to 11.55 per cent
during 90d of storage period and afterward spoiled.
The total sugars during storage were found to be
increased which might be due to loss of moisture or
due to conversion of starch and carbohydrates into
sugars, hydrolysis of polysaccharides (like pectin,
cellulose and starch) into monosaccharide and
oligosaccharides, inactivation of enzymes which are
responsible for decreasing acidity and conversion
of polysaccharides into simple sugars. The results
were in agreement with the research work carried
out by Bhardwaj and Mukherjee (2011) in kinnow
mandarin juice; Pareek et al (2011) on Nagpur
mandarin juice.
Sensory evaluation of Nagpur mandarin juice
during storage
The colour, flavor, taste and overall acceptabilitytreatment. The treatment T16 (S2P3B1) was found
score of Nagpur mandarin juice was found to be
decreased statistically during 180d of storage which
might be due to oxidation, storage time, temperature, by T17 (S2P3B2). The cost of preparation for 1litre
oxygen content, light exposure, packaging materials
sorption or chemical contamination and changes in
volatile compounds of beverages. (Table 2). The
highest scores in overall acceptability was recorded
in S2P3B1 from 8.12 to 7.57 followed by S2P3B2
from 8.02 to 7.44 during 180d of storage. The
similar results were also observed by Bhardwaj and
Mukherjee (2011) in kinnow mandarin juice and A.O.A.C. (1990). Official methods of analysis. 15th edition.
Obenland et al (2011) in mandarin juice.
Microbial quality (yeast and mould) of Nagpur
mandarin juice during storage
The microbial detection was within the
acceptable level (less than 2.00 colony forming unit
per mL) in all treatment combinations at ambient
storage up to 90d and at cold storage up to 180d
in juice. The microbial growth was found to be
within acceptable level in the juice which might
be due to acid environment, chemical preservative,
packaging materials maintained the juice at a safe
level and has prevented microbial growth. Similar
results reported by Ogodo et al (2016) on different
fruit juices grown in Nigeria.
230 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 227-233
CONCLUSION
The storage behavior of juice extracted by
screw type pulper using different preservative
levels packed in different packaging materials and
stored at ambient and cold storage was studied.
The data regarding chemical composition revealed
that, there was increase in TSS, acidity, total
sugars, reducing sugars while pH, ascorbic acid
decreased in all treatment combination of juice
during 180d of storage. During sensory evaluation,
decrease was observed in colour, flavour, taste,
overall acceptability score of juice during 180d of
storage. The microbial quality viz. yeast and mould
count were found to be increased during 180d of
storage. The microbial growth was observed within
acceptable level in all treatment combination of
juice in cold storage and T7at ambient condition
to be superior in respect of chemical composition,
sensory evolution and microbial quality followed
juice from Nagpur mandarin fruits was found to
be Rs. 104.92 for best treatment combination of
S2P3B1 i.e. juice could be stored at cold storage
using 350 ppm preservative and packed in glass
bottles.
REFERECES
Association of Analytical Chemists. Washington. D.C.
Amerine M A, Pangborn R M and Roesseler E B (1979).
Principles of sensory evaluation of food. Academic press,
New York., pp. 349-397.
Anonymous ( 2015). Indian Horticulture Database. National
Horticulture Board, Ministry of Agriculture, Government
of India, Gurgaon, INDIA., pp. 2-3.
Adedeji T O and Oluwalana, I B (2013). Physico-chemical,
Sensory and Microbial Analysis of Wine Produced from
Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) and Pawpaw (Carica
papaya) Blend. Food Sci and Quality Manage 19: 2224-
6088.
Aslin S A (2014). Role of Citrus Fruits in Health. J Pharm Sci
& Res 6(2): 121-123.
 Table 1. Chemical composition of Nagpur mandarin Juice during 180 days of storage.

231
Particulars Storage Treatment
period
(days)
    T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 T13 T14 T15 T16 T17 T18 SE. m(±) CD @ 5% CD @ 1%
Total Soluble Solid 0B
  30 11.93 12.03 12.15 11.58 11.62 11.86 11.50 11.54 11.79 11.33 11.41 11.42 11.02 11.16 11.31 10.75 10.89 11.22 0.0115 0.0331 0.0444
  60 12.00 12.10 12.22 11.65 11.69 11.93 11.57 11.61 11.86 11.40 11.48 11.49 11.09 11.23 11.38 10.82 10.96 11.29 0.0133 0.0381 0.0511
  90 12.19 12.29 12.41 11.78 11.87 12.11 11.70 11.74 12.04 11.56 11.61 11.62 11.25 11.39 11.54 10.98 11.12 11.45 0.0150 0.0431 0.0579
  120 12.21 * * 11.89 11.90 12.12 11.83 11.83 12.06 11.67 11.73 11.76 11.42 11.54 11.66 11.20 11.32 11.60 0.0169 0.0484 0.0649
  150 * * * 12.30 * * 12.22 12.26 * 12.05 12.13 12.14 11.73 11.87 12.03 11.46 11.60 11.94 0.0160 0.0460 0.0616
  180 * * * * * * 12.48 * * 12.31 12.39 12.40 12.00 12.14 12.29 11.73 11.87 12.20 0.0168 0.0481 0.0645
Acidity %
  30 0.65 0.65 0.66 0.64 0.64 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.63 0.0116 NS NS
  60 0.75 0.76 0.77 0.71 0.73 0.74 0.70 0.71 0.73 0.69 0.69 0.70 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.63 0.65 0.68 0.0162 NS NS
  90 0.77 0.78 0.79 0.73 0.74 0.76 0.72 0.73 0.75 0.71 0.72 0.72 0.68 0.69 0.71 0.65 0.66 0.70 0.0167 NS NS
  120 0.79 * * 0.75 0.76 0.78 0.74 0.75 0.77 0.73 0.74 0.74 0.70 0.71 0.73 0.67 0.68 0.72 0.0174 0.0500 0.0670
  150 * * * 0.78 * * 0.77 0.77 * 0.75 0.76 0.76 0.72 0.74 0.75 0.70 0.71 0.74 0.0174 0.0500 0.0671
  180 * * * * * * 0.80 * * 0.79 0.80 0.80 0.76 0.77 0.79 0.73 0.74 0.78 0.0168 0.0481 0.0646
Ascorbic Acid mg/100mL
  30 28.25 27.30 26.34 31.98 31.08 29.16 33.78 32.88 30.07 36.55 35.63 34.70 40.28 39.30 37.47 42.24 41.26 38.40 0.0167 0.0480 0.0644
  60 27.95 26.00 25.04 30.68 29.78 27.86 32.48 31.58 28.77 35.25 34.33 33.40 38.98 38.00 36.17 40.94 39.96 36.10 0.0219 0.0629 0.0844
  90 24.60 24.65 23.69 29.33 28.43 26.51 31.13 30.23 27.42 33.90 32.98 32.05 37.63 36.65 34.82 39.59 38.61 35.30 0.0248 0.0712 0.0955
  120 24.20 * * 27.93 27.03 25.11 29.73 28.83 26.02 32.50 31.58 30.65 36.23 35.25 33.42 38.19 37.21 34.35 0.0267 0.0765 0.1026
  150 * * * 26.48 * * 28.28 27.38 * 31.05 30.13 29.20 34.78 33.80 31.97 36.74 35.76 32.90 0.0264 0.0757 0.1015
Storage Behavior of Juice

  180 * * * * * * 26.75 * * 29.52 28.60 27.67 33.25 32.27 30.44 35.21 34.23 31.37 0.0271 0.0778 0.1043

J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 227-233

Total Sugars %
  30 11.01 11.11 11.25 10.66 10.70 10.94 10.59 10.63 10.87 10.42 10.50 10.51 10.11 10.25 10.40 9.86 9.99 10.31 0.0125 0.0358 0.0480
  60 11.22 11.32 11.46 10.87 10.91 11.15 10.80 10.84 11.08 10.63 10.71 10.72 10.32 10.46 10.61 10.07 10.20 10.52 0.0162 0.0464 0.0622
  90 11.55 11.55 11.69 11.10 11.14 11.38 11.03 11.07 11.31 10.86 10.94 10.95 10.55 10.69 10.84 10.30 10.43 10.84 0.0214 0.0613 0.0822
  120 11.71 * * 11.36 11.40 11.64 11.29 11.33 11.57 11.12 11.20 11.21 10.81 10.95 11.10 10.56 10.69 11.01 0.0234 0.0671 0.0900
  150 * * * 11.64 * * 11.57 11.61 * 11.40 11.48 11.49 11.09 11.23 11.38 10.84 10.97 11.29 0.0226 0.0649 0.0870
  180 * * * * * * 11.90 * * 11.73 11.81 11.82 11.42 11.56 11.71 11.17 11.30 11.62 0.0232 0.0666 0.0894
 Table 2. Sensory parameters of Nagpur mandarin Juice during 180 days of storage.

232
Particu- S t o r -  
lars age pe-
riod
(days) Treatment
    T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 T13 T14 T15 T16 T17 T18 SE. CD @ CD @
m(±) 5% 1%
Color
  0 5.29 5.17 5.07 5.89 5.82 5.38 6.57 6.11 5.54 6.87 6.73 6.64 7.66 7.53 6.98 7.98 7.85 7.23 0.0470 0.1340 NS
  30 4.20 3.92 3.91 4.85 4.81 4.55 5.72 4.90 4.78 6.15 5.87 5.74 7.60 7.47 6.50 7.92 7.79 6.63 0.0510 0.1470 0.1980
  60 3.40 3.05 2.90 4.69 4.50 3.53 5.63 4.82 4.37 6.06 5.78 5.65 7.51 7.38 6.41 7.83 7.70 6.54 0.0550 0.1590 0.2130
  90 3.38 3.03 2.88 4.67 4.48 3.51 5.57 4.80 4.35 6.00 5.72 5.59 7.45 7.32 6.35 7.77 7.64 6.48 0.0690 0.1990 0.2660
  120 2.85 * * 3.74 3.61 2.98 5.50 4.58 3.26 5.93 5.65 5.52 7.38 7.25 6.28 7.70 7.57 6.41 0.0870 0.2500 0.3350
  150 * * * 2.83 * * 5.42 3.85 * 5.85 5.57 5.44 7.30 7.17 6.20 7.62 7.49 6.33 0.0990 0.2840 0.3810
  180 * * * * * * 5.36 * * 5.79 5.51 5.38 7.24 7.11 6.14 7.56 7.43 6.27 0.1200 0.3460 0.4630
Flavor
  0 5.81 6.53 6.37 6.73 6.69 6.36 6.91 6.84 6.48 7.67 7.39 6.93 8.03 7.90 7.73 8.35 8.22 7.82 0.0468 0.1341 0.1799
  30 5.19 4.91 4.90 5.84 5.80 5.54 6.06 5.89 5.77 6.49 6.21 6.08 7.94 7.81 6.84 8.26 8.13 6.97 0.0514 0.1474 0.1976
  60 4.39 4.04 3.89 5.68 5.49 4.52 5.98 5.81 5.36 6.41 6.13 6.00 7.86 7.73 6.76 8.18 8.05 6.89 0.0554 0.1590 0.2132
  90 4.37 2.79 2.67 5.66 5.47 4.50 5.87 5.79 5.34 6.30 6.02 5.89 7.75 7.62 6.65 8.07 7.94 6.78 0.0693 0.1987 0.2665
Faizi et al

  120 2.84 * * 4.73 3.60 2.97 5.83 4.79 3.25 6.26 5.98 5.85 7.71 7.58 6.61 8.03 7.90 6.74 0.0871 0.2498 0.3350
  150 * * * 3.82 * * 5.73 3.96 * 6.16 5.88 5.75 7.61 7.48 6.51 7.93 7.80 6.64 0.0990 0.2839 0.3807
  180 * * * * * * 5.59 * * 6.02 5.74 5.61 7.47 7.34 6.37 7.79 7.66 6.50 0.1205 0.3456 0.4634
Taste
  0 5.82 5.60 5.53 6.86 6.79 6.26 7.14 6.91 6.63 7.49 7.43 7.38 7.96 7.90 7.78 8.03 8.00 7.81 0.0470 NS NS
  30 3.91 3.63 3.62 4.56 4.52 4.26 5.76 4.61 4.49 6.19 5.91 5.78 7.64 7.51 6.54 7.96 7.83 6.67 0.0510 0.1470 0.1980
  60 3.11 2.76 2.61 4.40 4.21 3.24 5.67 4.53 4.08 6.10 5.82 5.69 7.55 7.42 6.45 7.87 7.74 6.58 0.0550 0.1590 0.2130
  90 3.09 2.74 2.59 4.38 4.19 3.22 5.57 4.51 4.06 6.00 5.72 5.59 7.45 7.32 6.35 7.77 7.64 6.48 0.0690 0.1990 0.2660
  120 2.56 * * 3.45 3.32 2.69 5.53 4.29 2.97 5.96 5.68 5.55 7.41 7.28 6.31 7.73 7.60 6.44 0.0870 0.2500 0.3350
  150 * * * 2.54 * * 5.34 3.56 * 5.77 5.49 5.36 7.22 7.09 6.12 7.54 7.41 6.25 0.0990 0.2840 0.3810
  180 * * * * * * 5.17 * * 5.60 5.32 5.19 7.05 6.92 5.95 7.37 7.24 6.08 0.1200 0.3460 0.4630
 Storage Behavior of Juice
Bhargavaramireddy C H and Balakrishnan N (2014). Effect of
0.1980 soil CaCO3 correlation study on soil attributes, yield and
0.2130
0.2660
0.3350
0.3810
0.4630
NS

quality parameters of Nagpur Mandarin. Trends in Biosci

7 (21): 3364-3368.
Bhardwaj R L and Mukherjee S (2011). Effects of fruit juice
0.1470
0.1590
0.1990
0.2500
0.2840
0.3460
NS

blending ratios on kinnow juice preservation at ambient

storage condition. African J Food Sci 5(5): 281- 286.
Bhardwaj, Lal R (2013). Physico chemical, sensory and
0.0510
0.0550
0.0690
0.0870
0.0990
0.1200
0.502

microbiological quality of Kinnow juice stored in

refrigerated storage condition. Asian J Dairy & Food Res
32 (3): 203-213.
7.62
6.76
6.67
6.58
6.53
6.41
6.28

Pareek S, Paliwal R and Mukherjee S (2011). Effect of juice

8.02
7.92
7.83
7.74
7.69
7.57
7.44

extraction methods and processing temperature-time on

juice quality of Nagpur mandarin during storage. J food
8.12
8.05
7.96
7.87
7.82
7.70
7.57

Sci Technol 48(2):197- 203.

PanseV G and Sukhatme P V (1985). Statistical Methods of
7.50
6.63
6.54
6.45
6.40
6.28
6.15

Agricultural Workers, ICAR, New Delhi, pp. 143-147.

7.78
7.60
7.51
7.42
7.37
7.25
7.12

Ranganna, S. 2005. Handbook of analysis and quality control

for fruits and vegetable products. 2nd Edn. Tata McGraw
Hill. Publ. Co., Ltd., New Delhi, India.
7.88
7.73
7.64
7.55
7.50
7.38
7.25

Obenland D, Collin S, Mackey B, Sievert J, Arpaia M L

(2011). Storage temperature and time influences sensory
6.98
5.87
5.78
5.69
5.64
5.52
5.39

quality of mandarins by altering soluble solids, acidity

and aroma volatile composition. Post Harvest Bio and
7.18
6.00
5.91
5.82
5.77
5.65
5.52

Tech 59: 187–193.

7.34
6.28
6.19
6.10
6.05
5.93
5.80

Ogodo A C, Ugbogu O C, Ekeleme U G and Nwachukwu N O

(2016). Microbial quality of commercially packed fruit
6.22
5.01
4.60
4.58
3.16

juices in South-East Nigeria. J Basic and Applied Res

*
*

2(3): 240-245.
6.62
5.13
5.05
5.03
4.55
3.79
*

Verma S, prerak B, Aruna Y (2012). Physico chemical, yield

and yield attributing characteristics of Nagpur mandarin
6.87
5.85
5.76
5.67
5.62
5.50
5.37

orchard surveyed in Jhalawar District of Rajasthan. Asian

J Hort 2: 237- 441.
6.00
4.78
3.76
3.74
2.88
*
*

Received on 07/10/2018 Accepted on 12/01/2019

6.43
5.04
4.73
4.71
3.51
*
*
6.49
5.08
4.92
4.90
3.97
3.06
*
5.66
4.14
3.13
2.71
*
*
*
5.77
4.15
3.28
2.85
*
*
*
5.83
4.43
3.63
3.61
2.75

*= spoiled treatment
*
*
Overall Acceptability

120
150
180
30
60
90
0
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

233 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 227-233

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 234-238 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00038.2

Study on Menstruation and Hygiene Practices among Adolescent

girls in Urban Community
Deepa Amgoth1 and R Geetha Reddy2
Department of Home Science Extension and Communication Management, Hyderabad,
Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University, Telangana 500 004 (Telangana)

ABSTRACT
Adolescence is a transition period from childhood to adult life during which pubertal development and sexual
maturation take place, thus making physiological development a challenge adolescents have to face. There is
a substantial lacuna in the knowledge towards menstruation among adolescent girls; hence, an attempt was
made to study menstruation and personal hygiene among adolescent girls of urban locality. Ex post facto
research design was used for the study. The locale of the study was Jadcherla town of Mahabubnagar district
in Telangana State. Sample size of 30 adolescent school going girls of age group 12 to 16 yrs. was purposively
selected. Structured questionnaire was used to examine the existing knowledge and hygiene practices
regarding menstruation. Frequency and percentage were used to analyse the collected data. Results revealed
that prior information about menstruation before its attainment was available to 80 per cent of the adolescent
girls in the present study. About 93 per cent of the respondents use sanitary pads during their periods which
show good hygiene practice during menstruation. About 67 per cent of the respondents do not have knowledge
about the organ from where bleeding occurs. Hence, awareness needs to be given to the respondents.
Key Words: Adolescence, Hygiene practices, Menstruation, Menarche, Pads, Periods, Taboos.

