WHAT ARE THE CAUSES, EFFECTS, AND SOLUTIONS OF WATER CRISIS

GLOBALLY?

HOW PAKISTAN CAN OVERCOME THIS DILEMMA?

1. DEFINITION OF WATER STRESS ..................................................................................... 4

2. DEFINITION OF WATER CRISIS ....................................................................................... 4
3. GLOBAL WATER CRISIS .................................................................................................... 4
4. CAUSES OF GLOBAL WATER STRESS AND WATER CRISIS ..................................... 5
4.1 GROUND WATER DEPLETION................................................................................... 5
4.1.1 CONSEQUENCES OF GROUND WATER DEPLETION..................................... 5
4.1.1.1 LOW WATER TABLE ......................................................................................... 6
4.1.1.2 REDUCTION OF WATER IN STREAMS AND LAKES .................................. 6
4.1.1.3 LAND SUBSIDENCE .......................................................................................... 6
4.1.1.4 COSTLY WATER YIELD ................................................................................... 7
4.1.1.5 DETERIORATED WATER QUALITY .............................................................. 7
4.2 CLIMATE CHANGE ...................................................................................................... 7
4.3 POOR WATER INFRASTRUCTURE ............................................................................ 7
4.4 DETERIORATING NATURAL ECOSYSTEM ............................................................. 8
4.5 WATER WASTAGE ....................................................................................................... 8
4.6 UNDERVALUED WATER ............................................................................................ 8
4.7 RAPID URBANIZATION ............................................................................................... 8
5. CAUSES/ISSUES OF WATER STRESS AND WATER CRISIS IN PAKISTAN .............. 9
5.1 WATER WASTAGE ..................................................................................................... 10
5.2 DOMESTIC WATER ABUSE ...................................................................................... 11
5.3 RAPID CLIMATE CHANGE ....................................................................................... 12
5.3.1 MORE DEMAND OF WATER ............................................................................. 12
5.3.2 EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE ICE AND SNOW
ACCUMULATION PATTERNS IN THE ZONES THAT SUPPLY INDUS BASIN WITH
ITS FLOWS .......................................................................................................................... 13
5.3.3 HEIGHTENED RAINFALL VARIABILITY IN THE CATCHMENT AREAS OF
THE INDUS BASIN IS EXPECTED TO AFFECT GROUNDWATER RESOURCES .... 13
5.4 UNRESTRICTED AND UNPLANNED URBANIZATION ....................................... 13

1
 5.4.1 BAD IMPLICATIONS OF URBANIZATION...................................................... 14
5.5 LIMITED STORAGE CAPACITY RESULTING INTO CANAL WATER
SHORTAGES AND EXCESSIVE LOSSES TO THE ARABIAN SEA ................................ 15
5.6 TRANSBOUNDARY DISPUTES INTENSIFYING RIVER SUPPLY
VULNERABILITY .................................................................................................................. 15
5.7 OUTDATED DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM RESULTS IN LOW PRODUCTIVITY
AND INEQUITABLE DISTRIBUTION OF WATER ............................................................ 16
5.8 GROUNDWATER RESOURCE DEPLETING RAPIDLY DUE TO OVER-PUMPING
17
5.9 EXTREMELY LOW WATER TARIFFS ARE DISTORTING INCENTIVES FOR
WATER CONSERVATION .................................................................................................... 18
5.10 WASTE DISCHARGE INTO DRAINS AND RIVERS HAS RESULTED INTO
DETERIORATING WATER QUALITY ................................................................................ 19
5.11 GAPS IN GOVERNANCE LEADING TO INEFFICIENT WATER
MANAGEMENT ...................................................................................................................... 19
6. WATER-SECURITY NEXUS ............................................................................................. 20
6.1 WATER CRISIS; A THREAT TO NATIONAL INTEGRATION .............................. 22
7. INDUS BASIN WATER TREATY: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS ........................................ 23
7.1 PAKISTAN‘S RESERVATIONS UNDER INDUS BASIN WATER TREATY ........ 24
7.2 INDIAN JUSTIFICATION OF DAM CONSTRUCTION UNDER INDUS BASIN
WATER TREATY.................................................................................................................... 25
7.3 POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS UNDR INDUS BASIN WATER TREATY ......... 25
8. GENERAL SOLUTIONS TO COPE WITH DILEMMA OF WATER CRISIS ................. 27
8.1 INVENT NEW WATER CONSERVATION TECHNOLOGIES ................................ 27
8.2 RECYCLE WASTEWATER......................................................................................... 27
8.3 IMPROVE IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES ............................. 27
8.4 APPROPRIATELY PRICE WATER ............................................................................ 27
8.5 DEVELOP ENERGY EFFICIENT DESALINATION PLANTS ................................. 28
8.6 IMPROVE WATER CATCHMENT AND HARVESTING ........................................ 28
8.7 LOOK TO COMMUNITY-BASED GOVERNANCE AND PARTNERSHIPS ......... 28
8.8 DEVELOP AND ENACT BETTER POLICIES AND REGULATIONS .................... 28
8.9 HOLISTICALLY MANAGE ECOSYSTEMS ............................................................. 29
8.10 IMPROVED DISTRIBUTION INFRASTRUCTURE .............................................. 29
8.11 BUILD INTERNATIONAL FRAMEWORKS AND INSTITUTIONAL

