POWER SYSTEMS - I

World has come to the point where it needs more energy than ever before as energy demand grows
rapidly on global scale. But not only does the world need energy, but it also needs energy gained from
renewable and ecologically acceptable fuels that doesn’t cause major ecological problems such as
global warming and air pollution. Ocean energy could well be one of these new renewable energy
sources and should really play more significant role in upcoming years.

Oceans cover more than 70% of Earth’s surface and they therefore present interesting energy source
that may with time provide us with energy to power our households and industrial facilities. At this
moment ocean energy is renewable energy source very rarely used as there are only few ocean
energy power plants and most of these power plants are also very small so energy gained form oceans
is literally negligible on global scale. But future should put more attention to this renewable energy
source and there should be significant increase in produced energy, especially with more attention to
renewable energy sector. There are three basic types that allow us to use ocean for its energy. We can
use the waves (wave energy, wave power), ocean tidal power (ocean high and low tides), and we can
even use temperature differences in the water to create an energy (Ocean Thermal Energy
Conversion, OTEC).

WAVE ENERGY
Ocean wave energy is form of the kinetic energy that exists in the moving waves of the ocean since
waves are caused by blowing winds over the surface of the ocean. This energy can be used to power a
turbine and there are many areas in the world where wind blows with sufficient consistency to provide
continues waves. There is tremendous energy in wave power which gives this energy source gigantic
energy potential. Wave energy is captured directly from surface waves or from different pressure
fluctuations between the surfaces. This energy can then be used to power a turbine and the simple
and mostly used working principle of this procedure would be as follows: First the wave raises into a
chamber and then the rising water forces the air out of the chamber and the moving air spins a
turbine which then turns a generator.

The main problem with wave energy is the fact that this energy source isn’t the same in all parts of
the world, since it varies significantly from place to place. This is the reason why wave energy can’t be
exploited in all parts of the world but there are many researches that work on solutions of how to
solve this variability problem. However, there are still many rich wave power areas in the world like
the western coasts of Scotland, northern Canada, southern Africa, Australia, and the northwestern
coasts of the United States, all with high potential for wave power exploitation. There are many
different technologies to capture wave power but very few of these technologies is commercial enough
to be fully used. Wave technologies are not only installed near shore and offshore but already also in
far offshore locations and the emphasis of new research projects such as “The OCS Alternative Energy
Programmatic EIS” is particularly on offshore and far offshore wave technologies where offshore
systems are located in deep water, on depths passing even 40 meters.

Oscillating water column principle.

Majority of wave energy technologies are still oriented to installations at or near the water surface,
and the main difference between these technologies is their orientation to the waves with which they
are interacting with and in their working principle in which they convert the energy of the waves into
desired energy forms. Among most popular wave energy technologies are terminator devices, point
absorbers, attenuators, and overtopping devices. Terminator devices such as oscillating water column
are typically onshore or near shore and have working principle that extend perpendicular to the
direction of wave travel and capture or reflect the power of the wave and then the captured water
column moves up and down like a piston, forcing the air through an opening connected to a turbine.
Point absorbers are different type of wave technology that involves floating structures with
components that move relative to each other because of wave action and energy gets produced as
this movement drives electromechanical or hydraulic energy converters. Attenuators are also floating
structures that are oriented parallel to the direction of the waves and where differing heights of waves
along the length of the device causes flexing on the place where the segments connect, and this
flexing is connected to hydraulic pumps or other converters for its transformation to energy.

Overtopping devices have different working principle and they are basically reservoirs filled by
incoming waves to levels above the average surrounding ocean, and after the water gets released
gravity causes it to fall back toward the ocean surface and this energy of falling water is then used to
turn hydro turbines. While there is definitely undisputed high potential of wave energy there are
certain aspects that also need to be considered such as environmental problems as these technologies
can influence marine habitat as there is potential danger of toxic releases into sea in form of hydraulic
fluids, noise generation above and below water surface, changes in the seafloor, etc.

TIDAL ENERGY (TIDAL POWER)

Another type of ocean energy is tidal energy since when tides comes into the shore, they can be
trapped in reservoirs behind dams. Tidal power is actually a form of hydropower that exploits the
movement of water caused by tidal currents or the rise and fall in sea levels. Tidal energy is produced
thanks to the use of tidal energy generators which are large underwater turbines placed in areas with
high tidal movements, and designed to capture the kinetic motion of the ebbing and surging of ocean
tides in order to produce electricity. Tidal power has enormous potential for future electricity
generation because of the massive size of the oceans.

River rance tidal power plant.