INTRODUCTION interrupted by menstruation. It ensures that you can

Adolescence is regarded, as a unique phase of continue with your daily routine such as going to
human development. It is a transitional phase of school, going to work or doing household chores.
growth and development between childhood and In this sense, maintaining proper menstrual hygiene
adulthood. In India, limited access to products of is important for your wellbeing and development.
sanitary hygiene and lack of safe sanitary facilities The present investigation was undertaken to study
could increase the likelihood of resorting to the profile characteristics, existing knowledge
unhygienic practices to manage menstruation. All about menstruation and menstrual health practices
myths and taboos such as not taking bath, avoiding followed by adolescent girls.
hot and cold foods, avoiding exercise, have no
scientific support, and need to be eliminated to release MATERIALS AND METHODS
menstruation anxiety among girls. An adolescent An ex-post facto research design was opted for
girl should be made aware of the phenomenon of the study in the urban area of Mahabubnagar district
menstruation before menarche, so as to enable her in Telangana state. The locale of the study was
to accept it as a normal developmental process and Jadcherla town of Mahabubnagar district. In this
manage it appropriately. study, samples comprising of 30 adolescent school
Menstrual hygiene and management can be going girls were selected falling in the age group of
essential in ensuring that your everyday life is not 12-16 yr. The respondents were of 9 and 10 std. of
th th

Kakatiya Techno School. Structured questionnaire

Corresponding Author’s Email: deepanaikamgoth@gmail.com
1
M.Sc Scholar; 2Professor and Head, Department of Home Science Extension and Communication Management, Hyderabad, Professor
Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University, Telangana, India. rgeethareddy16@gmail.com

234 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 234-238

 Amgoth and Reddy
was used by the investigator which included Table 1. Profile of the respondents.
general profile characteristics of the respondents.
Sr. Variable Respondents
The questionnaire had two areas which consist No. (N=30)
of existing knowledge regarding menstruation Number %
and hygiene practices during menstruation of the
1. Age
adolescent girls. Frequency and percentage were
12-13 yr. 8 27
used to analyse the collected data.
14 yr. 13 43
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 15-16 yr. 9 30
2. Type of family
Socio economic profile of the respondents
Nuclear 27 90
Majority 43 per cent of the adolescent girls
were in the age of 14 yr. The nuclear families of Joint 3 10
the respondents were 90 per cent and about 53 per 3. Income levels (Rs.)
cent of the respondents comprised of high income. Low(Below 60,000) 11 37
This factor may have an impact on the knowledge Medium(60,000-1,00,000) 3 10
and management of the situation in adolescent girls High(Above 1,00,000) 16 53
(Table 1). 4. Caste
It was observed that about 67 per cent of the Backward Caste 15 50
respondents did not have knowledge about the Scheduled Caste 1 3
organ from where bleeding occurs and 83 per cent Scheduled Tribe 1 3
of the respondents received prior information before Other Caste 13 44
menarche from their mothers (80 %). Hema et al Similarly, Ejik et al (2016) investigated on menstrual
(2017) studied about menstrual hygiene and related hygiene management among adolescent girls in
personal hygiene practices among adolescent girls India and concluded that strengthening of Menstrual
in rural Puducherry and reported that majority Health management (MHM) programmes in India
(89.2%) of the adolescent girls were using sanitary was needed. Education on awareness, access to
pads whereas 65.3 per cent girls changed their hygienic absorbents and disposal of MHM items
soaked absorbent 2-5 times in a day and unhygienic need to be addressed.
practices were noticed.
From the data (Table 3), it was observed that
Vyas et al (2017) investigated nutritional status about 77per cent of the adolescent girls received
and personal hygiene among adolescent girls menarche by the age of 12-14 yr. Majority (87%)
of rural Bikaner and revealed that anaemia was of the adolescent girls had regular menstrual cycle
common problem among adolescent girls in rural and 77per cent of the girls had normal flow of
area. However, the personal hygiene was good menstruation. About 93per cent of the adolescent
among adolescent girls. Kartik et al (2016) studied girls have 2-7 days of menstruation which showed
about knowledge and practices regarding menstrual that the respondents were healthy. About 93per
hygiene among urban adolescent girls in Bangalore. cent of the girls used sanitary pads as menstrual
They reported that 69 per cent of adolescent girls absorbent material but 70 per cent threw the used
were using sanitary napkins as menstrual absorbent menstrual absorbent in dustbin which showed that
but there is a need to equip the adolescent girls the urban living respondents were aware of good
with knowledge regarding safe, hygienic practices practices during menstruation.
to enable them to lead a healthy reproductive life.

235 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 234-238

 Study on Menstruation and Hygiene Practices
Table 2.Existing knowledge about menstruation among adolescent girls.
Sr. No. Variable Respondents (N=30)
Number Percentage
1. Knowledge of organ from where bleeding occurs
Uterus 4 13
Kidney - -
Bladder 3 10
Stomach 3 10
Do not know 20 67
2. Menstrual blood contains dangerous substances
Yes 7 23
No 23 77
3. Pregnant women menstruate
Yes 3 10
No 27 90
4. Received any information prior menarche
Yes 25 83
No 5 17
5. Source of information (before menarche)
Mother 24 80
Sister 1 3
Friends and relatives 4 14
Teachers 1 3

Table 3. Menstrual health practices among adolescent girls.

Sr. No. Variable Respondents (N=30)
Number Percentage

1. Age at menarche
<12 yr. 5 17
12-14 yr. 23 77
>14 yr. 2 6
2. Menstrual cycle
Regular 26 87
Irregular 4 13
3. Duration of menstrual flow in days
<2 2 7
2-7 28 93
>7 - -

236 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 234-238

 Amgoth and Reddy

4. Amount of menstruation
Scanty 3 10
Normal 23 77
Excess 4 3
5. Passage of clots
Yes 11 37
No 19 63
6. Experience at Menarche
Confusing 9 30
Expectant 12 40
Frightened 9 30
7. Type of absorbent used during menstruation
Pads 28 93
Fresh cloth 2 7
Reusable cloth - -
8. Number of times absorbent changed (per day)
<2 times 12 40
2-5 times 7 23
>5 times 1 3
As per need 10 34
9. Daily bath
Yes 28 93
No 2 7
10. Disposal of used menstrual absorbent
Dust bin 21 70
Wash and reuse - -
Burn/ bury 6 20
Flush in toilet 3 10
11. Cleaning of genital area (per day)
<3 times 7 23
>3 times 18 60
During bath 3 10
During micturition 2 7
12. Agent used for cleaning purpose
Only water 8 27
Soap and water 16 53
Dettol 6 20
Others - -
13. Sharing of information about your menstrual health
Mother 20 67

237 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 234-238

 Study on Menstruation and Hygiene Practices

Sister 3 10
Friend 7 23
Teacher - -
Other - -
14. In a normal month days missed during period
I don’t miss 22 73
<2 6 20
2-4 2 7
>4 - -

CONCLUSION adolescent school girls, certain components are not

The main problematic areas identified in this being practiced. Strategies such as access to water,
study were poor knowledge of menstruation, and sanitation, hygiene of external genitalia and access
hygiene practice in few areas like burning and to covered toilets are still deficient and it plays a
burying of the absorbent used during menstruation major role to adopt safe practices.
and even few respondents did not change the
absorbent frequently. This study has highlighted REFERENCES
the need of adolescent girls to have accurate and Ejik V A M , Sivakami M, Thakkar M B, Bauman A, Laserson
adequate knowledge about menstruation and its K F, Coates S and Howard P A P(2016). Menstrual
hygiene management among adolescent girls in India: a
appropriate hygiene management. Formal as well systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open 2016; 6:
as informal channels of communication such as e010290. doi: 10.1136/ bmjopen-2015-010290
mothers, sisters and friends need to be emphasized Hema P S, Nandi P, Seetharaman N, Ramya M R, Nishanthini
for the delivery of such knowledge. N and Lokeshmaran A(2017). A study of menstrual
Menstrual health is an important part of life hygiene and related personal hygiene practices among
adolescent girls in rural Puducherry. Int J of Commu Med
cycle approach to women’s health, so loud and and Public Health 4 (7): 2348-2355.
clear messages and services on this issue must reach
Kartik R, Sahana G, Aadarsh E, Srikrishna Y(2016). A study
adolescent girls. Schools should be another entry on knowledge and practices regarding menstrual hygiene
point for improving menstrual health by integrating among urban adolescent girls. Int J Contemp Pediatr
menstrual hygiene into curriculum. Education has 3(1):142-145.
been the key stone in propagating menstrual hygiene Vyas B L, Renu S, Rekha A (2017). A study of nutritional
practices. Although there is repeated sensitization status and personal hygiene among adolescent girls
and reinforcement of all these components among of rural Bikaner. Int J Community Med Public Health
4(9):3413-3415.
Received on 26/01/2019 Accepted on 15/03/2019

238 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 234-238

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 239-242 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00039.4

Study on the Adoption Status of Vocational Training Course on

Garment Construction and Enrichment among Rural Women
Manjot Kaur and Kanwaljit Kaur
Department of Extension Education and Communication Management,
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 141 004 (Punjab)

ABSTRACT
The study was carried out during the year 2017 to assess the adoption status of practices imparted under
thirteen long duration vocational training courses on Garment construction and enrichment conducted by
different Krishi Vigyan Kendras of Punjab. Out of total 207 trainees, a sample of 54 trainees was drawn by
applying probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling method and data were collected personally from
the selected trainees by using an interview schedule. The findings of the study revealed that hundred per cent
trainees adopted the practice on material selection before garment construction, washing the clothes according
to the instructions given by firm and stain removing techniques imparted under garment construction and
enrichment training course, hence had highest adoption status whereas, practice on hand embroidery on
clothes had lowest adoption status. Lack of time and difficulty of task were the major reasons for non-
adoption. Maximum number of enterprises was established by the trainees of Krishi Vigyan Kendra Bathinda.
Key Words: Adoption Status, Enterprise, Extent of Adoption, Krishi Vigyan Kendras.

INTRODUCTION empowerment reported by Chappell and Vittorio

Garment construction and enrichment is
one of the avenues for self-employment as it
requires knowledge of basic education, minimum
infrastructure and moderate financial needs.
Although, it is a technical accomplishment, which
requires knowledge of fabrics, principle of clothing
construction and skills involved in it. Proficiency
in the art of cutting and tailoring is an essential
pre-requisite in clothing construction and it is very
important to know the techniques of cutting and
tailoring for producing attractive garments. Every
women needs to be economically independent
in order to improve the quality of her life. Skill
development among rural women is very good
idea for the enhancing family income of farming
families. Entrepreneurship is very good idea for
the growing employment among rural women.
It helps to generate employment for them within
their own social system (Bains and Mahajan,
2015). Employment in the apparel sector provides at randomly selected four KVKs i.e. Saheed Bhagat
numerous opportunities to support women’s Singh Nagar, Ferozepur, Hoshiarpur and Bathinda
Corresponding Author’s Email: manjot@pau.edu
(2006). Vocational training courses have definitely
relived the economic pressure to some extent but
their overall impact seems to be very little when
compared to the magnitude of unemployment
situation in rural areas (Singh et al, 2016). It is
essential that Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) be able
to follow the results of their efforts and understand
how the training they fit into the complex pattern of
socio economic status change in which all farm/rural
women participate (Panwar, 2017). Therefore, the
present study was conducted with the objectives to
assess the adoption status of the practices imparted
under training course on garment construction and
enrichment and to find out the relationship between
the socio-personal profiles of the trainees with
extent of adoption of practices by the trainees.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted during the year 2017

239 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 239-242

 Kaur and Kaur
Table 1. Number of Krishi Vigyan Kendras and participants selected for studying adoption program.
Session Name of the KVK Total no. of VTCs conducted on Total no. of Selected trainees
garment construction trainees (25%)
SBS Nagar 2 35 9
Ferozepur 4 68 17
2009-13 Hoshiarpur 3 50 12
Bathinda 4 64 16
Total 13 217 54

as these KVKs conducted thirteen long duration commonly imparted eleven practices under this
training courses on garment construction and course was as discussed below:
enrichment from year 2009 to 2013. The list of 207
women trainees who had attended the vocational Material selection before garment construction
training course (VTC’s) on garment construction The perusal of data (Table 2) indicated that
and enrichment was obtained from the selected all trainees had adopted the practice of material
Krishi Vigyan Kendras. From this list, twenty five selection. The reasons for the adoption as revealed
per cent of the trainees were selected by applying by the trainees were, it is relevant (46.30%), and it
the probability proportional to size technique. helps in selection of good fabric at a reasonable rate
Therefore, a total of 54 trainees comprised the (38.89%) and important step and basic requirement
sample for study (Table 1). Data were collected for garment construction (33.33%).
personally from the respondents (women trainees) Preparation of draft before cutting
by using an interview schedule. Practice of preparing a draft before cutting the
Adoption status refers to the relative position of fabric was adopted by only nine per cent of trainees
trained women regarding adoption, non-adoption, to make stitching procedure easy. Majority of the
discontinuance of practices related to garment trainees (72.22%) did not adopt this practice because
construction and enrichment imparted under trainee never felt the need of drafting (42.59%) and
vocational training courses. Two, one and zero other said (37.04%) it is not required. Whereas 18
scores were assigned to adopted, discontinued and per cent discontinued this practice because they
non-adopted practices respectively. Mean scores reported that they are now expert (14.81%) and
were calculated on the basis of assigned scores by remaining 3.70 per cent had discontinued stitching.
using following formula:
Washing the clothes according to the
Extent of adoption refers to the total numbers of instructions
recommended practices adopted by trained women The practice of washing the clothes according
under particular training course. One score was to the instructions given by firm was adopted by all
assigned to each adopted practice. the trainees. Major reason for the adoption of this
practice was it is important for long life of garment
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION reported by 72.20 per cent of trainees followed by
The data (Table 2) revealed the adoption status of 20.37 per cent said that they had adopted to avoid
practices/ technologies imparted under the training damage of garment during washing.
course on garment construction and enrichment at
Krishi Vigyan Kendra. It also covered the reasons Hand embroidery on clothes
for adoption, non-adoption and discontinuation A large majority of trainees (90.00%) did not
of a particular practice. The adoption status of adopt the practice of hand embroidery. The reasons
240 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 239-242
 Adoption Status of Vocational Training Course

Table 2. Adoption status of practices/activities imparted under VTC. n=54

Sr. Practice Adopted Discontinued Not Adopted Mean
No. Score
(0-2)
1. Material selection before garment construction 54(100) - - 2.00

2. Material preparation before cutting 37(68.52) 2(3.70) 15(27.78) 1.37

3. Care and Maintenance of Sewing Machine 37(68.52) 2(3.70) 15(27.78) 1.37
4. Use of basic stitches according to the requirement 37(68.52) 2(3.70) 15(27.78) 1.37
of design
5. Taking body measurements before cutting the 37(68.52) 2(3.70) 15(27.78) 1.37
fabric
6. Preparation of draft before cutting 5(9.26) 10(18.52) 39(72.22) 0.19
7. Designing of garments before cutting 37(68.52) 2(3.70) 15(27.78) 1.37
8. Stitching of garments 37(68.52) 2(3.70) 15(27.78) 1.37
9. Washing the clothes according to the instructions 54(100) - - 2.00
given by firm
10. Hand embroidery on clothes 5(9.26) - 49(90.74) 0.19
11. Stain removing techniques 54(100) - - 2.00
12. Adoption status of training course 1.33
*Multiple Responses (Reasons); Figure in the parenthesis represents the percentage
for its non-adoption were time consuming work stain removing techniques imparted under training
(90.70%), difficult task (64.81%). Only three per course on garment construction and enrichment had
cent of trainees had not adopted this practice due to adopted by all the trainees and obtained the highest
lack of marketing of products. Only nine per cent mean score (0.18) while practices on preparation of
of trainees had adopted this practice. They reported draft before cutting and hand embroidery on cloths
that they have their own interest (9.26%) and the obtained the lowest mean score (0.03).
equal percentage of trainees was earning good
money from it and they embroidered articles only Extent of adoption
on order of customers. It was observed from Table 3 that 68.52 per
cent of the respondents had high level of extent of
Stain removing techniques adoption while 31.48 per cent of the trainees had
All trainees had adopted the practice of stain low extent of adoption. Data revealed that not even
removing techniques because it is an important a single trainee had fallen in the medium level of
step before washing the clothes. Eighty seven extent of adoption.
per cent and 53.70 per cent of trainees expressed
reasons of adoption of this practice were to improve Annual increase in income of the respondents
the durability of clothes and for the clean look after starting an enterprise:
of clothes respectively. It can be concluded that The perusal of data in Table 4 indicated that
practices of material selection, washing the clothes out of the total 54 selected women trainees, only
according to the instructions given by firm and eight trainees (14.81 %) had started their own
entrepreneur after receiving training from respective

241 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 239-242

 Kaur and Kaur
Table 3. Distribution of the trainees based on the extent of adoption of practices. n=54
Sr. No Garment construction and enrichment Frequency Percentage
1. Low (1-4) 17 (31.48)
2. Medium (5-8) - -
3. High (9-12) 37 (68.52)

Krishi Vigyan Kendras on garment construction and the marketing component and linkages related to
enrichment. The data also revealed that out of the establishing an enterprise should be an integral part
eight trainees (who start their enterprise) 29.41 per of the training programme. Krishi Vigyan Kendra
cent stated that they had increased their income up officials should motivate the trainees to establish
to Rs. 60,000/- annum followed by 11.76 who had their enterprise by creating awareness regarding the
increase from Rs. 6001 to 120000/- while remaining market avenues.
5.88 per cent revealed that they had increased
their income from 120001 to 180000/-annum after REFERENCES
starting an enterprise. The results are supported Bains S and Mahajan S (2015). Entrepreneurship of
by Sidhu (2018). She revealed in her study that on rural women through micro enterprise development.
Contemporary Soc Sci 24 (4): 133-140.
an average net returns from garment construction
activity ranged from Rs. 2176/-to Rs. 2816/-month. Chappell D and Vittorio D M (2006). Violence and Work.
International Labour Organization. Retrieved from: www.
It was also observed from the data that ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/--
maximum number of enterprises was established -publ/ documents/publication/wcms_publ_9221108406_
by the trainees of KVK Bathinda while, not even a en.pdf.
single enterprise was established by the trainees of Panwar A S (2017). A Study on Impact of Vocational Training
Hoshiarpur Programme Conducted by KVK for Rural Women in
Khandwa Block of Khandwa District of M.P.M.Sc Thesis.
Rajmata Vijayaraje Scindia Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya,
CONCLUSION Gwalior.
It can be concluded that practice of hand Sidhu R K (2018). Economic analysis of garment construction
embroidery on clothes had lowest adoption status, enterprise adopted at house hold level by rural women of
ninety per cent trainees did not adopt it and major district Mansa. J Krishi Vigyan 7(1): 62-67.
reason of non-adoption of this practice was lack of Singh D V, Mukhi S K and Mishra S N (2016). Impact
marketing of the products. It was also found that of Vocational Training programme on income and
very few trainees had established an enterprise on employment generation towards the farmers. Int J Human
Soc Sci Invention 5 (2):71-77.
garment construction after receiving training from
respective KVKs. Therefore it is suggested that Received on 30/01/2019 Accepted on 26/02/2019

Table 4. Annual increase in income of the trainees after starting an enterprise.

