Handout 1

Motion of charged particles in EM fields

We consider plasmas in which no collisions take place. The basic equation of motion of a
charged particle in an electromagnetic field is then

d~v 
~ + ~v × B
~

m~a = m =q E (1)
dt
0.1 Energy considerations solution:
d 1 2 d vx (t) = A cos(ωg t + φ) (7)
 
~ · ~v
mv = W = q E (2)
dt 2 dt vy (t) = −A sin(ωg t + φ) (8)
Therefore: where
vx2 + vy2 = A2 = v⊥ 2
. (9)
No spatial change in the magnetic field
results in a change of the total kinetic To get the actual movement of the particle,
energy. integrate the solution:
Z
v⊥
Electric fields perpendicular to the di- x(t) = vx (τ )dτ = x 0 + sin(ωg t + φ)
ωg
rection of motion do not change the (10)
total kinetic energy. Z
v⊥
y(t) = vy (τ )dτ = y0 + cos(ωg t + φ)
Only electric fields aligned with the di- ωg
rection of motion can change the total (11)
kinetic energy. Here, x0 and y0 are constants of integration
and φ is the initial phase. The particle moves
in a circle, perpendicular to the background
0.2 Motion in steady magnetic magnetic field. It "gyrates". The radius of
~ =0
field, E the gyromotion, the gyroradius, is
~ = 0 and B
Assume E ~ = B0~ez . Then from v⊥ mv⊥
rg = = (12)
(1) ωg qB0
where ωg is the gyrofrequency:
dvx q
= vy B0 (3)
dt m
dvy q
= − vx B0 (4)
dt m
dvz
=0 vz const. (5)
dt
Differentiate (3) and substitute (4):
2
d2 vx qB0 dvy qB0

2
= =− vx (6)
dt m dt m
This describes a simple harmonic oscillator Figure 1: Sketch of the gyromotion of a posi-
with a frequency of ωg = qB0 /m with the tively charged particle.

FYS3610 Lasse Clausen, lasse.clausen@fys.uio.no UiO

Handout 2

Because of the dependence on q, the direc- 0.4 Magnetic moment

tion of the gyromotion of positively charged
Total kinetic energy:
particles (ions) is opposite that of nega-
tively charged particles (electrons). When W = W⊥ + Wk (14)
considering the gyromotion of electrons and ~ = 0, dW/dt = dW⊥ /dt + dWk /dt = 0.
For E
ions, for the same perpendicular energy, the
Define magnetic moment as µ = W⊥ /B,
gyrofrequency of electrons is much higher
then
(me  mi ) while the gyroradius is much dW⊥ dµ dB
larger. (5) shows that vz , i.e., the veloc- =B +µ . (15)
dt dt dt
ity along the field is constant. Therefore, Also
for vz 6= 0, the particle trajectory is helical dWk dB
= −µ , (16)
around the magnetic field line, and the cen- dt dt
ter of the gyromotion is called the "guiding such that
center". dW⊥ dWk dµ
+ =B =0 (17)
dt dt dt
and hence dµ/dt = 0, meaning that the mag-
netic moment µ is conserved as the particle
moves through spatially varying magnetic
fields.

0.5 Magnetic mirror

Figure 2: Sketch of the gyromotion for vk 6= 0.
Consider the following situation where the
magnetic field converges:
0.3 Pitch angle
The pitch angle α is defined by the ratio of
v⊥ and vk :

v⊥
α = arctan (13)
vk
Figure 4: Converging magnetic field.
Because
2
W⊥ mv⊥
µ= = = const. (18)
B 2B
as B increases v⊥ must also increase. How-
ever, the total kinetic energy must not
change, such that vk must decrease. That
increases the pitch angle (see (13)), mean-
ing that the movement along the field line
slows down. Once the field-aligned move-
~ = −µ∇B
Figure 3: Pitch angle for the case for vk < v⊥ . ment stops, there is still a force F