The potential of tidal power has been recognized for very long time (small dams were built along
oceans since 11th century). However, compared to river dams, tidal-power projects are much more
expensive, since massive structures must be built in a difficult saltwater environment. Cost
effectiveness is actually a main reason why tidal power hasn’t yet found its place among top used
renewable energy sources despite its huge potential. Tidal power in order to function at sufficient level
needs very large increases in tides, of at least 16 feet between low tide to high tide and this is the
main reason why there aren’t many areas on Earth that meet these demands. However one of these
areas is definitely La Rance Station in France, the largest tidal power station in the world (also the
only one in Europe) is in the Rance estuary in northern France that provides enough energy to satisfy
demands of 240,000 homes in France. Capacity of this tidal power plant is approximately one fifth of a
regular nuclear or coal-powered plant. Main problem of all tidal power plants is the fact that they can
only generate when the tide is flowing in our out, which counts for only 10 hours per day. However
there is also advantage that tides are totally predictable, so we can plan to have other power stations
generating at those times when the tidal station is out of action, which is something that can’t be done
with certain other renewable energy resources (wind energy).

Tidal energy has many advantages (it is renewable energy source since tides will continue to ebb and
flow and it produces no greenhouse gases or any waste, it needs no fuel in order to work, since tides
are totally predictable it can produce electricity reliably and once built it’s not expensive to maintain),
but there are also some negative sides as well. Cost effectiveness is still very serious issue since
building one of these power plants requires a very vide area and this also brings some environmental
 problems since it completely changes environment in this area and affects life of many ecosystems,
especially for birds that rely on the tide uncovering the mud flats so that they can found food. There is
also the already mentioned fact of limited working time of only about 10 hours, when tide is actually
moving.

OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION

(OTEC)
Closed OTEC system.
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion is method for generating
electricity that uses the temperature difference that exists
between deep and shallow waters since the water gets
colder the deeper you go. If there is bigger temperature
difference, there is the greater efficiency of this method,
and minimum temperature difference must be at least 38
degrees Fahrenheit between the warmer surface water and
the colder deep ocean water in order for this method to be
efficient. This method has very long history that dates from
the very beginning of the 19th century and some energy
experts believe that if it could become cost-competitive
with conventional power technologies, OTEC could produce
gigawatts of electrical power. But that still isn’t the case
today as Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion power plant
requires an expensive, large diameter intake pipe, which is
submerged a kilometer or more into the ocean’s depths in
order to bring very cold water to the surface and that is of
course very expensive. The types of OTEC systems are as follows:

 Closed-Cycle – Closed-cycle systems use fluid with a low-boiling point, mostly ammonia, to rotate a turbine which then
generates electricity. Warm surface seawater is pumped through a heat exchanger where the low-boiling-point fluid is
vaporized and the expanding vapor then starts the turbo-generator. Cold deeper-seawater is pumped through a second heat
exchanger where it condenses the vapor back into a liquid, which is then recycled through the system. In 1979, the Natural
Energy Laboratory, including several private-sector partners developed the mini OTEC experiment, which achieved the
first successful at-sea production of net electrical power from closed-cycle OTEC. The mini OTEC vessel was driven 1.5
miles (2.4 km) off the Hawaiian coast and produced required amount of electricity to illuminate the ship’s light bulbs and
run its computers and televisions. And in 1999, the Natural Energy Laboratory tested a 250-kW pilot OTEC closed-cycle
plant, the largest such plant ever put into operation.
 Open-Cycle – Open-Cycle systems use the tropical oceans’ warm surface water in order to make electricity since when
warm seawater gets placed in a low-pressure container, it boils. After this the expanding steam starts driving a low-
pressure turbine attached to an electrical generator, and finally being condensed back into a liquid by exposure to cold
temperatures from deep-ocean water. In 1984, the Solar Energy Research Institute (today called National Renewable
Energy Laboratory) developed a so called «vertical-spout evaporator» to convert warm seawater into low-pressure steam
for open-cycle plants. Potential of open-cycle systems was well acknowledged after energy conversion efficiencies as high
as 97% were achieved and in May 1993, an open-cycle OTEC plant at Keahole Point, Hawaii, produced 50,000 watts of
electricity during its testing procedure.
 Hybrid – Hybrid systems are designed to combine the positive features of both the closed-cycle as well as open-cycle
systems. Working procedure in hybrid systems includes warm seawater that enters into a vacuum chamber where it gets
evaporated into steam (procedure very similar to the open-cycle evaporation process). And afterwards steam vaporizes a
low-boiling-point fluid (in a closed-cycle loop) that drives a turbine to produce electricity.
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion has great potential in generating electricity but there are some
other great benefits such as air conditioning and aquaculture. Air conditioning can be produced as
byproduct and used cold seawater from an OTEC plant can either chill fresh water in a heat exchanger
or flow directly into a cooling system. And there is also aquaculture since cold-water fish species, such
as salmon and lobster, thrive in the nutrient-rich, deep seawater from the OTEC process. However
there are also some negative sides, especially in cost effectiveness since OTEC power plants require
large initial investments and there also some environmental issues that need to be satisfied which can
be done with appropriate spacing of OTEC plants. Another factor preventing the commercialization of
OTEC is the fact that there are only a few hundred land-based sites in the tropics where deep-ocean
water is close enough to shore to make OTEC plants feasible projects.