Sr. No. Krishi Vigyan Kendras
Increase in income (Rs.)/ SBS Nagar Ferozepur Bathinda Hoshiarpur Total
annum (n1=36) (n2=17) (n3=16) (n4=50) f (%)
f f f f
1. Less than 60,000 1 1 3 - 5 (29.41)
2. 60,001-1,20,000 - - 2 - 2 (11.76)
3. 1,20,001-1,80,000 - - 1 - 1(5.88)

242 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 239-242

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 243-247 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00040.0

Suitability of Kharif Onion Varieties in Mahasamund

district of Chhattisgarh
Saket Dubey, Satish Verma, Kunal Chandrakar and Ravish Keshari
Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur- 492 006 (Chhattisgarh)

ABSTRACT
The study regarding suitability of various Kharif onion varieties was carried out in Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
Mahasamund farm during Kharif 2016-17. The experiment consisted of three varieties namely Bhima Super,
Bhima Shweta and Agrifound Dark Red was laid out in randomized block design with three replications. The
nursery beds 1m wide and 3m long were prepared and elevated up to 20 cm from ground levels. The study
revealed that plant height (57.81cm), number of leaves per plant (12.82), leaf length (50.04 cm),neck thickness
of the bulb (0.47 cm), total duration of the crop (211.43d), bulb weight (99.95 g) and bulb yield (272.42 q/ha)
were found to be highest in variety Agrifound Dark Red while bolting percentage (0.40 %), bulb to green
top ratio (1:0.17), double bulb (0.39 %) were found to be minimum in onion variety Agrifound Dark Red.
Key Words: Crop, Duration, Kharif, Onion, Suitability, Varieties, Yield.

INTRODUCTION production and to avoid such problem first of all the

Onion (Allium cepa L.) is one of the most
important bulbous crops of the Chhattisgarh, belongs
to family Amaryllidaceae. India is the second largest
producer of onion in the world and Maharashtra
is leading onion producing state in India and
contributing 32 percent of total onion production of
the country. In Chhattisgarh, it is grown on 25,091ha
area with a production of 4,15,465 MT (Anon,
2017). Onion is used as a vegetable as well as in the
form of a spices and condiment. Its green leaves,
immature and mature bulbs are eaten raw or used
in vegetable preparations. Its bulb has characteristic
odour, flavor and pungency which is due to sulphur
bearing compound in very small quantity (about
0.005%) in the volatile oil, allyl propyl disulphide
(C6H12O2). The colour of the outer skin of onion
bulbs is due to quercetin. Kharif onion production
has several advantages i.e. increases total production
to meet out the demand of fresh onion in the market
and have higher price as compared to main season
onion. There are different varieties which are grown
by the farmers in the rabi season but as far as Kharif
onion production is concern, lot of work has to be
done so that the farmers will not suffer from low
Corresponding Author’s Email: saketdubey_horti@rediffmail.com
important part is to select the varieties suitable for
growing in kharif season. Thus, an experiment was
conducted in order to test the suitability of various
Kharif onion varieties in Mahasamund district of
Chhattisgarh.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was carried out in Krishi Vigyan
Kendra, Mahasamund farm during Kharif season
2016-17. The experiment consisted of three
varieties namely Bhima Super, Bhima Shweta and
Agrifound Dark Red was laid out in randomized
block design with three replications. The nursery
beds 1m wide and 3m long were prepared and
elevated up to 20 cm from ground levels. Treated
seeds with Bavistin @ 1g/kg of seeds of different
varieties of onion were sown on the nursery beds in
rows 5 cm apart. After sowing seeds were covered
with a thin layer of sieved FYM and paddy straw.
Seedlings treated with Bavistin were transplanted
in the plots at a spacing of 15 cm (row to row) and
10 cm (bulb to bulb). Transplanting was done in the
afternoon hours immediately followed by irrigation
for proper establishment of the seedlings. Gap

243 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 243-247

 Dubey et al
filling was carried out after a week of transplanting
and light irrigation applied just after gap filling of
seedlings. The experimental field was kept weed
free throughout the crop growth period. Timely
manuring and fertilization were carried out by
applying recommended doses of nitrogen (120kg/
ha), phosphorus (60kg/ha), potassium (60kg/ha)
and sulphur (25kg/ha) were applied in each plot.
The first light irrigation was given just after sowing
and thereafter as and when needed depending upon
moisture availability in the soil and was withheld
before 20d of harvest. The crop was harvested when
75 per cent tops start falling over but before the
foliage is completely dry. The bulbs were harvested
by hand pulling and hand hoe. The observation on
plant height, number of leaves per plant and leaf
length was calculated at 30d after transplanting
(DAT), 60 DAT, 90 DAT and at 120 DAT. Bolting
percentage was calculated before harvesting. At the
time of harvesting, the parameters recorded were
neck thickness of the bulb, bulb to top green ratio,
bulb weight and bulb yield. Total duration of the
crop was worked out by calculating the days taken
from seed sowing in nursery to maturity, when
leaf completely dry while crop duration was days
taken from transplanting to maturity, when leaf
completely dried. The height of selected plants was
measured with the help of meter scale.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Plant height
At 30 days after transplanting, the highest plant
height (36.10 cm) was recorded in variety Agrifound
Dark Red whereas the lowest plant height was
observed in variety Bhima Super (31.80 cm).The
same pattern was followed upto 120 DAT in which
the highest plant height 57.81cm were recorded in
variety Agrifound Dark Red whereas the lowest
plant height of 53.25 cm was observed in variety
Bhima Super. This may be due to genetical makeup
of the varieties and application of major and minor
nutrients, increased the photosynthetic activity,
chlorophyll formation, nitrogen metabolism and
auxin contents in the plants which ultimately
244 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 243-247
improving the plant height. Similar results have
been reported by Bindu and Bindu (2015).
Number of leaves per plant
The Number of leaves per plant was found
to be maximum (5.68 leaves/plant) in variety
Agrifound Dark Red whereas the value was found
to be minimum in variety Bhima Super (3.98) at
30 DAT. The same pattern was followed upto
120 DAT in which the number of leaves per plant
was found to be maximum (12.82 leaves/plant)
in variety Agrifound Dark Red whereas the value
was found to be minimum in variety Bhima Super
(9.49). The probable reasons for enhanced more
number of leaves, may be due to primitive effects
of macro and micronutrients on vegetative growth
which ultimately lead to more photosynthetic
activities and enhancing the rate of cell division and
cell enlargement of plants. These findings were in
agreement with the findings of Sarada et al (2009),
Dewangan et al (2012) and Dwivedi et al (2012).
Leaf Length
The length of selected leaf was measured from
the origin portion of the leaf to the tip of the leaf.
The length of leaf from 30 DAT to 120 DAT was
found to be maximum in variety Agrifound Dark
Red (34.79 cm in 30 DAT to 50.04 cm in 120 DAT)
while minimum in variety Bhima Super (31.87 cm
in 30 DAT to 47.49 cm in 120 DAT). The probable
reasons for enhanced more number of leaves, may be
due to primitive effects of macro and micronutrients
on vegetative growth which ultimately lead to more
photosynthetic activities and enhancing the rate of
cell division and cell enlargement of plants. These
findings were in agreement with the findings of
Dewangan et al (2012) and Dwivedi et al (2012)
Neck thickness of the bulb (cm)
The selected plant was tagged and neck
thickness of bulb from each plot and replication was
recorded manually and the mean neck thickness
was calculated at harvest. The neck thickness
was affected greatly by different varieties. The
minimum 0.47 cm neck thickness was recorded in
 Suitability of Kharif Onion Varieties
Table 1. Observation on variation in plants characteristics at different time Intervals.
Plant Height (cm) Number of leaves per plant Leaf Length (cm)
Varieties 30 60 90 120 30 60 90 120 30 60 90 120
Bhima
31.80 49.10 56.22 53.25 3.98 5.91 7.02 9.49 31.87 42.86 49.20 47.49
Super
Bhima
32.50 51.39 58.04 56.77 4.16 6.14 8.52 10.61 32.38 44.52 49.70 48.82
Shweta
Agrifound
36.10 54.30 59.69 57.81 5.68 7.42 10.52 12.82 34.79 49.87 52.76 50.04
Dark Red
*Different time Intervals: 30 days after transplanting (DAT), 60 DAT, 90 DAT & 120 DAT.
variety Agrifound Dark Red whereas the maximum The Probable cause for variation in the total
of 0.88 cm was found in variety Bhima Shweta. duration of the crop was due to the inherent genetic
Variation in neck thickness was due to the inherent makeup of the varieties, nitrogen in plants increased
genetic makeup of the varieties, which is some cell division and cell differentiation. Thus, plant
way influenced by quantity of irrigation water such remained in vegetative phase and resulted in
as more irrigation at the growth period leads to imbalance between C: N ration thus delayed
increased neck thickness of the bulb but minimum maturity at higher nutrient level also depends
neck thickness is desirable character of variety. It on environmental factors. The findings were in
also helps to increase the shelf life of the bulb. The agreement with the finding of Rajpurohit (2016).
findings were also in agreement with the findings of
Dewangan et al (2012), Hirave et al (2015). Bulb to green top ratio
The weight of bulb and green top 20d before
Bolting percentage harvesting and ratio between both were calculated
The bolting percentage was calculated by and the minimum bulb and green top ratio was
counting selected tagged plants as well as total recorded in variety Agrifound Dark Red (1:0.17)
plants in plot per replication before harvesting. while the maximum bulb and green top ratio were
The lowest bolting percentage of 0.40 per cent was recorded in the Bhima super (1:0.27). Probable
observed in variety Agrifound Dark Red whereas reason, when the growth phase completed than
the maximum percentage of 3.12 per cent bolts food material deposition in bulb and start the
was observed in variety Bhima Super. This may be cell enlargement in bulb and stored moisture and
due to the inherent genetic makeup of the varieties. nutrients.
and also depends on the cultural practices adopted
during bulb initiation and development period. Double bulb
These results are in agreement with the results of Number of doubles bulb per plot was counted
Supe et al (2008) who found that to control bolting after the harvesting in each treatment and converted
while maintaining yield requires high levels of soil in to percentage. The significantly lowest 0.39
N availability during growth periods of onion. percentage of double bulb was recorded in the
variety Agrifound Dark Red followed while the
Total crop duration variety Bhima Super has maximum number of
By calculating total duration of the crop it was double bolts of 0.78 per cent. This may be due to
found that variety Bhima super was the earliest inherent genetical makeup of the variety.
among varieties under study and it took total crop
duration of 205.46 d while the variety Agrifound Crop Duration
Dark Red has taken a longest of 211.43 d. The maximum crop duration of 157d for

245 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 243-247

 Dubey et al
Table 2. Evaluation of different parameters.
Variety Neck Bolting Total Double Crop Av. Bulb Bulb
Thickness (%) Crop Bulb Duration fresh yield yield/ha
(cm) Duration (%) (Days) weight Per (q)
(Days) per plot
bulb (g) (kg)
Bhima
0.88 3.12 205.46 0.78 151.64 84.13 17.44 189.11
Super
Bhima
0.73 1.40 209.54 0.45 154.98 87.49 22.33 232.37
Shweta
Agrifound
Dark Red 0.47 0.40 211.43 0.39 157.82 99.95 25.48 272.42

maturity was observed in variety Agrifound Dark
Red while minimum of 151.64d was observed in
variety Bhima Super. The maturity depends on the
varietal and genetic character of onion and also
governed by environmental factors.
Bulb weight and Bulb yield
Average fresh weight of bulb, bulb yield per plot
and per hectare as affected by different varieties is
worked out at the time of harvesting and results
shows that the variety Agrifound Dark Red was
pioneer in bulb weight as well as in bulb yield while
the variety Bhima Super was found to be lowest in
fresh weight as well as in bulb yield. The weight per
bulb (g), bulb yield (kg) and bulb yield per hectare
(q) was found to be maximum in variety Agrifound
Dark Red while all these parameters were found to
be minimum in variety Bhima Super.
The Probable region for increased fresh weight
of bulb per plant due to humus substances could
have mobilized the reserve food materials to the
sink through increased activity of hydrolyzing
and oxidizing enzymes. Similar results have been
reported by Bindu and Bindu (2015) and also by
Singh and Bhonde (2011) while the probable reason
for enhanced bulb yield may be due to inherent
genetic makeup of the varieties and effects of
nutrients (macro and micro) on vegetative growth
which ultimately lead to more photosynthetic
activities enhance carbohydrate and nitrogen
metabolism of peptic substances, as well as improve
the water metabolism and water relation in the
plants and also plant height, number of leaves, leaf
area and management practices are also responsible
for increasing the bulb weight.
CONCLUSION
The results of different varieties tested for
cultivation in Kharif season revealed that the variety
Agrifound Dark Red can be adopted for cultivation
during Kharif season in Mahasamund district of
Chhattisgarh.
REFERENCES
Anonymous (2017). Directorate of Horticulture and Farm
Forestry, Naya Raipur (C.G.)
Bindu B and Bindu Podikunju (2015). Performance evaluation
of Onion (Allium Cepa L.) varieties for their suitability in
Kollam district. Int J Res Studies Agril Sci 1(1): 18-20.
Dewangan S R, Sahu G D and Kumar A (2012). Evaluation
of different Kharif Onion (Allium cepa L.) genotypes in
Chhattisgarh plains. Indian Hort J 2 (1 & 2): 43-45.
Dwivedi Y C, Kushwah S S, Sengupta SK (2012). Evaluation
of onion varieties for growth, yield and quality traits
under agro-climatic conditions of Kymore Plateau region
of Madhya Pradesh, India. Agril Sci Digest 32(4): 326-
328.
Hirave PS, Wagh AP, Alekar AN and Kharde RP (2015).
Performance of red onion varieties in kharif season under
Akola conditions. The Ecoscan( Special issue) 8: 381-
384.

246 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 243-247

 Suitability of Kharif Onion Varieties
Mahmud Mishu, Hasan Ahmed, Fahim Rafii, M, Faruq Golam Singh RK, Bhonde SR and Gupta RP (2011). Genetic
and Latif A (2013). Effect of sulphur on growth, yield and variability in late kharif onion (Allium cepa L.). J Appl
yield attributes in onion (Allium cepa L.). Australian J Hort 13:74-78.
Crop Sci 7:1416-1422. Supe VS, Marbhal SK, Patil SD (2008). Performance of onion
Sarada C, Giridhar Kalidasu Rao NH (2009). Varietal genotype in late kharif season under Nasik conditions. Int
performance of onion (Allium cepa L.) in black soils. J Agric Sci 4(1):81-82.
Annals Plant Physio 23 (2):266-267
Received on 11/03/2019 Accepted on 05/04/2019

247 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 243-247

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 248-250 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00041.2

Technological Gap in Adoption of Pulse Production Technologies

in Central Plain Zone of Uttar Pradesh
Deepak Rai, Veenika Singh, Viveka Nand Singh and Ramkewal
Krishi Vigyan Kendra
ICAR-Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh)

ABSTRACT
India’s population lives in villages and the principal source of livelihood is agriculture, comprising of
crop and animal husbandry, forestry, fisheries, agro-processing and agri-business. Therefore, accelerated
progress in enhancing the productivity, profitability, stability, and sustainability of the major farming
systems is the best safety net against hunger and poverty. To overcome this situation, pulses can play a
vital role besides the cereal crops. Pulses are the rich sources of proteins, quality nutrition and valuable
cash also. The study of technological gap in adoption of pulse production technologies in Lucknow
district revealed that maximum technological gap in seed rate(75%) followed by plant protection
measure(54%),seed treatment(43%),method of sowing(32%),fertilizer management (32%),time of irrigation
(22%) and intercultural operations(9%).Stray cattle (86%),remuneration of labour and implementation of
recommended technologies(78%) were important constraints in adoption of pulse production technologies.
Key Words: Adoption, Constraints, Production, Pulse crop, Technological gaps.

