Professional Documents
Culture Documents
German Unification Notes Updated
German Unification Notes Updated
Why was German Unification unlikely in 1815? (We have almost the entire first
The German Confederation was set up at the Congress of Vienna (1815) with 39
separate states all being controlled by separate rulers. The Diet (Parliament) of the
princes. It had little power as there was unanimous verdicts and no army or civil
service. ‘Peaceful Dualism’ meant that Austria and Prussia dominated and shared the
control of Germany. The southern catholic states tended to look towards Austria for
leadership and the northern, protestant states to Prussia. There was cultural, religious
and national disunity. Some non-Germans were part of the Confederation; some
Confederation states were ruled by non-Germans and parts of the Habsburg Empire
was outside of the Confederation. There was also the catholic/protestant divide. The
Junkers (aristocratic landowners) dominated society. The army and civil service were
dominated by the aristocracy and there was little industry or large towns.
What were the forces for Change between 1815 and 1848?
The Zollverein grew out of the Prussian Customs Union (1818) which got rid of
customs barriers within Prussia. It was felt that protectionism amongst all the German
states was holding German economic growth back and a customs union was needed.
According to political and economic thought at the time, this was going to lead to
economic prosperity.
However, other states were wary of Prussian economic domination. A Middle Union
was formed as a rival to the Zollverein, intended to ensure its failure. In 1830, Hesse-
Cassel left the rival Middle Union and joined the PCU. The Middle Union collapsed
and 18 states joined the PCU to form the Zollverein in 1834. By 1848 only Austria,
Hanover, Oldenburg, Mecklenburg and the Hanseatic towns were NOT in the
Zollverein. The Growth of German Nationalism was seen in German students and
educated middle classes demonstrating at Wartburg (1817) and Hambach (1832). The
growth of liberalism could be seen in the students and the educated Middle Classes
campaigned for a Constitution and liberal measures e.g. in Baden in the 1840s
(Hippenheilm – 1847).
in population which led to food shortages and industrialisation which led to a growth
of poor living and working conditions in the expanding towns. These poor living
conditions made people miserable, and attracted them to revolutionary violence and
feelings.
Short Term: Harvest failures in 1846 and 1847; Trade recession in Europe in 1847 and
assembly of 596 men from all states given the task of drawing up a Constitution for a
United Germany.
However, it FAILED because it became a ‘talking shop’ without real action; there were
too many different representatives who called for different things e.g.
Germany to include Austria); it had no real power (no army or civil service); it lacked
the support of the masses; it took too long to decide on a Constitution, especially when
it wasted time on the Fifty Articles; It had weak leadership; the radicals and liberals
were divided and didn’t cooperate with each other. The death knell came when
Frederick William IV, after the Constitution had been decided, refused to take the
Demonstrations and riots in Berlin 13th-19th March 1848 led to Frederick William IV
to accept the election of an Assembly to draw up a new Liberal Constitution and new
Liberal Ministers (21st March). The Assembly spent March-December trying but
failing to agree. In August in opposition the Junkers set up ‘The League for the
Protection of Landed Property’ (‘The Junker Parliament’) which aimed to abolish the
Prussian Assembly and new Ministers. After concluding the War with the Danish,
Frederick William IV regained control and gained the support of the Middle Classes
(as they disliked the worker riots). He dismissed the new Liberal Ministers and in
December 1848 dissolved the Assembly by Royal Decree. However, he granted his
own Constitution in December 1848 which had: an upper and lower house (Lower
house voted for by universal manhood suffrage); granted liberal measures e.g. Free
Press and legal system. However, he could alter it at any time e.g. in an emergency he
could suspend civil rights and collect taxes; he also appointed his own Ministers and
controlled the army. Effective and real power was still in his own hands. The
Constitution was clearly more conservative than liberal. Nevertheless Liberals and
nationalistic goals: Hungarians, Slavs, Czechs, Italians, Serbs, Croats, and others.
(More non Germans than Germans lived in the empire). Austrian government was
(working for the lord for free) doomed masses of people to a life without hope.
March 13 – rioting breaks out in Vienna which then led to the Austrian empire
collapsing; Metternich fled. The Constituent assembly meets to try and appease the
govern effectively which leads to Ferdinand I’s abdication. Habsburgs restored under
Austria, however, reasserted control in Vienna. At the time, the Frankfurt parliament
finally drafted a Constitution in which there was going to be an Emperor from within
the German kings and princes. It offered emperorship to Prussian King. Frederick
William declined, and this meant that the Frankfurt Parliament clearly lost all
legitimacy. Some of the liberals now recognized that the Parliament was dead.
2) Too many Chiefs not enough Indians – As in, there was little popular support
alienated
triumphant.