CONCLUSION
Ocean energy is renewable energy sector that surely needs more research to satisfy condition of cost-
effectiveness which is at this point it biggest flaw. Since oceans cover almost two thirds of earth’s
surface, they truly present renewable energy source with extreme potential and one worth of further
exploration. However current technologies aren’t at required level to capture this potential but as
world looks for alternatives to dominant fossil fuels sector many researches have been done in
different renewable energy sectors including the ocean energy sector. Problems resulting in size of
these power plants and cost effectiveness that go with the size do stand out, but there are also some
ecological demands that also need to be fulfilled in order to keep environment intact as possible. And
though this renewable energy sector hasn’t had rapid growth like some other renewable energy
sectors(wind energy), its couple of projects such as cycle OTEC plant at Keahole Point, Hawaii showed
good signs of its great potential so ocean energy sector could be having more significance in years to
come. Potential is there, all what ocean energy needs now is technology capable of exploiting this high
potential.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF HYDRO POWER PLANT

Hydroelectric power is developed from Hydroelectric Power Plant or Hydroelectric Power

Station. It develops hydroelectricity to utilize the potential energy of water. In hydroelectric
power plant, water is stored in a dam called hydroelectric dam which is located upper level from
the ground especially any hilly areas. Water head is created by construction the dam across any
river or lake.This type of water head store huge potential energy. The water fall into water
turbine and the potential energy of water is converted into kinetic energy. This kinetic energy is
converted into mechanical energy at the turbine shaft. A hydroelectric generator or alternator is
coupled with turbine shaft to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. The power P is
developed-
Here,
W = Specific weight of water in kg/m3
Q = Rate of flow of water in m3/s
H = Height of fall or head in meters
η = Overall efficiency of operation
Hydroelectric power plant is becoming very popular nowadays to full feel rapid increasing
demand of electric power day by day. Every country is trying to develop more Hydro Electric
Power Station to full fill their demand for electricity. In other hand fossils, fuels ( i.e. coal,oil, and
gas) are limited stock in the world and these fuels are expensive. So hydroelectricity may be a
good alternative electrical source. So in a single word we can say,a generating Station which
utilizes the potential energy of high-level water for the generating of electrical energy is known
as hydropower plant or hydroelectric power plant.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT

Working principle of hydroelectric power plant depends on the conversion of hydraulic energy
into electrical energy. To get this hydroelectricity,hydroelectric power plant needs some
arrangements for proper working and efficiency. The block diagram of hydroelectric power plant
is shown below:

Hydroelectric power station needs huge amount of water at sufficient head all the time. So a
hydroelectric dam is constructed across the river or lake.an artificial storage reservoir where
water is stored, is placed back side of the dam. This reservoir creates sufficient water head. A
pressure tunnel is placed in between the reservoir to valve house and water is coming from
reservoir to penstock via this tunnel. An automatic controlling sluice valve is placed in valve
house and it controls water flow to the power station and the letter cuts off supply of water in
case the penstock bursts. Penstock is a huge steel pipe in which water is taken from valve house
to turbine. A surge tank is also provided just before the valve house for better regulation of water
pressure in the system. Now water turbine converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy and
an alternator which is couple to the water turbine converts this mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT

Advantages
There are lots of advantages in Hydroelectric Power Plant:
1. Since water is the main source of energy,so no fossil fuels are required.
2.This plant is neat and clean and no smoke or as disposal is required.
3.It is the cheapest operating and maintenance cost as compared to the other power plants
because water is freely available in the world.
4.It is very reliable, robust and has a longer life app rocks 45 to 60 years.
5.This plant can start instantly.
6.It can start hydroelectric power with fluctuating load demand.
7.The efficiency does not fall at the age of this plant.
8.There is no standby loss in this plant.
9.At the initial time of construction highly skilled engineers are required and after that only few
experience persons can run the plant.
10.This plant also serves to help in irrigation and Flood control etc.
11.Since this plants are located remote area so land is available and competitively cheaper rates.

Disadvantages

There are some Disadvantages in hydro power plant:

1.Such plant requires large area
2.High construction cost is required due to construction of dam.
3.When experience skilled engineers are required to build this plant
4.Scenes such plant is located as from the load areas, long transmission line is required to
transmit this hydroelectric power.
5.It doesn't supply constant hydroelectricity due to the availability of water. In transition, power
supply is most affected.