INTRODUCTION major pulse producing states are Madhya Pradesh

Pulses are mostly cultivated under rainfed
conditions and do not require intensive irrigation
facility and this is the reason why pulses are grown
in areas left after satisfying the demand for cereals/
cash crops. Further, are rich in protein, improve soil
fertility and physical structure, fit in mixed/inter-
cropping system, crop rotations and dry farming
and provide green pods for vegetable and nutritious
fodder for cattle as well. Although this crop group is
more important from the nutritional point of view,
there has not any significant increase in area and
production during 1950-51 to 2009-10, however,
significant growth in area and production has been
recorded during the last five years (i.e. 2010-2011 to
2014-15). The productivity of pulses has increased
about 68% at 764 kg/ha during 2013-14 from the
level of 441 kg/ha during 1950-51. The productivity
of food grains has also sharply increased to 2120 kg/
ha during 2013-14 from the level of only 522 kg/ha
during 1950-51 (Tiwari and Shivhare, 2016). The
(24%) Uttar Pradesh (16%)accounted Maharastra
(14%),Andhra Pradesh (10% ),Karnatka (7%) and
Rajsthan (6%)contribution, which together for
about 77 percent of the total production(Reddy et
al,2013).
Lucknow district falls under the central plane
zone of Uttar Pradesh. Total cultivable area in the
district is 1.38 lakh ha., of which pulses (Chickpea,
Field pea, Pigeon pea, Lentil etc) covered upto
10%. Here, traditional method of crop raising
still dominates in pulse cultivation ,which causes
low production of crops. In spite of agricultural
modernization in pulse crops, farmers are still facing
diverse technological gap in cultivation. Keeping
this fact in view, an attempt was made to study
those factors which affect the pulses production
with the objectives to ascertain the technological
gap in recommended package of practices of pulse
crops and to find out constraints of low production
of pulse crops.

Corresponding Author’s Email: deepakrai75@gmail.com

248 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 248-250

 Rai et al
Table 1. Technological gap in pulse crop production practices. (N=100)
Technology
HYVs seed in term of area
Seed rate
Seed treatment
Method of sowing
Fertilizer Management
Time of irrigation
Intercultural operation
Plant Protection measure
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted during 2016-
17 in Lucknow district of Uttar Pradesh. The
Jawaharkhera village of Mohan Lal ganj block was
purposively selected. The total 100 respondents were
purposively selected randomly from the selected
village. For studying technological gap,8 important
cultivation practices i.e. HYV, seed rate, seed
treatment, method of sowing, fertilizer management,
time of irrigation intercultural operations and
plant protection measures were considered. In this
investigation, the constraint refers to the difficulty
or problem faced by the respondents in adopting
the recommended production technologies of pulse
crops were studied. The data were collected with
the help of well-structured interview schedule by
personal approach. The technological gap refers
to the gap between the recommended package
of practices and practices actually adopted by
the farmers. The formula used for measuring the
technological gap was as follows.
R-A
Technological gap = X100
R was also found that majority (54%) of the farmers
Where, R= Recommended technology; A=
Technology adopted by the farmers.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The data (Table 1) revealed that a majority
(45%) of the farmers belonged to low technological
249 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 248-250
Technological gap (Percentage)
Low Medium High
45 30 25
9 15 75
11 46 43
23 45 32
13 55 32
56 22 22
24 67 9
12 34 54
gap category followed by medium (30%) and high
technological gap(25%) in the use of high yielding
varieties (HYVs) of pulse crops. In case of seed
rate, 9, 15 and 75 per cent of the farmers belonged
to low, medium and high technological gaps,
respectively. In respect of seed treatment, majority
(46%) of farmers were found in medium category
followed by high (43%) and low technological gap
category (11%). It was also evident that the majority
of farmers ( 45%) had medium technological gap in
method of sowing followed by low (32%) and high
technological gap(23%). This might be due to lack
of knowledge about the technological practices.
The data further indicated that the majority (55%)
of farmers belonged to medium technological gap
followed by low (13%) and high technological
gap (32%) in fertilizer management. A majority
(56%) of respondents were found to be in low
technological category in the aspect of time of
irrigation. With regards to intercultural operations,
majority (76%) of the farmers were in medium
technological gap category, 24% in high and 9%of
respondents were in low technological category. It
had high technological gap category in case of plant
protection measure followed by medium (34%) and
low (12%). This might be due to lack of knowledge
and high cost of plant protection measures. The
results were in line of conformity with the finding
of Burman et al (2010).
 Technological Gap in Adoption of Pulse Production Technologies
Table 2. Constraints in adoption of pulse production technologies. (N=100)
Sr. No. Constraint N Per centage Rank
A. Bio-physical constraint
1. Stray cattle 86 86 I
2. Availability of high yielding varities 79 79 II
3. Incidence of disease and insect pest 57 57 III
4. Cost of seed 46 46 IV
5. Weed infestation 35 35 V
B. Socio-economic constraint
6. Remuneration of labour 79 79 I
7. Commodity price 67 67 II
8. Input cost 58 58 III
9. Subsidy for input 43 43 IV
C. Technological constraint
10. Implementation of recommended technologies 78 78 I
11. Extension of technologies at gross root level 63 63 II
12. Awareness about recommended technologies 37 37 III

Constraints in pulse production The maximum pulses growers faced hindrances in

The constraints faced by the farmers in adoptionthe production technology due to higher cost of seed,
of recommended production technology of pulse unavailability of quality seeds, rate, faulty method of
crops were presented in Table 2. Stray cattle was the
sowing and fertilizer application, and injudiciously
most important constraint as reported by 86 per centapplication of plant protection measures. Stray cattle
of the respondents, unavailability of suitable high were very important constraints of bio-physical
yielding varieties (79%) in time at local market andconstraints. Higher rate of labour and lack of proper
block level agricultural office. Fifty seven percentmanagement was also important constraints of
respondent faced difficulties about high incidence socio-economic and technological constraints. For
of insect pest followed by high cost of seed (46%) improve to technological gap in adoption of pulse
and weed infestation (35%). production technologies in Lucknow district felt
Socio-economic constraints like remuneration need to management of stray cattle, mechanization
of labour, commodity price, input cost and subsidy and large scale demonstration of newer technologies
of input were expressed as constraints by 79, 67, at farmers field.
58 and 43 per cent of the respondent, respectively.
Under technological constraints, lack of proper REFERENCES
Burman R R, Singh S K and Singh A K (2010). Gap in
management was response given by 78 per cent adoption of improved pulse production technologies in
followed by weak extension support at village level Uttar Pradesh. Indian Res J Ext Edu 10 (1):99-104
(63%) and lack of awareness about recommended Reddy A A, Bantilan M C S and Mohan G (2013). Pulses
technologies (37%). Production Scenario, ICRISAT, Patancheru, Andhra
Pradesh, India, Policy Brief, 26:1-8.
CONCLUSION Tiwari A K and Shivhare A K (2016). Pulse in India: Retrospect
The study revealed that technological gap on and Prospects. http.//dpd.ducnet.nic.in
pulse production ranged between 7 to 75 per cent. Received on 21/01/2019 Accepted on 15/03/2019

250 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 248-250

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 251-256 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00057.6

Use of Smart Phones by Farmers as a Tool for Information

Support in Agriculture
A Dharanipriya1 and C Karthikeyan2
Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641 001 (Tamil Nadu)

ABSTRACT
Intensity of information needed in agriculture is at an increasing pace and access to information has become
the fundamental issue to be addressed. However, smart phones have the potential to narrow down the
information gaps in agriculture. Therefore, the present study was conducted to assess the information
utility of smart phones. The study was carried out among paddy growing farmers of Erode district of Tamil
Nadu. Data on access to smart phones, period of smart phone adoption, its use for information support in
agriculture and utility against other agricultural information systems used by farmers were collected using
face-to-face interview method. Results revealed that smart phones were widespread among the farmers.
Smart phones ranked fifth among the ten identified components of farmers’ agricultural information systems
regarding the information utility with improved information score due to its high frequency of utilization.
Key Words: Access, Farmers, Information, Smartphone, Utility.

INTRODUCTION information has become the fundamental issue

Agriculture is the primary source of income
for people of developing countries like India.
Technological innovations brought about by
developments in research made the country attain
self sufficiency in food production. Despite its
contribution to welfare of the economy, the income
of farmers still remains low. Information gaps
were one of the most important reasons for low
levels of income among farmers. The fortunes of
access to information were not fully realized by
farmers due to the limited availability of experts
to attend to farmer’s needs. Farmers need access
to information on technological innovations,
weather, market, schemes, subsidies etc., to make
decisions on type of crops/ varieties to be grown for
the specific season to obtain more yields of better
market value. Intensity of information needed in
agriculture is at an increasing pace and access to
to be addressed (Jonathan, 2016). It is apparent
through several research studies that information
and communication technologies (ICT) have the
potential to narrow down the information gaps
and seen as an important tool for development in
agriculture.
Sharma et al (2012) in a study conducted in
district Kapurthala, emphasized to numerate the
availability of such ICT tools with the farmers and
their use in agriculture. It was found that 41 per cent
farmers had landline phone but only 47 per cent of
them used it for agriculture purposes. The mobile
phone ownership among farmers was more than
98 per cent which were mostly used by them as a
social communication tool, whereas, 78 per cent
of farmers said that once in while they use their
mobile phone for agriculture advisory liking calling
agriculture departments or relatives or commission

Corresponding Author’s Email: karthikeyanextn@yahoo.com

1
PhD Research Scholar, Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
2
Professor & Head, Department of Social Sciences, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Killikulam.

251 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 251-256

 Dharanipriya and Karthikeyan
agents to enquire about the rate of produce. Mobile
phones were found to be the most powerful means
of communication among farmers for exchanging
agriculture information. This was probably due to
cost affordability, better network, easy availability
and cheap tariff rates. More than half of the new
internet users are expected to come from rural
communities (Jain and Sanghi, 2016). Hence, this
emphasized the need to explore the use of smart
phones by farmers as a tool for information support
in agriculture. Hence, a study was conducted to
access the information utility of smart phones as
perceived by farmers.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This study was conducted among paddy
growing farmers of Erode district of Tamil Nadu.
Gobichettipalayam block was purposively selected
for the study considering the maximum area
under paddy cultivation. A sample of 120 paddy
cultivating farmers with 40 farmers each from
three villages viz., Pudhukarai Pudhur, Kugalur
and Savundapur who had access to smart phones
were purposively selected. Data on access to smart
phones, period of smart phone adoption, its use for
information support in agriculture and its utility
against other agricultural information systems
used by farmers were collected using face-to-
face interview method. Descriptive statistics such
as frequency and percentages were used for the
meaningful interpretation of the results.
To evaluate the information utility of information
systems of farmers, the methodology employed
by Demiryurek et al (2008) was followed. The
information sources prevalent in the study area were
identified based on discussion with farmers. The
identified information sources include progressive
farmers, agricultural scientists, extension officers
from state department of agriculture, subject matter
specialists from KVKs, agricultural officers of
input companies and mass media such as television,
radio, newspaper, magazines and smart phones
which paves way for accessing farming related
252 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 251-256
information from different agricultural websites,
portals, social media and supports the use of mobile
applications related to agriculture. The information
score for each source was calculated using the
equation:
Information Score (IS) = FC*IU where FC
is the frequency of contact measured in terms
of periodicity of contacts with each source viz.,
regularly, occasionally and never coded as 3, 2, 1.
IU is the information utility which is measured
in terms degree of usefulness of each information
source as perceived by the farmers. The degree of
usefulness was measured by asking the farmers to
rate each information source from five levels of
usefulness coded as 0, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75 and 1. The
average degree of usefulness for each information
source was obtained by dividing the sum of values
of each information source with the total number of
respondents.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Access to smart phones
Access to smart phones offers the scope for
instant access to wide range of information needed
by farmers to combat various challenges viz.,
changing weather patterns, market fluctuations, etc.,
confronting them. Hence, identifying farmers’ access
to smart phones has gained paramount importance.
In this study, access to smart phones was measured
in two dimensions viz., direct and indirect access.
Farmers who owned smart phones were considered
to have direct access and farmers who used to access
smart phones through their family members were
considered to have indirect access. It was found
that a vast majority of the respondents (90.83%)
were found to have direct access to smart phones
by owning the device. Only a meager percent of the
respondents (9.17%) accessed smart phones from
their family members. It could be concluded that
farmers in the study had potential access to smart
 Use of Smart Phones by Farmers as a Tool for Information
phones. This finding was in line with Sousa et al owning smart phones has increased over the years
(2016) who reported that third generation mobile indicating its penetration at exponential rates in rural
phones widespread among farmers. areas. Smart phones with its easy to use features
and applications soon took over as farmers’ one of
Period of Adoption of Smart phones the widely used source for information acquisition.
The period of adoption of smart phones was Despite its utility in agriculture, smart phones
operationalized as the number of years of possession also satisfy other varied interests of farmers. This
of smart phones by farmers (Table 2). might be the reason for adoption of smart phone by
Table 2. Distribution of respondents based on farmers over the years.
period of adoption. (N=120)
Use of Smart phones for Information Support
Sr. No. Period Number Percent in Farming
1. Less than 3 yr 58 53.21 Smart phone is now being widely used by the
2. 4-6 yr 44 40.37 farmers both as a source of information and as a
3. More than 6 yr 07 6.42 medium to obtain information regarding farming to
Total 109 100 make better decisions. As a media, smart phones are
used by farmers to make phone calls to relatives/
It was found that more than half of the
friends, progressive farmers, extension officials,
farmers (53.21% per cent) were using smart
private input dealers, Kisan call centres, etc. to
phones for the period of less than three
gather information. As a source, use of smart
years followed by two-fifths of the farmers
phones with internet access enables farmers to
(40.37 %) using smart phones for the period of 4-6
get information from different websites, portals,
years and a meager per cent (6.42 %) of them using
mobile applications and social media in different
smart phones for a period of more than 6 years. The
findings revealed that the percentage of farmers
Table 3. Distribution of respondents based on the usage of Smartphone for information support.
(N=120)
Sr. Particular Regularly* Occasionally* Never*
No. Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent
1. Phone call
a Relatives/ Friends 30 25.00 87 72.50 3 2.5
b Progressive farmers 42 35.00 75 62.50 3 2.5
c Extension officials 18 15.00 64 53.33 38 31.67
d Private input dealers 27 22.50 69 57.50 24 20
e Kisan Call Centres 1 0.83 47 39.17 72 60.00
2. Agricultural related 6 5.00 62 51.67 52 43.33
Websites/portals
3. Mobile applications 6 5.00 44 36.67 70 58.33
4. Social media
a. Whatsapp 50 41.67 62 51.67 8 6.67
b. Facebook 30 25.00 33 27.50 57 47.50
c. YouTube 51 42.50 42 35 27 22.50
*Multiple Responses obtained

253 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 251-256

 Dharanipriya and Karthikeyan
forms viz., written, video, pictures, animations for farmers easily through social media. Farmers were
their improved understanding and application of using Whatsapp to record filed level problems in
scientific information at field level. the form of pictures, videos etc. and send to the
Sharma et al (2012) highlighted that possession extension agents or post it in Whatsapp groups to
of a mobile phone by an individual can be get appropriate solutions. Ease of use of different
considered as a status symbol or a necessity as features of Whatsapp might be the probable reason
well. They reported that In the sample villages 98.3 for its regular utilization among farmers. Regarding
per cent of the farmers possessed this magic tool mobile applications, more than one-third of the
and out of it 78.0 per cent were using this device farmers (36.67%) were using it occasionally and
for getting information from dealers, relatives, 5.0 per cent using it regularly. But in contrary,
scientists, extension workers, banks etc. However, about three-fifths of the farmers (58.33%) were
only 66.7 per cent of marginal farmers were using not using any mobile applications. The reason for
it for agricultural purpose whereas possession was limited use of mobile applications among farmers
100 per cent. In the market, various mobile models was its complexity in operating the applications.
as well as different schemes have been launched by To obtain the needed information through mobile
various service providers but due to incapability of applications, farmers should possess adequate skills
handling this device for various purposes, its use is in operating the application. Another reason was
mainly limited to listening of voice messages. that some apps can be accessed only in online mode
which requires good internet connectivity.
It was found that more than half of the farmers
used smart phones occasionally to make phone call With regard to the use of agricultural related
to friends/relatives (72.50%), progressive farmers websites and portals, a little more than half of the
(62.50%), private input dealers (57.50%) and respondents (51.67%) were found to be using it
extension officials (53.33%) against the regular occasionally and only 5.0 per cent of them using
use to discuss farm related problems. The reason it regularly. Remaining three-fifths (43.33%) of
for occasional use was because farmers more often farmers had not accessed any websites/portals
have direct face to face interactions with other on agriculture. This is because farmers’ were of
farmers due to geographical proximity of the paddy the perception that the information available in
fields. With regard to private input dealers, farmers the websites is general and not specific to their
seek their advice mainly for the recommendation prevailing local situations.
of chemicals for pest and disease control for which Information Utility
face to face contact was mostly preferred by farmers The information utility was calculated to find
rather discussing over phone calls. Kisan call centers out farmer’s perception on the degree of usefulness
were used by nearly two-fifths (39.17%) of farmers of each information source (Table 4).
occasionally to make decisions on the choice of the
variety specific to a season, to know the availability The data (Table 4) inferred that progressive
of inputs etc. farmers had the highest information utility value
of 0.70 followed by agricultural officers of private
Further, the study revealed that a little more input companies (0.46), extension officers from
than two-fifths of the farmers used YouTube state department of agriculture (0.40), television
(42.50%) and Whatsapp (41.67%) followed by one (0.32), smart phones (0.29), agricultural scientists
fourth of them using Facebook (25.00%) regularly (0.26), newspaper (0.25), magazines (0.18), SMS
as a source of information. This is because more from KVK (0.13) and Radio (0.10). The probable
number of agricultural information in the form of reason for progressive farmers being accorded with
text, pictures, videos etc. was getting shared among high information utility value was that they were the