2
 COOPERATION ...................................................................................................................... 29
8.12 ADDRESSING WATER POLLUTION .................................................................... 30
8.13 PUBLIC COMMON RESOURCES / EQUITABLE ACCESS ................................. 30
8.14 RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT/ INNOVATION ................................................. 30
8.15 WATER PROJECTS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES / TRANSFER OF
TECHNOLOGY ....................................................................................................................... 31
8.16 CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION ........................................................................ 31
8.17 POPULATION GROWTH CONTROL ..................................................................... 31
9. SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS TO COPE WATER CRISIS IN PAKISTAN ........................ 32
9.1 CANAL WATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ...................................................... 32
9.1.1 WATER COURSE IMPROVEMENT ................................................................... 32
9.2 LASER LAND LEVELING .......................................................................................... 32
9.3 BED AND FURROW IRRIGATION ............................................................................ 33
9.4 GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT ........................................................................... 34
9.4.1 RAIN-WATER HARVESTING ............................................................................. 34
9.4.2 CHECK DAM TECHNIQUE ................................................................................. 35
9.5 PRESSURIZES IRRIGATION ...................................................................................... 35
9.5.1 DRIP IRRIGATION ............................................................................................... 35
9.5.2 SPRINKLER IRRIGATION .................................................................................. 36
9.6 TUNNEL FARMING .................................................................................................... 37
9.7 WASTE WATER TREATMENT TECHNIQUES........................................................ 38
9.7.1 TECHNOLOGIES TO REMOVE POLLUTANTS FROM WATER.................... 39
9.7.1.1 CONVENTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES .............................................................. 39
9.7.1.1.1 COAGULATION/FLOCCULATION ........................................................... 39
9.7.1.1.2 BIODEGRADATION.................................................................................... 40
9.7.1.1.3 ADSORPTION USING AC (ACTIVATED CARBONS) ............................ 40
9.7.1.2 ESTABLISHED TECHNOLOGIES................................................................... 40
9.7.1.2.1. SOLVENT EXTRACTION .......................................................................... 40
9.7.1.2.2. EVAPORATION .......................................................................................... 41
9.7.1.2.3. OXIDATION ................................................................................................ 41
9.7.1.2.4 MEMBRANE SEPARATION....................................................................... 42
9.7.1.2.5 MEMBRANE BIOREACTORS .................................................................... 42

3
 9.7.1.2.6 ION-EXCHANGE ......................................................................................... 43

1. DEFINITION OF WATER STRESS

Water stress occurs when the demand for water exceeds the available amount during a certain

period or when poor quality restricts its use. Water stress causes deterioration of fresh water

resources in terms of quantity (aquifer over-exploitation (An aquifer is an underground layer of

water-bearing permeable rock, rock fractures or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt)),

dry rivers, etc.) and quality (organic matter pollution, saline (Saline water (more commonly

known as salt water) is water that contains a high concentration of dissolved salts (mainly

NaCl).) intrusion, etc.).