SITE SELECTION FOR HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT

1.Water Availability:
Main fuel of this plant is water.So, such plant should be located nearer to river,canal etc. where
sufficient water is available all the time.
2.Water Stroge:
Storage of water in a suitable reservoir or dam has to be placed by a careful geological study of
the area to get the maximum advantage of that water.Dam should be located across the river to
get continuous water supply throughout the year specially in a dry season.The storage capacity of
dam can be determined by hydrograph or mass curve or using analytical method.Adequate
facilities of erection a dam and storage of water are two important matters for site selection of
hydro electric power plant.
3.Water Head:
It is an important point for site selection of hydroelectric power plant.Water head is directly
related to the cost of generation of electric power.If effective head is increased,water storage has
to be reduced as well as capital cost of the plant is reduced.
4.Distance from the load center:
Since it is located away from the load center, more transmission line is required to supply the
power.To avoid the line loss and economical power supply, distance of such plant should need
more attention.
5.Transportation Facilities:
Good transportation facilities must be available to any hydro electric power plant, so that
necessary equipment should be reached easily.
6.Availability of land:
Hydro electric power plant needs enough space.It should be kept in mind that land cost must be
cheap.

Types of hydroelectric power plant or hydro electric power station may be classified different
categories according to the water flow,water head and the demand of load supply in different
season.At-first,we see the block diagram of different types of hydro electric power plant:
1. According to the extent of water flow regulation available:
According to the extent of water flow regulation,hydoelectric power plant may be classified into
three categories:
a. Run off river power plants without pondage
b. Run off river power plants with pondage
c. Reservoir power plants
a. Run off river power plants without pondage
This type of hydroelectric power plant,water is not available all the time. So this type of power
station is not suitable for constant steady load. There is no pondage or storage facility available
in such type of power plant. Plant is placed in such a area,where water is coming directly from
the river or pond. This type of hydroelectric power plant is called run off power plant without
pondage. Plant produces hydro electricity only when water is available. This type of plan cannot
use all the time.During high flow and low load period,water is wasted and the lean flow periods
the plan capacity is very low. Power development capacity of this type of plan is very low and it
produces power incidentally. The development cost of such a plant is relatively cheaper than
full-time power development hydro electric power plant.Though it is not used for constant steady
load supply,it's objective is to generate electricity by using excessive flow of water during flood
or rainy season or whatever flow is available to save some sort of our natural resource of energy
such as coal etc, diesel etc.

b. Run off river power plants with pondage

This type of plant is used to increase the capacity of pond.The pond is used as a storage water of
hydro electric power plant.Increased the pond size means more water is available in the plant,so
such type of hydro electric power plant is used fluctuating load period depending on the size of
pondage.On a certain limitation,this type of power plant can be a part of load curve and it is more
reliable than a hydro plant without pondage.Such type of plant is suitable for both base load or
peak load period.During high flow period,this plant is suitable for base load and lean flow period
it may be used to supply peak loads only.During high flood period,one thing should keep in mind
that flood should not raise tail-race water level.Such types of power plant save conservation of
coal.

c. Reservoir power plants

Most hydroelectric power plant in the world is reservoir power plant.This type of plant,water is
stored behind the dam and water is available throughout the year even in dry season.This type of
power plant is very efficient and it is used both base and peak load period as per
requirement.most importantly,it can also take a part of load curve in grid system.
2.According to the availability of water flow
As per height of water or water head,hydro electric power plant can be divided three categories:

a. Low Head
b. Medium Head
c. High Head
Low head,medium head,high head.Though there is no rule regarding water head height but
below 30 meters is considered as low head,above 30 meters to 300 meters is called medium head
and above 300 meters is known as high head hydro electric power plant.
a. Low head hydro electric power plant
The block diagram of low head hydro electric power plant is given in fig:

Francis,Kaplan or propellor turbines are used for this type of hydro electric power plant.To
create a low head ,dam construction is essential.Water resource level i.e.river or pond is placed
just behind the dam to create a necessary water head level.Water is led to the turbine through the
penstock.This type of hydro plant is located just below the dam and it creates a useful water level
as well.No surge tank is required for this plant,dam itself discharge the surplus water from the
river.Science head is low,huge amount of water is required for desire output.That's why large
diameter and low length pipe is used for this plant.Such types of power plant use low speed and
large diameter type generators.

b. Medium head hydro electric power plant

Block diagram of medium head hydro electric power plant is shown below:

A forebay is used for medium head hydro electric power plant.This forebay is worked as a surge
tank.Forebay is tapped with the river and water is led to the turbine via penstock.Forebay is just
beginning of penstock.For low head plant forebay itself serves as a surge tank.

c. High head hydro electric power plant

The head of this power plant is more than 300 meters.A dam is constructed such level that
maximum reserve water level is formed.A pressure tunnel is constructed which is connected to
the valve house.Water is coming from reservoir to valve house via this pressure tunnel and it is
the starting of penstock.A surge tank is also constructed before valve house which reduces water
hammering to the penstock in case of sudden closing of fixed gates of water turbine.Surge tank
also store some extra water which is useful for pick load demand because it will serve extra
water to the turbine.Valve house consists of a main valve sluice valves and automatic isolating
valves,which operate on bursting of penstock and cut off further supply of water to penstock.The
penstock is a connecting pipe which supplies water from valve house to turbine.For high head
more than 500 meters,Pelton wheel turbine is used and for lower head Francis turbine is useful.
3.According to the types of load supply

a. Base Load
b. Peak Load
c. Pumped storage plants for the peak load

a. Base load hydro electric power plant

This is a large capacity power plant.This plant work as a base portion of load curve of power
system,that's why it is called base load plants.Base load plant is suitable for constant load.load
factor of this plant is high and it is performed as a block load.Run off river plants without
pondage and reservoir plants are used as base load plants.