254 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 251-256

 Use of Smart Phones by Farmers as a Tool for Information
Table 4. Distribution of Farmers based on the Information Utility of different sources of
Information. (N=120)
Sr. No. Sources of Information Information Utility Information Score
1. Progressive/ Fellow Farmers 0.70 1.77
2. Agricultural Scientists 0.26 0.59
3. Extension officers from State Department of Agriculture 0.4 0.73
4. Subject matter specialists from KVK 0.13 0.28
5. Agricultural officers of private input companies 0.46 0.91
6. Television 0.32 0.78
7. Radio 0.10 0.2
8. Newspaper 0.25 0.61
9. Magazines 0.18 0.38
10. Smart Phones 0.29 0.74

actual users of scientific information and impact of
using such information on progressive farmers could
be directly witnessed by other farmers. Hence, the
fellow farmers could make better decisions based on
the outcomes obtained by the progressive farmers.
It is because of this, farmers were uncertain about
the consequences of recommendations given by
the non users i.e. the other sources of information.
Sharma et al (2012) revealed that the farmers were
observed to be dependent on their large social
network and took advice from the agricultural
scientists, fellow farmers, relatives, commission
agents, pesticide dealers and friends. Interestingly,
most of the farmers showed their inability to use
the agro-advisory received through short message
service.
The information score revealed that progressive
farmers had the highest information score of 1.77
followed by agricultural officers of private input
companies (0.91), television (0.78), smart phones
(0.74), extension officers from state department of
agriculture (0.73), newspaper (0.61), agricultural
scientists (0.59), magazines (0.38), SMS from
KVK (0.28) and radio (0.2) respectively. Hence,
it could be inferred that smart phones though
had low information utility has obtained highest
information score due to high frequency of
utilization. Though the usefulness of information
acquired from agricultural scientists is perceived
high among farmers, its utility is less compared to
the information utility of agricultural officers of
private input companies and extension officers due
to very less frequency of contacts between farmers
and scientists.
CONCLUSION
The study concluded that farmers had potential
access to smart phones with majority of them
owning it for a period of more than 3 yr. With
regard to information support in farming, more
than half of the farmers used social media such as
Whatsapp and YouTube regularly and made phone
calls to interact with relatives/ friends, progressive
farmers, private input dealers and extension officers
occasionally. Smart phones ranked fifth among the
ten identified components of farmers’ agricultural
information systems regarding the information
utility with improved information score due to its
high frequency of utilization. Though the use of
smart phones for information support in agriculture
is recent compared to other identified sources, it has
wider reach and utility among farmers. Agricultural
scientists despite being trusted as the most
credible source of information by farmers had low
information score because of very less frequency
of contacts between farmers and scientists. Hence,
more initiatives on strengthening the farmers,

255 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 251-256

 Dharanipriya and Karthikeyan
scientist’s interactions facilitated by smart phones Jain N and Sanghi (2016). The rising connected consumer
have to be proposed to enable farmers make better in rural India. Bostan Consulting Group. Retrieved
from https://www.bcgperspectives.com/content/articles/
decisions for gainful incomes. globalization-customer-insight-rising connected -
consumer-rural-india/
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in the Samsun Province of Turkey. Information Research. Sousa Fernando, Gian Nicolay, and Robert Home (2016).
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Jonathan Shoham (2016). Access to mobile and inequalities
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256 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 251-256

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 257-261 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00042.4

Weed Management in Spring Maize (Zea mays) through Cultural

Practices in Punjab
Mandeep Kaur1, Gurbax Singh2 and Amarinder Singh
Department of Agriculture, Khalsa College, Amritsar 143 002 (Punjab)

ABSTRACT
A field experiment to investigate the effect of different irrigation methods and live mulching on weed
in spring maize was conducted at students’ Research farm, Khalsa College, Amritsar during 2015. The
experiment was laid out in a split plot design with four replications. The experiment comprised treatments
viz., cowpea, moong and mash as live mulch with different irrigation methods i.e. conventional furrow
irrigation method (CFI), alternate furrow irrigation method (AFI) and fixed furrow irrigation method (FFI).
The data showed that live mulch of cowpea, moong and mash significantly reduced the weed density
and weed dry matter than control. Higher weed control efficiency was recorded in cowpea mulching
followed by moong and mash. Among different irrigation methods FFI and AFI significantly reduced
the weed population than CFI. The higher WUE and less weed count were observed in FFI method and
cowpea live mulch. All weed control treatments resulted in significant enhancement in maize yield.
Key Words: Alternate furrow, Irrigation method, Legumes, Live mulch, Maize, Weed control.

INTRODUCTION Live mulches are crops grown simultaneously

Weeds are one of the major problems in crop
production around the world, and we are tending
toward controlling these weeds with herbicides,
which comes with an increased environmental
impact. At present, weed control highly depends
on chemical and mechanical practices that are very
expensive, hazardous for the environment and
consequently unsustainable as new and resistant
species are emerging which are not controlled by
existing chemicals. Further, herbicide contributes
to soil and water pollution they are harmful to flora
and fauna diversity. In addition the use of herbicide
may result in human consumption of residues via
contaminated water and food (Sankhla et al, 2010).
The current emphasis on reduced herbicide use
has led to increased interest in alternative weed
management methods. In sustainable agriculture,
for effective weed control different cultural
practices like bed planting, live mulch, straw mulch
and alternate furrow irrigation methods are used.
with the main crop that can suppress weed growth
significantly without reducing main crop yield.
Live mulch grows fast and covers the surface very
quickly and has smothering potential. Live mulches
can suppress weed growth by competing for light,
water and nutrients (Sharma et al, 2010), and
through the production of allelopathic compounds
which may ultimately result in reduced herbicide
applications. Many studies have confirmed the weed
suppressing ability of living mulches in different
cropping systems.
In alternate furrow irrigation less water is
applied and furrows are irrigated alternatively and
those un-irrigated furrow could obtain their water
needs from the adjacent irrigated furrows through
the horizontal movement of soil water (Mohamed et
al, 2010) So water application is reduced by 25 to 35
per cent in alternate furrow irrigation as compared to
every furrow irrigation. For conserving agricultural

Corresponding Author’s Email: amarinder.pau@gmail.com

1
Assistant Professor, 2Associate Professor, Department of Agriculture, Khalsa College, Amritsar

257 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 257-261

 Kaur et al
water, the fixed furrow irrigation is helpful. In this
method, same furrows are fixed for irrigation, while
adjacent furrows are not irrigated for the whole
season. In general, these techniques are a trade off
a lower yield for higher water use efficiency; water
was saved mainly by reduced evaporation, from the
soil surface. Weed infestation may also be less in the
furrows which are not irrigated. So, weed intensity
is low in dry furrow than in irrigated furrows. These
new practices of irrigations reduced the volume of
water used and improved the water use efficiency.
crops such as cowpea, moong and mash were also
sown in between the rows of spring maize as per
treatment. All the treatments were watered on the
same day. The weed count was recorded from two
locations. Samples were taken randomly in each
plot by a quadrate measuring 50cm × 50cm at 60, 90
days after sowing and at harvest. The weed plants
were removed from ground surface from each plot
and these samples were first sundried and then dried
in oven at 65oC. After weighing the samples, the dry
matter accumulation was expressed as gm-2.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Weed control efficiency (WCE)

A field experiment was conducted at Students’ Weed control efficiency of treatments was calculated
Research Farm, Department of Agriculture, Khalsa by using following formula:
College Amritsar during spring season 2015. The Dry matter of weeds in control plots -
soil of the experimental site was sandy loam in Dry matter of weeds in treated plots
texture having ph 7.6, low available nitrogen (154 x100
Dry matter of weeds in
kg/ha), low available phosphorus (28.9 kg/ha),
control plots
high available potash (330 kg/ha). The experiment
was laid out in split plot design, comprising three
Water use efficiency (WUE) (kg/m3)
methods of irrigations (CFI, AFI and FFI) in main
Water – use efficiency was calculated by dividing
plot and four live mulch treatments (cowpea, moong,
the economic yield by Irrigation water measured by
mash and control) in sub plot and replicated four
gravimetric method.
times. The irrigation methods were alternate furrow
irrigation (AFI), fixed furrow irrigation (FFI) and WUE = Y (kg/ha)/ IW (mm)
conventional furrow irrigation (CFI).The irrigation
scheduling on the basis of soil moisture content. RESULTS AND DISCUSION
AFI means one of the two neighboring furrows was Weed density
alternately irrigated throughout the growing season. The impact of irrigation methods on weed
FFI means that irrigation was fixed to one of the population was significantly appeared. AFI and FFI
two neighboring furrows. CFI was the conventional were significantly better than CFI in smothering
way where all furrows irrigated during irrigation. weed population might be due to the less water
The field was ploughed and given pre-sowing applied in AFI and FFI methods which help
irrigation. When the field reached at the optimum smothering weeds. At harvest the weed count in
moisture conditions, it was ploughed four times FFI and AFI was 33.3 and 14.9 percent less than
with tractor drawn cultivator followed by planking CFI. Significant effects of live mulch on weed
each time. After the preparatory tillage, field was population were observed. The weed population
divided in four replications and each replication reduced significantly under cowpea, moong and
further divided into twelve different plots of same mash than control plots. The cowpea and moong
size. All treatment combinations were applied mulching remained at par with each other. Further,
randomly in each replication. The pre treated seeds moong and mash mulching were at par with each
of variety Dragon 1247 were sown by kera method other but differed significantly from control plots
on 20th February 2015. On the same day live mulch with respect to reducing the weed population.

258 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 257-261

 Weed Management in Spring Maize
Table1. Effect of irrigation methods and live mulching on weed population per meter square of
spring maize.
Treatment Weed population (Number/m2)
30 DAS 60DAS At harvest
Irrigation methods
CFI 56.1 85.1 80.0
AFI 40.6 75.6 69.6
FFI 39.0 69.0 60.0
CD ( p = 0.05) 5.68 7.20 8.72
Live mulching
Control 95.8 150.2 139.6
Mash 42.0 64.0 58.8
Moong 28.2 52.1 44.2
Cowpea 15.1 40.1 36.4
CD (p = 0.05) 14.8 13.6 16.8
Interaction NS NS NS

The less weed count in cowpea mulching was
because of the reason that it had a large effect on
weed suppression due to its spreading growth habit,
which occupied the inter row spaces and restricted
the germination and growth of weeds. The similar
results were found by the Singh et al (2015).
Weed dry matter accumulation
The FFI method significantly reduced the
weed dry matter accumulation in comparison with
CFI method at all observational periods. AFI and
FFI methods remained at par with each other but
significantly reduced the weed dry matter than the
CFI method. FFI and AFI methods reduced the
weed dry matter accumulation by 24.8 and 14.1 per
cent in comparison with CFI method.
Live mulch also had a pronounced effect on

Table2. Effect of irrigation methods and live mulching on weed dry matter accumulation (g/m2) of
spring maize.
Treatment Weed dry matter accumulation (g/m2)
60 DAS 90 DAS At harvest
Irrigation methods
CFI 68.3 258 291
AFI 44.2 214 266
FFI 40.0 204 233
CD(p = 0.05) 19.8 24.2 21.0
Live mulching
Control 109 601 642
Mash 40.5 122 151
Moong 31.0 101 142
Cowpea 22.0 80.0 115
CD (p = 0.05) 28.9 60.5 56.8

259 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 257-261

 Kaur et al
dry matter accumulation. Weed dry matter was mulching. The order of weed control efficiency was
significantly less in plots where live mulch with observed as cowpea > moong > mash with values
cowpea, moong and mash was done over control (no 82.1, 77.8 and 76.4 per cent, respectively.
mulch). Among different types of mulching, highest
weed dry matter reduction in cowpea mulching was Grain Yield
noticed followed by moong and mash. Similarly, The maize grain yield was significantly affected
moong and mash mulched plots were at par with by different irrigation methods. The highest grain
each other but significantly different from control yield of maize was obtained with conventional
plots. The general trend seen was control > mash furrow irrigation (36.9 q/ha) which was statistically
> moong> cowpea at all observational periods. higher than fixed furrow irrigation method (33.3q/
In cowpea mulching, the lack of availability of ha) but was at par with AFI method. In fixed furrow
uncovered inter- row spaces for weed establishment irrigation the reduction of yield is due to the small
resulted in severe reduction in the weed biomass. amount of applied irrigation water. The percent
The lower dry matter weight of weeds in a system increase in grain yield was 10.8 and 9.9 in CFI
that uses cover crops by covering the inter – row and AFI method, respectively over FFI method.
spaces causes ultimately suppression of weed Increase in yield by CFI over FFI may be due to
emergence (Talebbeigi et al 2012). more water availability in CFI than FFI. Similar
type results were noticed by Ahmad et al (2002).
Weed control efficiency Effect of legume live mulch on maize grain
Weed control efficiency is a measure of the yield was also significant. Maize grain yield was
ability of a technique to control weeds. Among the
significantly higher in plots where live mulch with
different irrigation methods FFI method gave thecowpea, moong and mash was done over control
highest weed control efficiency and lower value (no mulch) plot. Among different types of mulching
was observed under CFI method. cowpea produced highest yield followed by moong
Cowpea mulching resulted in the highest weed and mash. Yield of maize in cowpea and moong
control efficiency followed by moong and mash mulched plots was at par with each other. Higher
Table3. Effect of irrigation methods and live mulching on Grain yield, Water use efficiency and
weed control efficiency (%) of spring maize.
Treatments Grain yield Irrigation Water use Weed control
(q/ha) water (mm) efficiency efficiency (%)
(WUE)
Irrigation methods
CFI 36.9 280 1.31 54.6
AFI 36.6 224 1.63 58.6
FFI 33.3 189 1.76 63.8
CD (p = 0.05) 2.09 - - -
Live mulching
Control 30.6 212 1.41 -
Mash 35.4 232 1.52 76.4
Moong 37.9 235 1.61 77.8
Cowpea 38.6 230 1.67 82.1
CD (p = 0.05) 2.93 -

260 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 257-261

 Weed Management in Spring Maize
grain yield of maize in cowpea mulched plots Caamal-Maldonado J A, Jimenez-Osodnio J J, Torris-Barragan
over other may be due to preserving soil moisture A and Anays A L (2001). The use of allelopathic legume
cover and mulch species for weed control in maize (Zea
through reducing evaporation, less weeds count and mays L.). Agro J 93: 27-36.
more biomass of live mulch crop which may be due
Graterol Y E, Eisenhauer D E and Elmore R W (1993).
to better efficiency of nitrogen fixation in cowpea Alternate- furrow irrigation for soybean (Glycine max)
than moong and mash mulching. Similar results production. Agric Water Manage 24: 133- 145.
were observed by Caamal- Maldonado et al (2001). Mohamed A M, Ibrahim and Emara T K (2010). Water
saving under alternate furrows surface irrigation in clay
Water use efficiency soils of north nile delta. Fourteenth International Water
Among the different irrigation methods FFI had Technology Conference, IWTC (14) Egypt.
higher WUE due to less amount of water used than Sankhla M S, Kumari M, Sharma K, Kushwah R S, Kumar R
CFI. In the live mulch treatments all had higher WUE (2018). Water contamination through pesticide and their
as compared to control. More land area covered toxic effect on human health. Int J Res Applied Sci and
by cowpea due to more biomass as compared to Eng Tech 6: 967-970.
moong and mash by which evapotranspiration Sharma A R, Singh R, Dhyani, S K and Dube R K (2010).
losses decreased that is lead to less amount of water Moisture conservation and nitrogen recycling through
required. So under this treatment grain yield and legume mulching in rainfed maize (Zea mays)– wheat
(Triticum aestivum) cropping system. Nut cycl in
WUE were higher as compared to other treatment. Agroecosystem 87(2): 187-197
Singh A K, Parihar C M, Jat S L, Singh B and Sharma S (2015).
CONCLUSION Weed management strategies in maize (Zea mays). Effect
Irrigation management and live mulch can on weed dynamics, productivity and economics of the
play a large role in the control of weeds in spring maize wheat cropping system in Indo-gangetic plains.
maize. It is concluded that highest maize grain yield Indian J Agric Sci 85 (1): 87-92.
and less weed intensity was observed under fixed Talebbeigi R M and Ghadiri H (2012). Effect of cowpea living
furrow irrigation (FFI) and live mulch cowpea. mulch on weed control and maize (Zea mays L.) yield. J
Biol Env Sci 6 (17): 189-193.
Due to higher WUE and WCE under FFI irrigation
method and cowpea live mulch recommended as a Received on 10/01/2019 Accepted on 15/03/2019
step toward sustainable agriculture.

REFERENCES
Ahmad R, Mahmood A, Ikraam M and Hassan B (2002).
Influence of different irrigation methods and band
placement of nitrogen on maize (Zea mays L.)
productivity. Int J Agric and Biol 4(4): 540-543.