2. DEFINITION OF WATER CRISIS

A water crisis is a situation where the available potable, unpolluted water within a region is less

than that region's demand.

3. GLOBAL WATER CRISIS

As of 2019, 17 countries in total are now experiencing "extremely high" levels of baseline water

stress. This, in essence, means that nearly one-quarter of the world's population - around 1.7

billion people - currently lives in areas where agriculture, industries and cities withdraw 80

percent of their available water supply every year. Its consequences are in plain sight in the form

of food insecurity, conflict and migration, and financial instability.

4
 4. CAUSES OF GLOBAL WATER STRESS AND WATER CRISIS

4.1 GROUND WATER DEPLETION

Groundwater depletion, a term often defined as long-term water-level declines caused by

sustained groundwater pumping, is a key issue associated with groundwater use.

4.1.1 CONSEQUENCES OF GROUND WATER DEPLETION

5
 4.1.1.1 LOW WATER TABLE

The most severe consequence of excessive groundwater pumping is that the water table, below

which the ground is saturated with water, can be lowered. For water to be withdrawn from the

ground, water must be pumped from a well that reaches below the water table. If groundwater

levels decline too far, then the well owner might have to deepen the well, drill a new well, or, at

least, attempt to lower the pump. Also, as water levels decline, the rate of water the well can

yield may decline.

4.1.1.2 REDUCTION OF WATER IN STREAMS AND LAKES

Water flowing in rivers comes from seepage of groundwater into the streambed. Groundwater

contributes to streams in most physiographic (physiography: The subfield of geography that

studies physical patterns and processes of the Earth. It aims to understand the forces that produce

and change rocks, oceans, weather patterns.) and climatic settings. The proportion of stream

water that comes from groundwater inflow varies according to a region's geography, geology,

and climate.

Groundwater pumping can alter how water moves between an aquifer and a stream, lake, or

wetland by either intercepting groundwater flow that discharges into the surface-water body

under natural conditions, or by increasing the rate of water movement from the surface-water

body into an aquifer. A related effect of groundwater pumping is the lowering of groundwater

levels below the depth that streamside or wetland vegetation needs to survive. The overall effect

is a loss of riparian (wetlands adjacent to rivers and streams) vegetation and wildlife habitat.

4.1.1.3 LAND SUBSIDENCE

6
When water is taken out of the soil, the soil collapses, compacts, and drops. This depends on a

number of factors, such as the type of soil and rock below the surface. Land subsidence is most

often caused by human activities, mainly from the removal of subsurface water.

4.1.1.4 COSTLY WATER YIELD

As the depth to water increases, the water must be lifted higher to reach the land surface. If

pumps are used to lift the water, more energy is required to drive the pump. Using the well can

become prohibitively expensive.

4.1.1.5 DETERIORATED WATER QUALITY

One water-quality threat to fresh groundwater supplies is contamination from saltwater intrusion.

All of the water in the ground is not fresh water; much of the very deep groundwater and water

below oceans is saline. Under natural conditions the boundary between the freshwater and

saltwater tends to be relatively stable, but pumping can cause saltwater to migrate inland and

upward, resulting in saltwater contamination of the water supply.

4.2 CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change is warming the planet, making the world's hottest geographies even more

scorching. At the same time, clouds are moving away from the equator toward the poles, due to a

climate-change driven phenomenon called Hadley Cell expansion. This deprives equatorial

regions like sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East and Central America of life-giving rainwater.

4.3 POOR WATER INFRASTRUCTURE

Water needs to be transported, treated, and discharged properly. Around the world, water

7
infrastructure―treatment plants, pipes, and sewer systems―is in a state of disrepair. In the

United States, 6 billion gallons of treated water are lost per day from leaky pipes alone.

4.4 DETERIORATING NATURAL ECOSYSTEM

Healthy ecosystems are natural infrastructure and vital to clean, plentiful water. They filter

pollutants, buffer against floods and storms, and regulate water supply. Plants and trees are

essential for replenishing groundwater; without them, rainfall will slide across dry land, instead

of seeping into the soil. Loss of vegetation from deforestation, overgrazing and urbanization is

limiting our natural infrastructure and the benefits that it provides.