b. Peak load hydro electric power plant

This plant is suitable for peak load curve of power system.when demand is high,this type of plant
do their job very well.Run off river plants with pondage can be employed as peak load plants.If
water supply is available,it generates large portion of load at a peak load period.It needs huge
storage area.Reservoir plants can be used as peak load plants.This type of plant can serve power
throughout the year.
c. Pumped storage hydro electric power plant for the peak load
This is unique design of peak load plants.Here two types of water pond is used,called upper head
water pond and tail water pond.Two water ponds are connected each other by a penstock.Main
generating pumping plant is lower end.During the off load period,surplus energy of this plant is
utilized to pumping the lower head pond water to upper head pond water.This extra water is used
to generate energy at pick load periods.By doing this arrangement,same water is used again and
again.Extra water is required only to take care of evaporation and seepage.
THERMAL POWER PLANT OPERATION
The working principle of thermal power plant operation depends on Rankin Cycle. In a thermal
power plant, coal is coming from coal storage and burnt in the boiler. It converts water into
steam. This steam is expanded in the prime-mover (i.e. turbine) which produces mechanical
power driving the alternator coupled to the turbine. The steam is expanded again the turbine and
usually condensed in the condenser to be fed into the boiler. But in real practice, the conversion
of heat from coal combustion into electrical energy needs some modern arrangements and
improvements, in which it will run in proper working efficiency. Here are some basic circuit
arrangements of the modern thermal power plant operation.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THERMAL POWER PLANT

1. Fuel and Ash Circuit:-

The fuel (coal) is transported from supply points to power station by roads, rails or water and is
stored in coal storage plant. Generally, coal is delivered into power station by rail wagon but in a
case of small power plants, it may be transported by road or water. After that this coal is stored
in the coal storage plant. From the coal storage plant, it is conveyed to the coal handling plant. In
the coal handling plant, coal is pulverised (i.e. crushed into small pieces) to increase its surface
tension to help rapid combustion without using a large amount of excess air. This pulverised coal
is taken into boiler bunkers by conveyer belt. Coal is now stored into the boiler bunker and fall
into the hoppers by gravity. From the hopper, required amount of coal either fall on the grate or
fall into the coal spreaders. If it is fall to the coal spreaders, maximum coal combustion is done in
the air and remaining portion burnt at the rear end of the grate. The grate is types of boiler, where
combustion is controlled by its speed. The grate is made a move from rear end to front end with
the help of spreaders or without spreaders; it is move from front to rear. The total coal
combustion in the grate is controlled by its speed. After complete combustion of coal, ash is
delivered to the ash storage plant by scrap conveyors for disposal. Generally, it is seen that a 100
MW power plant which operates 10% to 12% load factor may burn 20,000 tons of coal per
month and ash is produced nearly 2000 to 3000 tons per month.The block diagram of thermal
power plant is shown in figure

2. Air and Fuel Gas Circuit:-

The thermal power plant consists of a boiler and other auxiliary equipment which is required to
utilize the air and flue gases. In the above picture, it is seen that air is coming from the
atmosphere by a forced or induced draught fan through the air pre-heater. In the air-preheater, air
is heated by the heat of flue gases which passing to the chimney. This flue gases are passing
through boiler, super heater, air per heater and finally exhausted to the atmosphere through the
chimney. The boiler is an essential equipment of the thermal power plant operation. In the
boiler, heat is produced by coal combustion, is utilised to convert water into steam at high
pressure and temperature. The steam is the wet condition in the boiler and it is converted dry and
superheated condition by the flue gases when it is passed through the superheater. Superheated
steam means the steam temperature is above the boiling point of water and this will provide
added advantages to the turbine. This steam is increased the overall efficiency of the turbine and
protect the turbine's blade from corrosion. Economiser and air preheater are such type of devices
which extract the heat from flue gases on their way to a chimney and increased the temperature
of the feed water. Economiser is basically a feed water heater which recovers heat from flue
gases and increase the temperature of the fed water before it is supplied to the boiler. Air is also
supplied for the coal burning. Air preheater also extracts the heat from flue gases when it is
passed in it. Air preheater increases the heat of air as well as improves the overall efficiency of
the turbine. It also increases the steam capacity per square meter of boiler surface. Now this dry
and superheated steam is fed to the blades of steam turbine through the main valve. Here steam
energy is converted to the mechanical energy.
3. Feed water and steam circuit:-
Condensed steam is coming out of the turbine and the condensate is extracted from the
condenser by the condensate extraction pump. Exhaust steam is passed through the low-pressure
feed water heater where its temperature is raised by the bled steam. The feed water is now
pumped by deaerator to high-pressure feed water heater where this feed water is heated by the
heat from bled steam extracted at suitable point of steam turbine. Deaerator is to reduce
dissolved oxygen content in the feed water. Feed water is pumped into the boiler the boiler and it
is passing through the economiser where it is heated by the heat of flue gases. This will increase
the overall efficiency. Some steam and water are lost when it is passed through the different
component of the system. Turbine is directly coupled to the alternator which converts the
mechanical energy of turbine into electrical energy and delivers the electrical output to the bus
bar.