261 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 257-261

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 262-266 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00043.6

Willingness to Participate in Pond Fish Farming by Rural

Women in South Tripura
Biswajit Debnath1*
KrishiVigyan Kendra (ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Tripura Centre)
Birchandra Manu, South Tripura - 799144

ABSTRACT
This paper aimed at analysing different factors influencing the willingness of rural farming family women
to participate in pond fish farming in south Tripura district. Probit regression analysis of dichotomous
dependent variable (Yes/No) about the willingness to participate in pond fish farming by women were
carried out using different influencing factors as explanatory variables. These independent variables were
age, education, family size, number of fish ponds available, pond area under fish farming, annual household
income, and social membership of rural women. The analysis showed that few social factors like age,
education, family size and annual income influenced the decision regarding the willingness of women
to participate in pond fish farming. In general, women with lesser education level and moderately aged
having lesser family income were more likely to participate in pond fish farming. Further, the likelihood
of rural women to participate in pond fish farming increases highest (84 %) for unit increase in social
membership like self help groups, farmer’s club etc. as per the analysis on marginal probability effect.
Key Words: Participation, Pond fish farming, Probit regression, Tripura, Women.

INTRODUCTION Freshwater aquaculture sector is a fast growing

The role of women in socio-economic and
cultural-political relationships in the country has
gained importance over time and are the backbone
of development of rural and national economy.
The involvement of women in the fisheries sector
in India in earlier times was largely restricted to
marine fisheries sector, especially retail sale of fish
and simple indigenous methods of fish processing.
The emergence of modern fish processing
industries provided a new avenue of employment
to innumerable women. With the meteoric growth
of women’s education in the country in recent
decades, women have started entering all walks of
life, including the various fisheries sectors, such
as research, development, training, extension and
industry, and have already made their presence felt.
However, even though the integration of women in
the fisheries mainstream is already on the move, there
is still ample scope for further substantial growth.
Corresponding Author’s Email: debnath_biswajit@rediffmail.com
1
Subject Matter Specialist (Fisheries), KVK (ICAR), South Tripura
segment in the fisheries sector. Pond fish farming,
a segment of freshwater aquaculture is highly
promising in many states where the resources are
available. Tripura witnessed an impressive growth
in fish production during last decade where fish
culture is recognized as a vital activity for economic
development (Debnath et al, 2015a). Fisheries have
a unique status in Tripura as fish is an integral part
of the social and cultural life of the people in this
state (Debnath et al, 2015b). With available culture
fisheries resources and with almost 95per cent being
fish eaters in Tripura, there is a scope for substantial
increase in yield and production of freshwater fish
(Debnath et al, 2013).
A characteristic feature of rural Tripura
(especially plain areas) is that most houses have
a small backyard pond, or a ditch that can easily
be converted into one. These backyard ponds are
commonly used for bathing and washing. Generally

262 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 262-266

 Debnath
ranging from 100 to 1000 m2 in area, ideally suited
for fish farming by the women of the family, who
can periodically fertilize the ponds with the cow-
dung obtained during cleaning their cattle sheds,
and feed the fish by dumping into the ponds all the
spoiled food, left over and kitchen refuse. Thus,
much of the organic waste produced by a family can
also be profitably recycled through these ponds by
the women folk. It can be easily seen that the cost
of inputs in the form of labour, manure and feed
are minimal in such backyard pond fish culture.
On the other hand, huge water resources exist in
the form of mini-barrages in hilly (or tilla) areas
of Tripura. Compared to agriculture, many of the
aquaculture operations are simple and women can
easily undertake several of them. This will not only
improve the economy of the rural population but
also provide nutritious food.
Paul et al (2015) reported that higher percentage
of women participation in livestock and poultry
sector were observed in Tripura. The participation
of women was found different for different activities
under crop enterprises. In both plain and hilly region
of Tripura, it was noticed by Paul et al (2015) that
activities like land preparation, irrigation, application
of fertilizer and manures etc. were exclusively
performed by the male members of the family,
likewise intercultural operation and harvesting
were female dominated activities. In livestock
enterprise, majority of the activities were performed
by the female in plain and in hilly. Debnath et al
(2015b) reported that that social participation of the
respondents of both the genders has positive as well
as negative significant influence on the adoption
of the fisheries practices and the set of parameters
that influenced the adoption of technologies among
women and men fishers were different.
Currently, there is no documented evidence of
the factors and willingness to participate in pond
fish farming by women in Tripura. It is against this
backdrop that the present study attempts to fill the gap
in knowledge. The study contributes significantly
to the scanty literature on women participation in
263 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 262-266
freshwater aquaculture and pond fish farming. This
study aimed to investigate willingness to participate
in pond fish farming by rural farming family women
in south Tripura district.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Area and Data
The present study was mainly based on primary
data collected through interview schedule from
the Rural Farming Family Women (RFFW) of
under south Tripura district who had a scope for
participation in pond fish farming. The study was
confined to those villages of the district where KVK
has taken up different frontline extension activities
related to fish farming since 2015. These villages
were selected intentionally as the RFFWs of these
villages were exposed to fish farming technology
through intervention of KVK, South Tripura and
expected to respond perfectly. A stratified random
sampling approach was followed for this study. Eight
villages were randomly selected from those villages
and then, five rural farming family women were
interviewed by using a structured interview schedule
which was pre-tested for its validity. Altogether,
38 RFFWs (two being rejected due to insufficient
information provided by the respondents) from
eight different villages were interviewed.
The farmer’s response score as mentioned
in earlier section for different extension services
were taken as explanatory variable against the
dichotomous response towards the practical
adoption of climate smart integrated fish farming. It
was done using probit model probability regression
analysis.
The Probit Model
The probit regression model was employed to
quantify the factors that determine the willingness
of RFFWs to participate in pond fish farming due to
the dichotomous nature of the dependent variable.
The justification for the use of the probit model over
the logit model is as a result of its ability to constrain
the utility value ofthe decision to join variable to
lie within 0 and 1, and its ability to resolve the
 Pond Fish Farming
problem of heteroscedasticity (Asante et al, 2011). to participate in pond fish farming. The variables
Willingness to of RFFWs to participate in pond fish also had the hypothesized signs. The co-efficient of
farming was captured as a dummy variable with age, household/ family size, number of ponds, total
the value of 1 assigned to a farmer who is willing pond area under cultivation, social membership in
to participate and 0 for otherwise. Following from SHG, FC, Co-operatives etc. were found positive.
Greene (2003), the binary probit model was applied The variable education and household income were
for this study using regression model. negative. In general, women with lesser education
level and moderately aged and having lesser family
Present study defines the probit model with the
income were more likely to participate in pond fish
probability of rural farming women participation in
farming. The probit equation for the analysed data
pond fish farming as dependent variable, where 1 (Table 3) can be expressed as:
indicates the willingness of rural farming women
to participate in pond fish farming and 0 otherwise. The coefficients of age, education, household
The dichotomous response of the respondent women size, pond numbers, pond area, household income,
used as dependent variable, whereas age, education, social membership of rural farming family women
household size, numbers of ponds available, total did not directly show the magnitude of utility of
pond area, household income and social membership each explanatory variable towards willingness
to participate in pond fish farming. The marginal
in the form of SHG, Cooperatives, Farmers Club
probability effect of each explanatory variable is
(FC), FPO etc. were used as explanatory variables.
required to be calculated to find out the magnitude
Other Descriptive variables selection was of effect on dependent variable. For this, marginal
guided by economic theory and results of previous probability effect in terms slope at mean for each
researches. Following the researches of Edward et al explanatory variable has been estimated using
(2014), Oladejo et al (2014), Nsikak-Abasi A. Etim Gretl. As Gretl did not provide the p-values and
and Edet J. Udoh (2018), we chose to include certain slope at the same time, the analysis was repeated
variables such as age, education, household size, using Gretl for estimating the slope or the marginal
pond numbers, pond area, household income, social probability effect of the independent variables.
membership of rural farming family women. Table 1 The values (Table 3) showed the magnitudes
defined the description of the variables under study. of increment in likelihood that the RFFWs were
willing to participate in pond fish farming due to one
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION unit change in explanatory variables. For example,
The probit regression was carried out by using marginal probability effect for the explanatory
Gretl (Gnu Regression, Econometrics and Time variable Age is 0.04 implies that every unit increase
series Library) software developed by Allin Cottrell, in years of age of women was having 4 per cent
Reccardo Lucchetti and the gretl team in 2000 and probability to participate in pond fish farming.
the utility of which elaborated by James (2009). Results showed that the likelihood of RFFWs to
Age, education, family size, social membership participate in pond fish farming increases highest
and household income of the rural farming family by 84 per cent for one unit increase in social
women were found to significant. The number of participation as member of social organization like
ponds available or the total pond area under fish SHG, FC etc. Here, it is necessary to mention that
culture didn’t show such significant influence on the slopes or marginal probability effects have been
the willingness of RFFWs to participate in pond calculated at mean of the explanatory variables.
fish farming (based on p-value). Rather, it is other The likelihood of participating in pond fish farming
social factors like age, education, family size and by RFFWs due to change in explanatory variables
income which influenced the decision of RFFWs may differ at both end of the graph.

264 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 262-266

 Debnath
Table 1. Definition of variables used in Probit model to study the willingness of rural farming family
women to participate in pond fish farming in Tripura, 2018.
Variable Description
Dependent Variable:
Willingness to participate 1 if the rural farming family women is willing to participate in pond fish farming, 0
otherwise
Explanatory variables:
Age Age of the respondent in years
Education Class passed (1 if passed class 1, 2 if passed class 2 and so on)
Household size Number of family members
Pond numbers Total number of fish ponds that the farming family possessed
Pond area Total area (in acre) of fish ponds under fish farming cultivation
Household Income Annual household income (in Rs.) of the respondent’s family. 1 if the annual
household Income is below Rs. 50,000/-, 2 if it is Rs. 50,001/- to Rs.100000/-, 3
if it is Rs.100001/- to Rs.150000/-, 4 if it is Rs.150001/- to Rs.200000/-, 5 if it is
Rs.200001/- to Rs.250000/-, 6 if it is Rs. 250001/- to Rs. 300000/-, 7 if it is above Rs.
6,00000/-.
Social membership 1 if She is a member of any SHG, Cooperatives, Farmers Club (FC), FPO or other
social group; 0 otherwise.
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of the variables included in the model.
Variables Units N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
Age Years 38 18.00 55.00 32.87 9.709
Education Class 38 2.00 12.00 5.87 2.762
Household Size Nos. 38 3.00 14.00 6.37 2.530
Pond Numbers Nos. 38 1.00 5.00 2.37 1.403
Pond Area Acre 38 .50 3.20 1.55 0.903
Annual Income Rs. 38 60,000 3,00,000 1,51,711 63152

CONCLUSION who had cooperated in interview while collecting

The study analysed the various factors affecting the data for the study. Author also acknowledges
the willingness of rural farming family women to the support of KVK, South Tripura and ICAR for
participate in pond fish farming in south Tripura supporting the study.
district. Study showed age, education, family size,
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 Pond Fish Farming

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(3.682) (0.052) (0.351) (0.326)
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participate in multi-stakeholder platform by smallholder and Res 2 (6): 1137-1143
farmers in Northern Ghana: implication for research and Paul P, Meena BS, Singh A, and Wani SA (2015). Gender
development. Agril and Food Eco 2 (11): 1-15 participation in integrated farming system in Tripura,
FAO (2011). Women in Agriculture: closing the gender gap India., Asian J Dairy & Food Res 34 (1): 59-62
for development. In: the State of food and agriculture. Rao E Krishna (2006). Role of women in agriculture: A micro
pp7. level study, J Global Eco Res Centre for Soc Sci, Mumbai.
Greene H W (2003). Econometric analysis. 5th edn. Pearson India 2(2), p:p 107-118.
Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA
Received on 04/11/2018 Accepted on 20/02/2019
Table 3. Probit analysis with dichotomous depended variable (Standard errors based on Hessian).
Sr. No. Variable Coefficient Std. Error z p-value slope
Constant −3.735 3.683 −1.014 0.311
Age 0.092 0.052 1.765 0.0776* 0.0368
Education −0.747 0.351 −2.130 0.0332** −0.298
Household size 0.685 0.326 2.101 0.036** 0.273
Pond numbers 0.217 1.008 0.215 0.829 0.086
Pond area 1.460 1.572 0.929 0.353 0.582
Household Income −1.090 0.645 −1.692 0.090* −0.434
Social membership 2.849 1.301 2.189 0.028** 0.843

Mean dependent var 0.526 S.D. dependent var 0.506

McFadden R-squared 0.727 Adjusted R-squared 0.423
Log-likelihood −7.161 Akaike criterion 30.322
Schwarz criterion 43.423 Hannan-Quinn 34.983
Number of cases ‘correctly predicted’ = 35 (92.1%)
Likelihood ratio test: Chi-square(3) = 38.2513 [0.0000]
Test for normality of residual - Null hypothesis: error is normally distributed
Test statistic: Chi-square(2) = 10.6159 with p-value = 0.004952

266 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 262-266

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 267-269 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00047.3

Short Communication

Effect of Crop Geometry on Growth and Yield of Kharif Onion

Prakash Mahala, Manpreet Jaidka, Manoj Sharma and Navjot Singh Brar
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, SBS Nagar 144 516 (Punjab)

ABSTRACT
The experiment was conducted to check the effect of crop geometry on growth and yield of kharif onion.
The experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design with three treatments viz., T1=10×7.5cm,
T2=10×10cm and T3=15×10cm replicated three times. Results showed that transplanting of onion in 15×10cm
resulted in significantly higher plant height (30.87 cm), number of leaves per plant (12.20), bulb diameter
(polar-5.20 cm and equatorial-5.74 cm) and average bulb weight (83.90g) as compared to 10×7.5 cm but
statistically at par with 10×10cm crop geometry. Highest bulb yield was recorded in 10×10cm (307.64q/ha)
with per cent increase of was 23.41 and 0.57 in comparison to 10×7.5 (247.85q/ha) and 15×10cm (305.89 q/ha),
respectively. On the basis of results emanated from the present investigation conducted during kharif 2018, it was
concluded that treatment 10x10cm crop geometry proved best in respect of maximum yield and productivity.
Key Words: Crop geometry, Growth parameters, kharif Onion, Yield attributes.

INTRODUCTION India ranks second in area and production of

Onion, a bulbous crop, belonging to family
Amaryllidaceae, is cultivated as annual crop for bulb
production and as biennial crop for seed production.
The edible portion of onion is modified stem which
is known as bulb and develops underground. Both
immature and mature bulbs are used as vegetable
and condiments having an important role in our daily
diet. Onion contains carbohydrate (11.0 g), protein
(1.2 g), calcium (180 mg), phosphorus (50 mg),
iron (0.7 mg), nicotinic acid (0.4 mg), riboflavin
(0.01 mg) and vitamin-C (11.0 mg) in each 100 g
of edible portion (Bose et al, 2000). The pungency
in onion is due to the presence of sulphur bearing
compound in the volatile oil known as allyl-propyl
disulphide (C6H12S2). It has got many medicinal
values and is commonly used as diuretic and anti
diabetic drugs. India rank second after China in
onion production. In India, the main onion growing
states are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Punjab.
onion in the world after china. The country has three
onion growing seasons, out of which kharif and late
kharif season accounts of 40 per cent of total onion
production while the Rabi season accounts of the 60
per cent. The produce of Rabi season is stored for
consumption in summer and kharif but due to non-
congenial storage conditions and spoilage in the
monsoon season, the availability of onion becomes
less. Hence, production of onion during kharif is
required to fill the gap of demand and supply. Wider
spacing brought significant improvement in nitrogen
uptake, though remained at par in phosphorus and
potash uptake with intermediate spacing. Thus,
it is inferred that application of 100 kg N/ha
with crop geometry of 10×10 cm was better for
realizing higher yield in onion production (Godara
and  Mehta, 2013). Planting geometry affects the
growth and yield of the crop. Therefore, the present
study was carried out with the objectives to study
the effect of crop geometry on growth and yield of
kharif onion.