FYS3610 Lasse Clausen, lasse.clausen@fys.uio.no UiO

Handout 3

on the gyrating particle, pushing it back out equatorial plane and the Earth’s surface. For
of the region of higher B. a field lines that crosses the equatorial plane
2 2 2
Define total speed v as v = vk + v⊥ , then at a distance of 4 Earth radii (Re )
v⊥ = v sin α and µ = mv 2 sin2 α/2B. Then s
Beq
because µ0 = µ1 : α = arcsin ' 5.5◦ (21)
Bsf
sin2 α0 B0
2 = (19) If α is smaller the particle will hit the Earth’s
sin α1 B1
surface before it has a chance to mirror,
Therefore, all particles with α < 5.5◦ are
0.6 Trapped particles in a lost; this defines the loss cone (for that par-
dipole field ticular field line at 4 Re .
Earth’s magnetic field is essentially a dipole
field where B(r) ∝ 1/r3 . As particles move 0.8 E ~ ×B ~ drift
along field lines toward the magnetic poles, ~ ~
they experience stronger magnetic fields and Now assume E 6= 0 and B = B0~ez . Then
are eventually mirrored. As they gyrate they from (1)
are said to "bounce" between hemispheres; dvx q
they are trapped in the terrestrial magnetic = (Ex + vy B0 ) (22)
dt m
field. dvy q
= (Ey − vx B0 ) (23)
dt m
dvz q
= Ez (24)
dt m
(24) describes simple accelerated motion
~ (change in total kinetic energy!).
along B
~ = Ey~ey :
For simplicity, assume E
dvx q
= vy B0 (25)
dt m
dvy q
= (Ey − vx B0 ) (26)
Figure 5: Terrestrial dipolar field lines. dt m
Differentiate and substitute:
0.7 Loss cone d2 v x

qB0 2
 
Ey

= − vx − (27)
At the mirror point, where Wk = 0, the pitch dt 2 m B0
angle becomes αm = 90◦ . Hence from (19) 2
d vy

qB0
2
we see that 2
=− vy , (28)
dt m
sin2 α B
= (20) where the additional Ey /B0 term indicates
1 Bm a drift velocity in the +x direction. A more
general consideration gives
which is true anywhere along the trajectory
(field line). For a terrestrial dipole field line, ~ ×B
E ~
the maximum ratio of B/Bm is between the ~vE = . (29)
B2

FYS3610 Lasse Clausen, lasse.clausen@fys.uio.no UiO

Handout 4

~vE is superposed on the gyromotion and in- Formally

dependent of charge; i.e., electrons and pro-
tons drift in the same direction
current.
mv⊥2 ~
B × ∇B
no net ~v G = , (30)
2 qB03
the drift velocity is charge dependent, i.e.,
the gradient drift causes a current. The gra-
dient drift velocity depends on the perpen-
dicular kinetic energy.
The second magnetic drift is the curvature
drift. It is due to centrifugal forces expe-
rienced by a particle as it gyrates along a
curved field line:

Figure 6: E~ ×B ~ drift motion for a positively

charged particle.

0.9 Magnetic drifts

Two magnetic drifts exists, the gradient drift
and the curvature drift. For the first, assume
E~ = 0 and B ~ is spatially inhomogeneous,
i.e., ∇B 6= 0. In the region of large B ~ the
gyroradius is smaller than in the region of
~ From this results a drift:
smaller B.
Figure 7: Illustration of the curvature drift.
The drift velocity is given by
mvk2 2R
~c × B~
~vR = , (31)
2 qRc2 B02
Again, the curvature drift is charge depen-
dent, i.e., positively and negatively charged
particles drift in opposite directions, creat-
ing a current. The velocity of the curvature
drift depends on the parallel kinetic energy

0.10 General force drifts

~ in (29) with E
Replacing E ~ = F~ /q one ob-
tains:  
1  F~ ~
B
Figure 7: Illustration of the gradient drift for ~v = ×  (32)
ωg m B
positively and negatively charged particles.

FYS3610 Lasse Clausen, lasse.clausen@fys.uio.no UiO