4. Cooling water circuit:-

Cooling water is supplied from a natural source of supply such as river, channel, sea, etc. This
water is circulated through the condenser for condensing the steam. It will increase the overall
efficiency of the plant. The circulating water absorbs heat from the exhaust steam and becomes
hot. This hot water is coming out from the condenser and discharged at a suitable position like a
lake, river etc. To ensure the availability of cold water throughout the year, a cooling tower is
used. During the scarcity of water, hot water of condenser is passed to the cooling tower where it
is cooled. The circulation of cooling water to the condenser is to maintain low pressure in the
condenser.

NUCLEAR POWER PLANT:

Electricity is a part of our fast moving life. We cannot think anything without electricity.The
demand of electricity rapidly increases with booming industrial, population and commercial
growth. Our world is growing so fast that the demand of electricity will be double in every ten
years. At the same time, fossil fuels (like coal, gas, oil etc.) are limited stock in the world and it
cannot fulfil this demand. So, future world is thinking any alternative source of energy
and nuclear power plant is the only solution. The most important feature of nuclear power
plant is, it can produce a huge amount of electrical energy from relatively small amount of
nuclear fuel as compared to other conventional types of power stations, interesting isn't it. It is
seen that complete fission of 1 kg nuclear fuel like uranium-235 would produce energy
equivalent to 4000 tonnes of high-grade coal. Although nuclear fuels (like uranium, thorium) are
difficult to recover and these are expensive too but nuclear fuel cost is considerably less than
the conventional steam power station. Fuel cost of nuclear power plant is generally 40%
cheaper than a conventional steam power station. In a single word we can say, it is one kind of
power station in which nuclear energy is converted to electrical energy is known as a nuclear
power plant.

ADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

There are lots of advantages of nuclear power plant as compared to other power plants.
1. Since the requirement of fuel is very small, so the cost of fuel transportation, storage etc. is
small.
2. Nuclear power plant needs less space as compared to any other power station of the same size.
Example: A 100 MW nuclear power station needs 38 - 40 acres of land whereas the same
capacity coal based thermal power plant needs 120-130 acres of land.
3. This type of power plant is very economical to produce large electric power.
4. Nuclear power plant can be located near load centre because bulk amount of fuel (like water,
coal) is not required.
5. Nuclear power is most economical to generate large capacities of power like 100 MVA or
more. It produces huge amount of energy in every nuclear fission process.
6. Using a small amount of fuel, this plant produces large electrical energy.
7. This plant is very reliable in operation.
8. Since, the large number of nuclear fuel is available in this world. So, a nuclear power plant can
generate electrical energy thousands of years continuously.
9. Nuclear Power Plant is very neat and clean as compared to a steam power plant.
10. The operating cost is low at this power plant but it is not affected for higher load demand.
Nuclear power plant always operates a base load plant and load factor will not be less than 0.8.

DISADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Though nuclear power plant has above advantages, but there are some disadvantages of nuclear
power plant too,
1.Initial installation cost is very high as compared to the other power station.
2.Nuclear fuel is very much expensive and it is difficult to recover.
3.Capital cost is higher in respect of other power station.
4.Good technical knowledge is required to operate such type plant. So, salary bill and other
maintenance cost will be higher to operate such of a plant.
5.There is a chance to spread of radioactive pollution from this type of plant.
6.Nuclear Reactor does not response efficiently with the fluctuating load demand. So, it is not
suited for varying the load.
7.Cooling water requirement is twice than a coal based steam power plant.

NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTION PROCESS:

In nuclear chain reaction process, a heavyweight isotope generally uranium-235 is used for a
nuclear chain reaction. Uranium-235 is natural and it will give higher fission percentage too.
Some other fissionable materials (U-233, PU-239) are present in the world. But U-235 is the
most common isotope to use for a nuclear chain reaction. Because it produces comparatively
higher amount of energy and heat from the other fissionable materials. One of the most
common nuclear chain reaction process is: 23592U + 10n = 13956Ba + 9436Kr + 3 10n

In the above reaction, it is shown that a heavy nucleus uranium-235 strikes one neutron and it
produce alternative three neutrons. These three neutrons again strikes U-235 which produce nine
neutrons and striking nine neutrons produce another twenty-seven neutrons and so on, showing
in the picture:

In each reaction, neutrons are released with the multiplication of three and this reaction is
continuously running until original nuclei are fission. A single fission reaction generates a large
amount of energy, so the complete nuclear chain reaction process will generate many times
greater energy. Though all neutrons are not used nuclear chain reaction. Some of these neutrons
are lost to the surroundings. If this reaction is not controlled, it will produce explosive
violence’s. The working principle of atom bomb blasting is an uncontrolled nuclear chain
reaction process.
NUCLEAR FISSION PROCESS:

Nuclear fission process is the most practical method used in all modern fission reactors. Nuclear
chain reaction is not possible without this process. A heavy nucleus is split into two or more
smaller nuclei, is called nuclear fission process. This is a very basic defination of a nuclear
fission process. When a heavy-weight nucleus like23392 or 23592U or 239949U is bombarded with
high-energy particles such as protons, neutrons or X rays, a large amount of energy is released
for this reaction. Generally, neutrons are used for this process. Because it is natural and it does
not hold any charge. So it can easily make their way to electrons. Here is an example:
235
92U + 10n = 13956Ba + 9436Kr + 3 10n + Energy

This reaction was discovered by Hahn and Strassmann in the year 1939. Generally Uranium-235
is used for nuclear Fission Process.It is a fissionable material and also it is used all modern
nuclear reactors .

In the above picture, a heavy atomic nucleus uranium-235 is bombarded with single neutrons and
produces two nuclei. First uranium will be an unstable ‘compound nucleus’ to absorb
neutrons. The radioactive atom of any nucleus is unstable for continuous emission of an alpha()
or bita() particles. This will change the proton-neutron composition of the nucleus to built a
stable nucleus. U-235 will be an unstable nucleus when it absorbs a neutron. This unstable
nucleus will be split into two daughter nuclei (i.e. 23592U and 9436Kr) with some neutrons and
release a large amount of energy. It is seen that one fission reaction of 23592U release nearly 200
MeV of energy.

200MeV energy: 200 X 1.6 X 10-13 = 3.2 X 10-11joules (or watt-seconds)

working of nuclear power plant:

The working principle of nuclear power plant depends upon mainly four components.
1.Nuclear Reactor
2.Heat Exchanger
3.Steam Turbine
 4.Alternator
Nuclear reactor is used to produce heat and heat exchanger performs to convert water into
steam by using the heat generated in nuclear reactor. This steam is fed into steam turbine and
condensed in condenser. Now steam turbine is turn to run an electric generator or alternator
which is coupled to steam turbine and thereby producing electric energy. This is a very
basic working principle of Nuclear power plant.Here is the detail operation of the individual
unit of this plant. The block diagram of nuclear power plant shown in figure:-

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT:

1. Nuclear Reactor:-
Nuclear reactor is the main component of nuclear power plant and nuclear fuel is subjected
to nuclear fission. Nuclear fission is a process where a heavy nucleus is spitted into two or more
smaller nuclei. . A heavy isotope generally uranium-235(U-235) is used as a nuclear fuel in the
nuclear reactor because it has the ability to control the chain reaction in the nuclear
reactor. Nuclear fission is done by bombarding uranium nuclei with slow moving neutrons. The
energy released by the fission of nuclei is called nuclear fission energy or nuclear energy. By
the braking of uranium atom, tremendous amount of heat energy and radiation is formed in the
reactor and the chain reaction is continuously running until it is controlled by a reactor control
chain reaction. A large amount of fission neutrons are removed in this process, only small
amount of fission uranium is used to generate the electrical power.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF NUCLEAR REACTOR:
The nuclear reactor is cylindrical type shape. Main body of reactor is enclosed by reactor core,
reflector and thermal shielding. It prevent reactor wall from getting heated. It is also used to
protect alpha ( α), bita (β) , gama (γ) rays and neutrons which are bounce back at the time of
fission within the reactor. Mainly Nuclear reactor consists, some fuel rods of uranium, moderator
and control rods. Fuel rods are made of the fission materials and released large number of energy
at the time of bombarding with slow moving neutrons. Moderator consists full of graphite which
is enclosed by the fuel rods. Moderator maintains the chain reaction by releasing the neutrons in
a suitable manner before they mixed with the fissile materials. Control rods are made of boron-
10 and cadmium or hafnium which is a highly neutron absorber and it is inserted into the nuclear
reactor. When control rods are push down into the reactor core, it absorbs most of fission
neutrons and power of the reactor is reduced. But when it is pulling out from the reactor, it
releases the fission neutrons and power is increased. Real practice, this arrangement depends
upon according to the requirement of load. A coolant, basically sodium metal is used to reduce
the heat produce in the reactor and it carries the heat to the heat exchanger.
2. Heat Exchanger:-Coolant is used to raise the heat of the heat exchanger which is utilised in
raising the steam. After that, it goes back to the reactor.
3. Steam Turbine:-
Steam is coming from the heat exchanger to fed into the steam turbine through the valve. After
that the steam is exhausted to the condenser. This condensed steam is fed to the heat exchanger
through feed water pump.
4. Alternator:-
Steam turbine is coupled to an alternator which converts mechanical energy to electrical energy.
The output of alternator produces electrical energy to bus bars via major electrical apparatus like
transformer, circuit breakers, isolators etc.
GAS POWER PLANT:

In all power generating stations except solar power generating station employee alternator to
generate electrical energy. An alternator is a rotating machine which can produce electricity
only when it rotates. Hence there must be a prime mover which helps to turn the alternator. The
primary arrangement of all power plants is to rotate the prime mover so that alternator can
generate required electricity. In gas turbine power plant we use high pressure and temperature
air instead of high pressure and temperature steam to rotate the turbine.
The fundamental working principle of a gas turbine power plant is same as that of a steam
turbine power plant. The only difference is there that in steam turbine power plant we use
compressed steam to rotate the turbine, but in gas turbine power plant we use compressed air
to turn the turbine.

In the gas turbine power plant air is compressed in a compressor. This compressed air then
passes through a combustion chamber where the temperature of the compressed air rises. That
high temperature and high-pressure air is passed through a gas turbine. In turbine the
compressed air is suddenly expanded; hence it gains kinetic energy, and because of this kinetic
energy the air can do mechanical work for rotating the turbine.
In a gas turbine power plant, the shaft of turbine, alternator and air compressor are common.
The mechanical energy created in the turbine is partly utilised to compress the air. Gas turbine
power plants are mainly used as standby auxiliary power supplier in a hydroelectric power
plant. It generates auxiliary power during starting of a hydroelectric power plant.

Advantages of Gas Turbine Power Plant

 Construction wise a gas turbine power plant is much simpler than a steam turbine
power plant.
 The size of a gas turbine power plant is smaller than that of a steam turbine power plant.
 A gas turbine power plant does not have any boiler like component, and hence, the
accessories associated with the boiler are absent here.
 It does not deal with steam hence it does not require any condenser hence no cooling
tower like structure is needed here.
 As design and construction wise gas turbine power plants are much more
straightforward and smaller, the capital cost and running cost are quite less than that of
an equivalent steam turbine power plant.
 The constant loss is quite smaller in gas turbine power plant compared to a steam
turbine power plant because in the steam turbine power plant boiler has to run
continuously even when the system does not supply load to the grid.
 A gas turbine power plant can more instantly be started than an equivalent steam
turbine power plant.
Disadvantages of Gas Turbine Power Plant
 The mechanical energy created in the turbine is also utilised to run the air compressor.
Since a major portion of mechanical energy created in the turbine is utilised to run the
air compressor the overall efficiency of gas turbine power plant is not as high as an
equivalent steam turbine power plant.
 Not only have that, the exhaust gases in gas turbine power plant curries significant heat
from the furnace. This also causes the efficiency of the system low further.
 To start power plant pre-compressed is required. So before actual starting of the turbine
air should be pre-compressed which requires an auxiliary power supply for starting a
gas turbine power plant. Once the plant is started there is no more need of supplying
external power but at starting point external power is essential.
 The temperature of the furnace is quite high in a gas turbine power plant. This makes
the system lifespan smaller than that of an equivalent steam turbine power plant.
 Because of its lower efficiency, a gas turbine power plant cannot be utilised for
commercial production of electricity instead it is normally used to supply auxiliary
power to other conventional power plants such as hydroelectric power plant.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SOLAR ENERGY:

WORKING OF SOLAR SYSTEM:

SOLAR ENERGY WIRING SYSTEM:

SOLAR ENERGY:
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF FUEL CELL:
NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

TIDAL ENERGY:
Wind energy:
Wave Energy:

Wave Energy
If you have seen the sea on a rough day, you will know that waves contain a lot of energy. Wave
energy is when we use the energy from the waves to produce electricity. Special machines have
been designed to harness the power of the waves.

How does wave energy work?

There are two main types of wave-energy generators. Wave energy can be harnessed out at sea
or by the shoreline.

Fixed devices: For example, waves reaching the shore can be used like a piston to push air up
and down a large pipe. Strong concrete walls set half

in and half out of the water trap a column of air inside the machine. As the waves rush in, the air
is forced upwards and spins the turbine. As the wave retreats, air is sucked back through the
turbine, causing it to spin again. The turbine is connected to a generator, which
produces electricity.

Floating devices or barrages are generally found

offshore. A good example is Pelamis, a wave-power project off the Scottish coast. It is a series of
giant metal tubes joined together with flexible hinges. The movement of the waves causes
sections of the snake to move up and down. Each hinge is connected to a pump,
which pumps oil through a hydraulic motor as it moves. The motor generates
electricity as it spins.

Advantages Disadvantages

 Once constructed, running  Wave-energy generators are

costs are very low.
 No waste or pollution is
produced.
 Wave-energy generators are
capable of producing large
amounts of energy.
 Renewable source of energy,
which means that it will not
run out.
only effective where they
are exposed to strong
waves.
 They can be noisy.
 Wave-energy generators
may be a hazard to ships
and leisure craft.