The Erfurt Union: Following the failure of the Frankfurt Parliament, the Prussian
Army General von Radowitz proposed the setting up of the Erfurts Union, a
‘kleindeustchland’ led by Prussia with ‘special links’ to Austria. This was done for the
purpose of ensuring Prussian domination of other German states. Set up in May 1850,
28 states joined. Austrian Chief Minister Schwarzenberg saw the Erfurt Union as an
the old Confederation Diet and proposed a ‘Grossdeutschland’ under the leadership
of Austria.
A Revolution in Hesse-Cassel broke out and they turned to the Diet for help in sorting
out their problems. However, it was a member of the Erfurt Union. Austria and
Prussia therefore conflicted on who should help and it led to small scale fighting
The Olmutz Declaration: anxious to avoid war, the Prussian Minister President,
Manteuffel agreed to abandon the Erfurt Union at Olmutz on the 29th November 1850.
However, Prussia confirmed its economic control after Austria attempted to set up a
rival Customs Union to the Zollverein called the Zollunion. Its failure meant that
Saar, Ruhr and in Silesia. The Railways developed massively: 1845: 3,280 km to 1860:
11,633 km. This helped with trade to other countries and would later help mobilise
the Prussian Army. Foreign trade doubled. Entrepreneurs and Iron and Steel
Magnates like Alfred Krupp and his Needle gun would assist economic
developments which would later help the army. Prussia developed an extensive
Russia. This upset the Russians and ended the ‘Holy Alliance’. Prussia stayed neutral.
William I becomes the Prussian King in 1858. He keeps the Constitution but replaces
in defeat at War with France and Piedmont which cripples her army and economy
(North Italian War). The Liberals in Parliament in 1859 set up the ‘Nationalverein’
which aimed at German unity through Prussian Leadership. In 1860-62, the new
Minister for War General Von Roon tried to pass an ‘Army Bill’ (to increase
conscription time from 2-3 years; doubling the size of the army and reducing the role
pass the Bill. In June 1861, Radical liberals set up the ‘Progressive Party’ which aimed
the King. They gained 110 seats in Parliament in Dec1861 and had an overall majority
in May 1862. This became a major constitutional crisis. As a result, Von Roon
On Bismarck
Constitutional crisis by overriding Parliament. When the Progressives told people not
to pay taxes, Bismarck replied he had an army of 200,000 soldiers ready to persuade
them to pay! Bismarck then ruled Germany without Parliament for the next 4 years.
He later got the Prussian Parliament to pass the Indemnity Bill which forgave him for
all his actions taken during the 4 years that he had ruled without them.
Was Bismarck a Master Planner or a great Opportunist?
Opportunism:
There is no doubt that Bismarck had a favourable ‘deck of cards’ handed to him in
1862 and not all events were planned as he suggested. He inherited: a favourable
education system.
CAUSES:
Poland had been divided between Russia, Austria, Prussia and Poland in the 18th
Century. Poles in Russia revolted in 1863 because they wanted independence from
the absolutist rule of the Tsar. Bismarck feared the Poles in Prussia would also revolt
EVENTS:
Bismarck offered assistance against the Russian Poles but was refused. At the
‘Alvensleben Convention’ Bismarck agrees to send any Polish rebels back to Russia
if they escaped over the border. Austria and France condemn this action and
Prussian Liberals call for his dismissal. As a result, Bismarck is forced to deny the
agreement existed.
CONSEQUENCES:
Russia was angered by Bismarck’s denials. However, she was more angry at Austria
after the Crimean War. Therefore Russia was likely to remain neutral if a war broke
CAUSES:
King Frederick VII of Denmark who ruled North German states of Schleswig and
Holstein died leaving no heir. It led to a succession dispute between the German
Prussia supported the German Prince and Austria, scared that German states would
see Prussia as upholding German interests decided to join with Prussia to invade
Schleswig and Holstein on Augustenburg’s behalf. Prussia and Austria defeated the
Danes quickly. At the Treaty of Vienna in October 1864 Prussia and Austria agreed to
jointly control both territories. However, Prussia wanted to control the territories
decided that Prussia would govern Schleswig and Austria would govern Holstein.
This geographical situation meant that this situation now meant that relations
between Prussia and Austria began to deteriorate rapidly. It ultimately led to the
Tensions between the two states grew over Schleswig and Holstein. Prussia made a
secret alliance with Italy in April 1866 whereby Prussia promised to declare war on
Austria within 3 months and hand Venetia over to Italy in the event of victory.
Bismarck meets Napoleon III at Biarritz in October 1865 to try to gain French neutrality
in the event of an Austro-Prussian War. Napoleon agrees to gain Venetia which she
would then hand to Italy. Bismarck puts forward plans to reform the German
Constitution which would give Prussia increasing control. The Austrians obviously
oppose it and in anticipation of further trouble, in defence, they mobilise their armies
in April 1866. Prussia is now given the excuse they needed and invades Holstein.