Corresponding Author’s Email:pmahala@pau.edu

267 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 267-269

 Mahala et al
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present investigation was carried out at the
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Langroya farm during kharif
2018, to find out the influence of crop geometry
on growth and yield of onion. Geographically,
Langroya is situated in 310 10’ N and 760 17’ E and
at an altitude of 247 meters above mean sea level,
in District SBS Nagar, Punjab. The rainfall of the
locality varies from 900 to 1100 mm; most of which
is received in rainy season from July to September.
The soil of the experimental site was loamy
clay. The experiment was laid out in randomized
complete block design with three treatments viz.,
T1=10×7.5 cm, T2=10×10 cm and T3=15×10 cm
replicated three times. Sowing of the onion nursery
(cv N 53) was done on 15.06.2018 followed by
transplanting of the bulb sets on 13.08.2018 in
respective treatments. All other crop management
practices were followed as per recommendations
made by Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana.
The data were subjected to statistically analysis as
per the methodology of Panse and Sukhatme (1985).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Growth Parameters Aliyu et al (2008), Jilani et al (2009), Dubey et al
Scrutiny of data revealed that transplanting of
onion in 15x10cm geometry recorded maximum
plant height (30.87cm) which was statistically
at par with 10x10cm crop geometry (28.93) but
significantly different from 10x7.5cm (24.87cm)
(Table 1). Decrease in closer spacing can be
attributed to occurrence of inter-plant competition
for growth factors like light, space, nutrients
etc. Further, wider spacing (15x10cm) of onion
seedlings resulted in about 20.8 per cent higher
and significantly different number of leaves as
compared to 10x7.5cm crop geometry (10.10) but
statistically at par with 10x10cm crop geometry
(11.60). More spacing led to better growth due to
more availability of light, space and air contributing
for more photosynthesis which might have been the
reason for increase of leaf and ultimately leaf area
per plant. These findings were in consonance with
those of Aliyu et al (2008) and Patil (2017).
268 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 267-269
Yield and yield attributes
Scrutiny of data showed that transplanting of
onion seedling in15x10cm geometry resulted in
significantly higher polar diameter (5.20cm) which
was statistically at par with 10x10 cm spacing
(4.99cm) but significantly higher than 10x7.5cm
(3.20cm) (Table 2). Crop geometry of onion
by 15x10cm (5.74cm) resulted in 41.3 per cent
higher equatorial bulb diameter as compared to
10x7.5cm (4.06cm) which was statistically at par
with 10x10cm spacing (5.28cm) (Table 2). Highest
average weight of bulb was noted in 15x10cm
(83.90g) spacing followed by 10x7.5cm (80.17g)
and 10x7.5cm (70.20g) (Table 2).
Transplanting of onion in 15x10cm crop
geometry recorded 19.52 and 4.65 per cent higher
average bulb weight as compared to 10x7.5 cm
and 10x10cm geometry, respectively. There was
significant effect of spacing on average weight of
bulb per plant, equatorial diameter of bulb, polar
diameter of bulb and bulb yield of onion. Each
increase in level of spacing recorded increase in
average weight of bulb, polar as well as equatorial
diameter. Similar findings have been reported by
(2011), Godara and Mehta (2013) and Patil (2017).
Crop geometry exhibited a significant effect on bulb
yield of onion. For instance, transplanting of onion
in 10x10cm spacing resulted in highest bulb yield
(307.64q/ha) which was 23.41 per cent higher and
significantly different from 10x7.5cm (247.85q/
ha). At the same time, bulb yield in 15x10 cm
(305.89q/ha) crop geometry was found statistically
at par with 10x10cm but significantly higher than
10x7.5cm (Table 2). The plants grown under wider
spacing received more nutrients, light and moisture
around compared to plants of closer spacing, which
was probably the cause of better performance in
yield attributes and yield of individual. Sufficient
availability of space for growth along with more
number of bulbs might have been the reason for
these findings (Godara and  Mehta, 2013; Patil,
2017). On the basis of results emanated from the
present investigation conducted during kharif, it
 Effect of Crop Geometry on Growth and Yield of Kharif Onion
Table 1. Effect of spacing on growth parameters, yield and yield attributes of kharif onion.
Treatment Plant Number of Polar Equatorial Average bulb Bulb yield
height (cm) leaves diameter (cm) diameter (cm) weight (g) (q/ha)
10x7.5cm 24.87 10.10 3.20 4.06 70.20 247.85
10x10cm 28.93 11.60 4.99 5.28 80.17 307.64
15x10cm 30.87 12.20 5.20 5.74 83.90 305.89
CD 3.61 1.42 0.67 0.67 9.45 46.87

was concluded that treatment T2 (10x10 cm) proved Godara A S and Mehta R S (2013). Response of onion (Allium
best in respect of maximum yield and productivity. cepa L.) to crop geometry and nitrogen levels. Prog Hort
45(1) 214-217.

REFERENCES Jilani M S, Khan M Q and Saifur Rahman (2009). Planting

Aliyu U, Dikko A U, Magaji M D and Singh A (2008).
Nitrogen and intra row spacing effects on growth and
yield of onion (Allium cepa L.). J Plant Sci 3(3): 188-193.
Bose T K, Kabir J, Das P and Joy P P (2000). Tropical
Horticulture. Vol. 2 Naya Prokash, Calcutta, India. pp
175.
Devi Y P and Roy S S (2013). Delights of Fruits and
Vegetables, published by ICAR, Manipur Centre, Imphal.
Dubey B K, Mishra R, Bhonde S R and Gupta R P (2011).
Standardization of planting time and spacing in hybrid
onion variety “Colina” for export quality bulb production
during late kharif. In: national symposium on Allium:
current scenario and emerging trends, held from 12-14
march at Pune, organized by Indian Society of Alliums
and Directorate of Onion and Garlic Research, Pune, pp
205-206.
densities effect on yield and components of onion (Allium
cepa L.). J Agri Res 47(4): 397-404.
Panse V G and Sukhatme P V (1984). Statistical methods for
agricultural workers. Fourth edition. ICAR publication,
New Delhi.
Patil D A (2017). Response of onion to crop geometry and
fertilizer levels under drip fertigation. Thesis, Master of
Technology, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth,
Akola.
Singh S K, Dubey A K and Dutta S D (2011). Planting dates
cum plant population trial on kharif onion. In: national
symposium on Allium: current scenario and emerging
trends, held from 12-14th march at Pune, organized by
Indian Society of Alliums and Directorate of Onion and
Garlic Research, Pune, pp 191-192.
Received on 12/02/2019 Accepted on 15/03/2019

269 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 267-269

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 270-272 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00051.5

Short Communication

Opinion of Farmers Regarding Effectiveness of Information

Dissemination through Kisan Suvidha Mobile Application in
Surguja District of Chhattisgarh
Rajni Agashe1, Sachin Verma2 and Pradeep Singh3
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Surguja Ajirma, Ambikapur 497 001 (Chhattisgarh)

ABSTRACT
The study was conducted in the Surguja district of Chattisgarh in the Year 2016-17. The purpose of the study
was to assess the effectiveness of Kisan Suvidha app. in transfer of latest technical information regarding
agriculture to farmers of the district. The Kisan Suvidha app. was developed for transfer of quick, timely &
need based appropriate information regarding agriculture and allied sectors. It was found that about one fourth
(28%) of the respondents had the opinion that this app. is very useful, while more than half of the respondents
(54%) opined that this app has medium level of usefulness. Regarding applicability of the information received
through app, it was found that 52 per cent of the respondents reported that information received was applicable
in crop production situation, need based, timely and content was readable. Need based information and
timeliness was useful i.e. 84 per cent, and visibility of the content was 94.00 per cent, regarding social media.
Key Words: Kisan Suvidha spp, Perception, Effectiveness.

INTRODUCTION and Gujarati languages. The app has very simple

Information and communication technologies interface with focus on providing information on
(ICTs) are becoming an important aspect of six essential areas of farming viz., weather forecast,
agriculture sector. Till now most of ICT initiatives input dealers, market prices, plant protection
by government were focused on ‘World Wide Web. measures, agro-advisory and agronomic practices.
In the current scenario, the mobile phones are Kisan Suvidha is an omnibus mobile app
becoming effective way of delivering information developed to help farmers by providing relevant
and this medium has been used by Department of information to them quickly. With click of a button,
Agriculture Cooperatives and Farmers Welfare they can get the information on weather forecast,
(DAC&FW) to develop ‘Kisan Suvidha mobile dealers, market prices, agro-advisories, plant
application (app). The app is designed primarily protection measures, IPM practices etc. Unique
for farmers keeping in mind that location specific features like extreme weather alerts and market
problems and information needs. The app is prices of commodity in nearest market and the
engineered to provide all information that a farmer maximum price in State as well as other parts of
or agriculture stakeholder in agriculture sector may country have been added to empower farmers in
require. On 19th March 2016, app was inaugurated the best possible manner. An additional tab directly
by Hon’ble Prime Minister during ‘Krishi Unnati connects the farmer with the Kisan call centre
Mela’ in New Delhi. As on today, there are where technical graduates answer their queries.
approximately 3 lakh active users of this app. The The design is simple and neat. To begin with, a
app is available in Hindi, English, Punjabi, Tamil farmer has to register the mobile number, choose
Corresponding Author’s Email: agashedharmendra@gmail.com

270 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 270-272

 Agashe et al
Table 1. Perception of farmers Kisan Suvidha application.
Sr. No. Indicator Response
No Yes
1. Timeliness 8(16%) 42(84%)
2. Visibility of the content 03(6%) 47(94%)
3. Cost effective 18 (40.0%) 32 (60%)
Table 2. Opinion of farmers regarding effectiveness of technical information disseminated through
Kisan Suvidha mobile application.
Sr. Indicator used Response
No.
Low Medium High
1. Gain in knowledge 06(12%) 33(66%) 11(22%)
2. Applicability of the information 05(10%) 19(38%) 26(52%)
3. Need based information 02(4%) 06(12%) 42(84%)
4. Usefulness of information 04(8%) 34(68%) 12(24%)

a language at present limited to Hindi and English head out to purchase these inputs. The agriculture
and enter details of the state, district and block or ministry, which developed the app, describes it as
sub-district. an “omnibus for quick and relevant information”.
The app is likely to have many takers as India Adding more local languages will take it a step
is second largest smart phone market in the world further. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to
with 87 million mobile Internet users in rural areas. assess the effectiveness of Kisan Suvidha app. in
For small farmers, who often sell their produce to transfer of latest technical information regarding
local traders, this could be an important bargaining agriculture to farmers of the district.
tool. Also, farmers can decide on whether to take
their produce to the mandi  or delay it based on MATERIALS AND METHODS
information on current prices. Other information This study was conducted in Chattisgarh
points are useful too. The plant protection button district during the year 2016-17 with an aim to
gives pest, weed and disease-related information as study the effectiveness of Kisan Suvidha app.
well as management practices for each stage of crop The respondents of the study were purposively
development from nursery to harvesting. The agro selected for assessing the effectiveness of recently
advisory section shows messages for farmers from developed mobile app designed for transfer of
district agriculture officials and state universities latest agricultural information to the farmers. For
in their local language. These primarily deal with this study the six blocks of Surguja district i.e.
crop management practices based on the prevailing Ambikapur, Sitapur, Lundra, Batoulii, Mainpat, and
situation; say a remedy for a widespread pest attack Udaipur were selected. The response of selected 50
or imminent showers. Farmers can also access farmers from these six blocks was studied using
names and mobile numbers of input dealers selling semi structured interview schedule developed. The
pesticides, seeds, fertiliser and machinery. This data were analyzed by using appropriate statistical
is a handy tool farmers can now make a call and measurement such as percentage and mean etc.
compare prices and availability before they actually

271 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 270-272

 Information Dissemination through Kisan Suvidha Mobile Application
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSION
Perception toward social media based technical The Kisan Suvidha app. was developed for
information (Kisan Suvidha app) transfer of quick, timely & need based appropriate
Finding of the study revealed that majority of information regarding agriculture and allied sectors.
the respondents (84%) perceived that information It was found that about one fourth (28%) of the
received through Kisan Suvidha app was timely, respondents had the opinion that this app. is very
however, some respondents perceived delivery of useful, while more than half of the respondents (54%)
message as delayed (16%). The great majority (94%) opined that this app has medium level of usefulness.
perceived that the content was visible for the users Regarding applicability of the information received
(Table 1). The respondents (60%) also reported that through app, it was found that 52 per cent of the
the information sharing using mobile app was cost respondents reported that information received
effective as compared to other media. Sharma et al was applicable in crop production situation, need
(2012) reported that mobile phones were powerful based, timely and content was readable. Need based
tool of sharing agriculture information among information and timeliness was useful i.e. 84 per
farmers due to cost effectiveness, better network cent, and visibility of the content was 94.00 per
and easy availability. Nonetheless, there were some cent, regarding social media.
farmers who reported lack of visibility of content
of mobile app (6%) and perceived information REFERENCES
Sharma M, Kaur G and Gill M S (2012). Use of information
sharing as costly (40%). In totality respondents had and communication technology in agriculture by farmers
favourable perception towards Kisan Suvidha app. of district Kapurthala. J Krishi Vigyan 1(1): 83-89.
Bhagya Lakshami and Punima (2018) reported that Bhagya Lakshmi K and Punima K S (2018). Assessment of
majority of the respondents (64.4%) had moderately e-readiness of extension functionaries of southern states
favorable perception towards the use of ICTs in of India in agricultural technology dissemination. J
agricultural extension. Krishi Vigyan 7(1) : 20-24.
Sandhu H S ,Singh G and Grover J (2012). Analysis of kisan
Effectiveness of Kisan Suvidha mobile mobile advisory service in south western Punjab. J Krishi
application Vigyan 1(1) : 1-4.
The results of study clearly indicated that use of Received on 31/01/2019 Accepted on 20/03/2019
social media app viz., Kisan Suvidha app leads to
significant gain in knowledge among farmers. More
than 2/3rd (66%) of the respondents opined medium
level of knowledge gain through use of this app,
followed by 22% with high knowledge gain and
12% with low knowledge gain (Table 2).
More than half (52%) of the respondents
reported that information received through mobile
app had high applicability, while 38% reported
medium level of applicability and 10 per cent
reported low applicability. Earlier, Sandhu et al
(2012) reported that agricultural information sent
through mobile text message was perceived as
comprehensible, useful and timely by 74.6 per cent,
69.3 per cent and 64.6 per cent of the respondents,
respectively.

272 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 270-272

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 273-275 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00052.7

Short Communication

Outcome of Mulching and Phosphatic fertilizer on Germination

and Yield of Turmeric
Jatinder Manan*, Manoj Sharma** and Amandeep Kaur
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kapurthala 144 620 (Punjab)

ABSTARCT
The present study was conducted at Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kapurthala during the year 2016-17 in order to
evaluate the effect of mulching and phosphatic fertilizer on germination and yield of Turmeric. Five different
treatments consisted: T1 - Control (No inorganic fertilizer or mulch), T2 - 100 per cent recommended dose
of fertilizer (DAP 55kg/ha and MOP 40 kg/ha) + No mulch, T3 - 25 per cent more DAP (68 kg/ha) +
recommended dose of MOP (40 kg/ha) + No mulch, T4 - T2 + mulch @ 6t/ha and T5 - T3 + mulch @ 6t/
ha. The experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design (RBD) consists of 3 replications.
The study revealed that maximum germination was recorded in treatment T5 followed by T4. There was no
significant difference between T5, T4 and T3 regarding rhizome count per plot, on the other hand, T2 was
at par with T1. Maximum turmeric yield was obtained under T5 followed by T4, T3, T2 and T1. Hence, it
can be said that in order to maximize the rhizome yield of turmeric, farmers must apply 25 per cent more
quantity of phosphatic fertilizer than the recommendation along with use of mulching material @ 6 t/ha.
Key Words: Germination, Mulching, Phosphatic fertilizer, Rhizome yield, Turmeric.

INTRODUCTION threatened by carcinogens. It is useful in treating

Turmeric is herbaceous perennial plant that
belongs to family Zingiberaceae. Turmeric is
grown for its underground rhizome, which is
mainly used as spice or condiment. In addition to
this, it has a wide range of medicinal properties.
Turmeric is mainly cultivated in India, China,
Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Pakistan. India accounts
for 80 per cent of world’s output of turmeric.
India is also the largest exporter of turmeric in the
world. (Anonymous, 2012). Turmeric has many
medicinal properties and considered as analgesic,
antibacterial, antitumor, anti-allergic, antioxidant,
antiseptic, appetizer, astringent, cardiovascular,
cholagogue, diuretic and stimulant. It neutralizes
the cancer causing substances and conditions.
It directly helps the cell to retain its integrity, if
dropsy, wounds and inflammation (Khanna, 1999).
Owing to its long duration and high productivity,
turmeric requires heavy input of fertilizer (Peter
et al, 2000) and more irrigation. Considering the
heavy fertilizer requirements, inorganic fertilizers
are applied only during first 3 months as compared
to 7-8 months life cycle of the plant (Issac and
Varghese, 2016). In Kapurthala district, 50 per
cent area is having sandy soils with very less water
holding capacity and therefore, frequent irrigation
is required to grow any crop. Hence, mulching
can play an important role in reducing irrigation
frequency and enhancing seed germination. Sanyal
and Dhar (2008) have reported a significant effect
of mulching on yield of turmeric.
During 2015-16, turmeric rhizomes were

Corresponding Author’s Email: jatinderkm@rediffmail.com

*Assistant Agronomist, University Seed Farm, Usman, Tarantaran, Punjab
** Associate Director (Training), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Langroya, SBS Nagar, Punjab.