However, the Austrians withdraw to the annoyance of Bismarck. He then asks for
states support against Austria and when he receives none, he invades and takes over
Hanover, Hesse-Cassel and Saxony. With the help of the Italians (Austria has to fight
on 2 fronts) Prussia decisively defeat the Austrians at Konnigratz/Sadowa on 3rd July
1866.
William I, von Roon and other leading Generals like von Moltke wanted to march onto
Vienna and bring Austria under Prussian control. Bismarck dramatically advised
against this and advises that Prussia should end the War. (He was worried that France
and Russia might get involved to stop them). Bismarck organises for the Prussians
CONSEQUENCES:
The Treaty of Prague in August 1866 was incredibly lenient on Austria. The North
German Confederation is set up and Germany is now divided into: The North German
Confederation (led by Prussia) and Austria and 4 independent South German States
which formed themselves into a union (Bavaria, Wurrtenberg, Baden and Hesse-
Darmctadt) also Austria lost Venetia to the Italians (through France). Secret Military
alliances were soon made with the Southern States whereby the Southern States
whereby the Southern States promised to fight with the Prussia in the event of war
Zollparlament – who’s job it was to discuss Zollverein policy, of which the southern
states were members. Austria was militarily and economically crippled and France
The Luxemburg crisis: In 1866 Napoleon III, worried about Prussia’s increasing
supports the French claim, but by the end of 1866 is trying to gain support for a
Spain out of the country leaving a Spanish succession crisis. In February 1870 the
Spanish Parliament offers the throne to Leopold of Hohenzollern, who was related to
the Prussian Royal family. Prussia had a choice: to accept the throne would give them
On the 12th July 1870 Leopold of Hohenzollern’s father withdrew his son as a
candidate. On the 13th July 1870 the French Ambassador Count Benedetti met William
I at the German town of Ems. William accepted the withdrawal of Leopold, but
refused to accept the further French demand that Leopold withdraws permanently.
William sends Bismarck a telegram describing his talks with Benedetti and gives
Bismarck releases his own version of the telegram which angers the French so much
EVENTS:
The highly effective and efficient Prussian Army (including representatives from the
4 southern states) cut a large section of the French Army off at the French city of Metz.
On the 2nd September 1870 the Prussians defeat the French at the Battle of Sedan
Hill.On the same day the French surrendered to the Prussians – Napoleon III was
taken prisoner and held in Cassel until the Spring of 1872 before he fled to England
The Prussians kept advancing until they reached Paris and on the 18th January they
humiliated the French by declaring a fully united German Empire led by King William
I at Versailles.
A united German Empire with William I as the Emperor was set up on thE 18th
January 1871.
What other factors were involved in the Unification process? (Factors outside of
To what extent were the actions of others responsible for unification? E.g. Napoleon
III
MASTER PLAN?
He said he tricked Austria into War with Prussia by setting up the argument over
Schleswig and Holstein. He ensured French neutrality for the Austro-Prussian War by
Austrians leniently at the Treaty of Prague in August 1866. He did persuade William
and von Roon NOT to march onto Vienna. He did ensure that most states were united
into declaring War on Prussia (and he had already made secret military agreements
to gain the support of the Southern States) through the Hohenzollern Candidature
This view is supported by Bismarck himself and early German historians as well.
and a liberal education system. However, many historians believe that after 1862 there
were circumstances outside of Bismarck’s control that he used to benefit Prussia and
EVIDENCE:
Actions of the Poles: How could Bismarck have known in advance that the poles
would rebel? It is more likely he offered Russia support because he feared revolts in
Prussian Poland. The fact he nearly lost his job as a result of Liberals and Britain and
France condemning his agreement with Russia suggests his actions were NOT
planned.
The Neutrality of Russia: Bismarck actually upset the Russian Tsar through denial of
the Alvensleben Convention. He was lucky that Austria had upset the Tsar more
during the Crimean War. He could not guarantee Russian neutrality as result.
The Schleswig-Holstein Affair: Bismarck kept trying to use diplomacy instead of War
Actions of Napoleon III: It was Napoleon and NOT Bismarck who started the tension
between France and Prussia by demanding Luxemburg in 1866. It was also aggressive
permanently ban his Hohenzollern cousin from accepting the Spanish throne) which
allowed Bismarck to publish his version of the Ems Telegram. He could not have
Bismarck was a skillful politician who was most probably a Prussian Supremacist who
wanted Prussian expansion at the expense of the Austrians. It is most unlikely that he
planned unification from the start and more likely that he used opportunities when
they presented themselves to benefit Prussia, initially and later, for Germany.