273 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 273-275

 Manan et al
given in demonstrations to 10 farmers in district
Kapurthala and yield was calculated as 200-250
t/ha. The major reason for the variation in yield
was observed with application of higher use of
phosphatic fertilizers applied by the farmers in the
form of diammonium phosphate (DAP) instead of
single super phosphate and mulch. The study was
conducted to evaluate the effect of mulching and
phosphatic fertilizer on germination and yield of
turmeric during 2016-17.
to all the other treatments (<68% emergence). This
showed the benefit of mulching that emergence
increased with mulching irrespective of the dose
of inorganic fertilizer. So, the thumb rule for better
emergence of turmeric is mulching after the sowing
of crop, which will conserve moisture reduce soil
temperature during initial two hot months i.e.,
May and June. This quick and favorable effect of
mulching also reduces competition with weeds and
improves growth parameters of turmeric.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Rhizome count and dry weight (q/ha)

The present study was conducted at Krishi A similar trend was observed in rhizome count
Vigyan Kendra Kapurthala during the year 2016- and rhizome dry weight from table 1. In rhizome
17. Trial comprised of 5 treatments: T1: control count per plot, maximum number was observed in
(no inorganic fertilizer or mulch), T2: 100 per cent T5 (197.0), which were statistically better than all
recommended dose of fertilizer (DAP 55 kg/ha and the other treatments. This showed that increased
MOP 40 kg/ha) + no mulch, T3: 25 per cent more DAP application along with mulching resulted more
DAP (68 kg/ha) + recommended dose of MOP number of rhizomes and in turn higher dry rhizome
(40 kg/ha) + no mulch, T4: T2 + mulch @ 6t/ha, weight (149.5 q/ha). These results were in agreement
T5: T3 + mulch @ 6t/ha. It was worth to note that with Banwasi and Singh (2010). Likewise Kumar et
single super phosphate fertilizer is not available in al (2008) also reported higher dry rhizome weight
the market so it was planned to evaluate effect of of turmeric with mulching, which might be due to
DAP along with mulch. The experiment was laid higher vegetative growth and more accumulation of
out in randomized complete block design (RBD) photosynthates in mulched plots.
replicated three times. The experiment area was low The rhizome count per plot of T4 (170.3) was at
in nitrogen, phosphorus and potash. Rhizomes were par with T3 (150.0), showing the higher demand for
planted on 27th April, 2016 at 45cm x 15cm spacing turmeric for inorganic fertilizers that depicts in the
with plot size of 4m X 5.4 m2. Immediately after dry rhizome weight also. While on the second hand,
planting, wheat straw was applied as mulch material. T2 was at par with T1, showing alone inorganic
Irrigations were applied as per the requirement of application at RDF without mulch was unable to
the crop. Emergence count was taken at 40 days fulfill requirements of turmeric.
after sowing (DAS), yield parameters and yield
Rhizome yield (q/ha)
data were recorded at harvest from all the plots on
Maximum turmeric yield was obtained with
8th February, 2017. Data were statistically analyzed
T5 (251.0 q/ha) followed by T4 (227.7 q/ha), T3
using OPSTAT software (Sheoran et al, 1998).
(218.5 q/ha), T2 (176.7 q/ha) and T1 (153.7 q/ha),
respectively (Table 1). This was probably due to the
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
fact that straw mulch conserved more soil moisture
Emergence count (Germination) and suppressed weeds, which helped to produce
The data presented in table 1 revealed significant more number of leaves per plant, enhanced plant
difference in emergence count between mulch and growth, deposited more food material and finally
non-mulch plots. The maximum emergence was gave more yield. Sidhu et al (2016) also reported
recorded in T5 (84.67%), which was statistically at higher rhizome yield with mulching, which was
par with T4 (81.33%) and were significantly superior might be due to higher soil moisture that creates

274 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 273-275

 Outcome of Mulching and Phosphatic fertilizer
Table 1. Germination, rhizome count, dry and fresh rhizome yield of turmeric.
Treatment Germination (%) Rhizome count Dry rhizome Fresh rhizome
at 40 DAP per plot weight (q/ha) yield (q/ha)
T1 57.3 112.7 71.5 153.7
T2 63.7 127.7 84.0 176.7
T3 67.3 150.0 124.5 218.5
T4 81.3 170.3 124.0 227.7
T5 84.7 197.0 149.5 251.0
CD at 5% 4.5 24.7 18.5 21.7
favorable environment to absorb nutrients resulting Issac S R and Varghese J (2016). Nutrient management in
in more rhizome fresh weight. turmemic (Curcuma longa L.) in an intergrated farming
system in southern Kerala. J Spices Arom crops 25(2):
206-209.
CONCLUSION
Khanna N M (1999). Turmeric-Nature’s precious gift. Curr
Turmeric can be grown in diverse tropical Sci 76: 1351-56.
conditions from sea level up to 1500 meters, at
Kumar D, Pandey V and Nath V (2008). Effect of organic
a temperature range of 20-35°C with an annual mulches on moisture conservation for rainfed turmeric
rainfall of 1500 mm under irrigated conditions. production in mango orchard. Indian J Soil Conserv
Though it can be grown on different types of soils, it 36(3):188-191.
thrives best in well drained sandy or clay loam soils Peter K V, Srinivasan V and Hamza S (2000). Nutrient
with a pH of 4.5 to 7.5 with good organic status. management in spices. Fert News 45: 13-18.
The study indicated that in order to maximize the Sanyal D and Dhar P P (2008). Effects of mulching, nitrogen
rhizome yield of turmeric, farmers must apply 25 and potassium levels on growth, yield and quality of
per cent more quantity of phosphatic fertilizer than turmeric grown in red lateritic soils. Acta Hort 769:137-
140.
the recommendation along with use of mulching
material @ 6 t/ha in sandy soils having low level Sheoran O P, Tonk D S, Kaushik L S, Hasija R C and Pannu
R S (1998). Statistical Software Package for Agricultural
of NPK.
Research Workers. Recent Advances in Information
Theory, Statistics and Computer Applications by D S
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Anonymous (2012). Production and yield of turmeric in Statistics, CCS HAU, Hisar (139-143).
world. http//www.indiastat.com.
Sidhu P S, Dhillon G S and Brar A S (2016). Effect of mulching,
Banwasi R and Singh A K (2010). Effect of phosphorus levels spacing and intercropping of green gram (Vigna radiate)
on growth and yield of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). J on growth, yield and quality of turmeric (Curcuma longa
Spices Arom Crops 19 (1 & 2): 76–78. L.). Int J Agric Sci 12:90-94.
Received on 25/10/2018 Accepted on 20/03/2019

275 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 273-275

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 276-279 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00055.2

Short Communication

Qualitative Evaluation of Fodder Trees and

Grasses in Hill Region
Shaon Kumar Das
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Sikkim Centre, Tadong, Gangtok-737 102

ABSTRACT
Leaves from eleven trees and sixteen grasses were selected for evaluation of fodder quality. It was found
that dry matter production was highest in Kharak (37.22%) and Lemon grass (19.25%). The organic matter
was highest in ravines (92.15%) and broad leaf Pasfelum (71.48%). Manganese content was high in Utish
(145.86 ppm) and Para (150.45 ppm). Iron was found higher in Betain (185.43 ppm) and Lemon grass
(180.57 ppm). Calcium was found maximum in Betain (1.84%) and (180.57 ppm). The crude protein content
was highest in Fanead (19.24%) and Cetoria cajungula (16.85%). Crude protein and calcium are the most
important for feeding the ruminant. Thus fanead and cetoria cajungula are good source of crude protein
and capable of providing energy sources to the ruminant. On the other hand Betain and Napier are also
found significantly useful in terms of calcium. Thus, these trees and grasses species can be recommended
to the farming community of hilly region for uplifting the nutritional demand for their ruminants.
Key words: Calcium, Crude protein, Fodder quality, Grasses, Trees.

INTRODUCTION leads to under nourishment, low productivity and

India has the largest livestock population in the
world numbering 500 M which constitute about
15per cent of the global total. The contribution
of livestock sector to the gross domestic product
in India has increased from 4.82 to 5.37 per cent
in recent times (Wangchuk et al, 2015). In the
overall agricultural economy of the country, the
livestock sector contributes about 25 per cent to the
overall agricultural GDP. The fodder trees provide
nutritious feed to the livestock population of hill
farmers (Diriba, 2014). Even the landless labourers,
keeping small herds of animals mostly depend on
the top feed resources from trees growing near
habitats. Fodder trees and grasses are one of the
predominant land use systems in North-Western
Himalaya and have always played a role in feeding
livestock. Trees and grasses are increasingly
recognized as important components of animal
feeding, especially as suppliers of protein. In the
present scenario the acute deficiency of nutrients
*Corresponding Author’s Email: shaon.iari@gmail.com
predisposes the livestock to parasitism, epidemics
and breeding problems. The misuse of rangelands
has deteriorated the rangeland ecosystem. The
ruminants’ productivity is related to the supply of
good quality fodder (Kohler el al, 2015). On an
average, only 4 per cent of the sown area is under
cultivable fodder production and the grazing land is
only 3.5 per cent of the total geographical area. Of
the total fodder requirement in India, 57 per cent is
met from the forests.
During the last few years, many studies have
been done on the chemical composition of browse
species, and the protein, mineral and vitamin
concentrations have in general been shown to be
adequate for the maintenance requirement of grazing
camels (Rani et al, 2015). Keeping the importance
of fodder quality, the study was undertaken to assess
the chemical composition and potential nutritive
value evaluation of different fodder trees and
grasses in the north western Himalaya. Emphasis

276 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 276-279

 Shaon Kumar Das
was given on identification of quality trees and high in Utish (145.86 ppm) followed by Bhimal
grasses as fodder for farmers of hill region. (135.75 ppm) and lowest in Kachnar (60.48 ppm).
Iron was found higher in Betain (185.43 ppm)
MATERIALS AND METHODS followed by Manipur oak (174.28 ppm), Rovinea
The experiment was carried out at Vivekananda (156.23 ppm) and lowest in Oak (90.47 ppm). The
Parvatiya Krishi Anusandhan Sansthan (VPKAS), most important element for animal is calcium and
Almora, Uttarakhand to evaluate the quality found maximum in betain (1.84%) followed by
parameters of trees and grasses for identifying best Oak (1.78%), Bhimal (1.65%), Sehetud (1.53%),
fodder in the mountain region. Eleven trees and Padam (1.48%), Rovinea (1.47%) and lowest in
sixteen grasses were selected. The eleven selected Manipur oak (0.95%) followed by Kharak (0.91%).
trees are Kharak, Kachnar, Bhimal, Betain, Oak, The crude protein content in different trees was
Sehetud, Rovinea, Manipur oak, Fanead, Utish, highest in Fanead (19.24%) followed by Manipur
Padam. The sixteen selected grasses are Kongo oak (18.53%), Betain (18.45%), Kachnar (17.26%),
signal, Lemon grass, Desmodium, Napier, Ginni, Rovinea (16.85%) and lowest in Padam (14.64%)
Cetoria cajungula, Para, Khas-khas, Pangola, Rodus, followed by Kharak (13.45%).
Penicum chlorotum, Salum, Broad leaf pasfelum,
Digiteria, Setaria nandi, Ons. Leave samples of Nutritive value of grasses
different trees and grasses were collected dried Results (Table 2) revealed that among the sixteen
in the hot air oven at 65ºC for 24h and ground to grasses, dry matter production was highest in Lemon
pass through 1mm sieve. These were analyzed for grass (19.25%) followed by Setaria nandi (18.46%),
proximate principles (AOAC, 1995), viz., dry matter Pangola (18.45%), Napier (17.64%) and lowest in
(DM), organic matter (OM), crude protein (CP), Rodus (11.27%). The organic matter was highest in
(Goering et al, 1970). Tannin was also estimated Broad leaf pasfelum (71.48%) followed by Setaria
as per the methodology of Sastry et al (1999). naidi (70.66%) and lowest in Kongo signal (50.45).
For mineral analysis, the samples were digested Tannin content was found only in Pangola (0.13 %)
using di-acid mixture (HNO3 + HClO4). Calcium and Setaria naidi (0.17%). Manganese was high in
was determined using flame photometer and trace Para (150.45 ppm) followed by Digiteria (113.57
minerals (Fe and Mn) using Atomic Absorption ppm) and lowest in Ons (15.45 ppm). Iron was
Spectrophotometer. All the determinations were found higher in lemon grass (180.57 ppm) followed
carried out in triplicate. Data were analyzed using by Pangola (167.58 ppm), Khas-khas (155.34) and
completely randomized block design (CRBD) and lowest in Ginni (80.94 ppm) followed by Digiteria
various correlations were drawn as per Snedecor et (50.57 ppm). Calcium is found maximum in Napier
al (1989). (1.15%) followed by Rodus (0.94%), Lemon grass
(0.89%), Para (0.87%), Desmodium (0.76%) and
lowest in Salum (0.37%) followed by Ons (0.31%).
RESULTS ANS DISCUSSION
The most important parameter for fodder quality
Nutritive value of tree fodder assessment is crude protein and was found highest
The data (Table 1) revealed that among the in Cetoria cajungula (16.85%) followed by broad
eleven trees dry matter production was highest in leaf Pasfelum (16.73%), Lemon grass (16.47%),
Kharak (37.22%), followed by Oak (36.18), Sehetud Napier (15.84%), Khas-khas (15.75%), Salum
(35.64%) and lowest in Utish (29.45%). The organic (15.48%) and lowest in Desmodium (11.45%) and
matter was highest in Ravines (92.15%) followed by Ons (10.51%).
Kachnar (90.42%) and lowest in Sehetud (81.45%).
Tannin content was found only in Manipur oak The values obtained for proximate principles in
(0.37%) and Rovinea (0.14%). Manganese was this study were in the normal range (Chander et al,

277 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 276-279

 Qualitative Evaluation of Fodder Trees and Grasses in Hill Region
Table 1. Nutritive composition of eleven different trees.
On dry matter basis percentage (%) Mg/kg (ppm)
Tree DM OM CP Tannin Ca Fe Mn
(%)
Kharak (Celtis australis) 37.22 87.15 13.45 - 0.91 110.12 117.84
Kachnar (Bauhinia variegata) 34.54 90.42 17.26 0.23 1.23 107.25 60.48
Bhimal (Grewia optiva) 30.89 84.63 14.25 - 1.65 135.75 135.75
Betain (Dalbergia latifolia) 32.87 86.45 18.45 - 1.84 185.43 50.86
Oak (Quercus leucotrichophora) 36.18 88.58 15.64 - 1.78 90.47 125.87
Sehetud (Moras alba) 35.64 81.45 14.78 - 1.53 95.75 90.78
Rovinea (Robinea Pseudoacacia) 34.28 92.15 16.85 0.14 1.47 156.23 98.45
Manipur Oak (Quercus serrata) 37.15 88.75 18.53 0.37 0.95 174.28 87.81
Fanead (Prunus cerasoides) 30.17 86.23 19.24 - 1.37 123.85 130.31
Utish (Alnus nepalensis) 29.45 83.57 15.47 - 1.27 132.67 145.86
Padam (Anthocephalus kadamba) 31.57 85.45 14.64 - 1.48 145.24 110.87
*DM= dry matter; OM= organic matter; CP= crude protein; TN= tannin

Table 2. Nutritive composition of sixteen different grasses

On dry matter basis percentage (%) Mg/kg (ppm)
Trees DM OM CP Tannin Ca Fe Mn
Kongo signal (Brachiaria ruziziensis) 17.24 50.45 12.45 - 0.62 130.45 28.45
Lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus) 19.25 67.45 16.47 - 0.89 180.57 35.48
Desmodium (Desmodium intortum) 12.54 55.75 11.45 - 0.76 90.45 33.27
Napier (Pennisetum purpureum) 17.64 62.78 15.84 - 1.15 120.57 87.45
Ginni (Megathyrsus maximus) 15.87 59.78 14.97 - 0.57 80.94 67.56
Cetoria cajungula 14.67 61.87 16.85 0.46 150.64 15.57
Para (Brachiaria mutica) 11.27 51.27 13.47 - 0.87 110.93 150.45
Khas-Khas (Chrysopogon zizanioides) 16.27 53.45 15.75 - 0.49 155.34 97.57
Pangola (Digitaria eriantha) 18.45 54.78 13.27 0.13 0.73 167.58 64.45
Rodus (Chloris gayana) 11.87 60.78 15.45 - 0.94 98.27 71.45
Panic grass (Penicum chlorotum) 16.45 62.48 14.63 0.67 113.67 49.48
Salum (Panicum capillare) 17.45 67.48 15.48 - 0.37 118.57 37.61
Broad leaf pasfelum (Paspalum mandiocanum) 16.75 71.48 16.73 - 0.49 85.17 91.27
Digiteria (Digitaria sanguinalis) 17.56 64.95 13.67 - 0.67 50.57 113.57
Setaria Nandi (Setaria sphacelata cv. Nandi) 18.46 70.66 11.73 0.17 0.58 137.37 97.37
Ons (Pennisetum pedicellatum) 15.32 54.85 10.54 - 0.31 125.61 15.45
*DM= dry matter; OM= organic matter; CP= crude protein; TN= tannin

278 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 276-279

 Shaon Kumar Das
2017). Leguminous trees had higher crude protein
content than the non-leguminous ones, which is in
agreement with other studies (Takele et al, 2014
and Santoso et al, 2013). In this experiment, all the
trees and grasses possessed more than 10 per cent of
crude protein. Below this level, rumen fermentation
is adversely affected. Most of these species (trees
and grasses) were rich in crude protein and the
concentration was higher in trees than grasses. This
supported the results of Setyawati et al ( 2016). The
high crude protein contents of these trees and grasses
will encourage their uses as high protein sources in
some food formulations. It has been reported that
protein-calories malnutrition deficiencies is a major
factor responsible in nutritional pathology (Roger
et al, 2005 and Fadiyimu et al, 2014). The range
of tannin contents (0.13-0.37) in the present study
was low and good for animal health. However,
variability in tannin content in tree leaves and
grasses at different places is expected owing to
several factors viz., geographical distribution of
plant species, climate, maturity, etc. (Diriba 2014)
Most of the trees and grasses were adequate to rich
sources of Ca, Fe and Mn which will minimize
reproductive disorders of dairy cattle in relation to
mineral deficiency.
CONCLUSION
The results indicated that all these tree species
and grasses have the potential to provide essential
nutrients to the ruminant. Fanead and Cetoria
cajungula were envisaged as a good source of crude
protein, hence capable of providing energy to the
ruminant and very good for the digestive system.
Betain and Napier were also found significantly
useful in terms of elemental resources; particularly
Ca level. Sufficient attention need to be paid to
farmer’s knowledge about various trees and grasses
fodder with regards to their feed value, biomass
yield, palatability, fuel wood production, control of
soil erosion, effect on crop production etc.
279 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 7 (2) : 276-279
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Barnabas A P and Lakshmiswaramma M (1980). “Assessment of Evaluation system for Rural
development”. In: Monitoring and Evaluation of Rural Development: Some Asian Experiences.
(eds Kuldeep Mathu and Inayatulloah) Kuala Lumpur U.N. Asian and Pacific Development Centre.
Pp: 121-22.
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