4.5 WATER WASTAGE

Inefficient practices like flood irrigation and water-intensive wet cooling at thermal power

plants use more water than necessary. About 80 percent of the world's wastewater is discharged

back into nature without further treatment or reuse. In many countries, it's cheaper to receive

clean drinking water than to treat and dispose of wastewater, which encourages water waste.

4.6 UNDERVALUED WATER

Globally, water is seriously undervalued. Its price does not reflect the true, total cost of service,

from its transport via infrastructure to its treatment and disposal. This has led to misallocation of

water, and a lack of investments in infrastructure and new water technologies that use water

more efficiently. When the price of receiving clean water is closer to its actual service

cost, efficient water use will be incentivized.

4.7 RAPID URBANIZATION

8
The global water consumption rate is double the rate of population increase. By 2025 1.8 billion

people will be in high water stress conditions. Major reasons of such water stress have been;

unsustainable agricultural water extraction, non-renewable groundwater pumping, flood

irrigation, high water consumption by urban areas. Urbanization consumes much energy and

food which ultimately requires more water to cope the demand of food and energy. According to

a research, in the city of Karachi in Pakistan, the city's population of 15 million people received

an average piped water supply of only three days a week, for less than three hours.

5. CAUSES/ISSUES OF WATER STRESS AND WATER CRISIS IN PAKISTAN

Pakistan is running out of fresh water at an alarming rate, and authorities anticipate that it is

likely to suffer a shortage of 31 million acre-feet (MAF) of water by 2025. The shortfall will be

devastating for a country with an agriculture-based economy. Nearly 70 percent of the Pakistan‘s

population is directly or indirectly associated with agriculture, which accounts for 26 percent of

its gross domestic product (GDP).

In Pakistan, the majority of agricultural land is irrigated, after accounting for ground and

rainwater, with fresh water from the IBIS (Indus Basin irrigation System). The IBIS (Indus Basin

irrigation System) is fed through two major dams including Tarbela and Mangla, which since

construction have lost storage capacity due to enormous silt deposition. Both reservoirs are

already hitting a dead level and are unlikely to carry forward the required flow for the summer

crops.

9
The anticipated water flow in the IBIS (Indus Basin irrigation System) for this summer season is

95 MAF (Million Acre Feet) against a 112 MAF (Million Acre Feet) average of past 10 years.

Moreover, both reservoirs can only store up to 14 MAF (Million Acre Feet) of the 145 MAF

(Million Acre Feet) that annually flows through the country.

5.1 WATER WASTAGE

The global studies rank Pakistan at number 4th among the most water-consuming countries.

Being an agriculture-dependent country, Pakistan hugely relies on its canal network where water

is highly underpriced to the extent that not more than a quarter of the annual operational and

maintenance (O&M) cost is recovered. Out of total demand in Pakistan, nearly 90% of the water

is consumed by agriculture and industry. Our main supply line of Indus Basin originates from

Mount Kailash range in Tibet that runs into the Arabian Sea. Other than international water

controversy with India, political differences among provinces, lack of seriousness from the

governments in the center don‘t allow us to build additional large scale reservoirs along the route

which only results in the wastage of precious water every year.

―Pakistan Receives Around 145 Million Acre-Feet Of Water Every Year But Only Saves 13.7

Million Acre-Feet In Its Fragile Storage System‖.

The obsolete canal network, water theft by influential to their farmlands, unplanned and gigantic

urbanization, deforestation under the nose of policymakers and domestic water abuse only add

fuel to the fire.

10
 5.2 DOMESTIC WATER ABUSE

All major metropolitan cities of Pakistan including Lahore and Karachi have the least availability

of drinkable water. Half a century-old water supply lines to most of the urban areas are rusty and

cracked that allow sewerage water to seep into the drinking water lines in many old parts of the

cities. Taps run freely losing hundreds of liters every day in a house. In contrast to the

electricity, the monthly charges for water supply are extremely nominal that makes it almost a

useless commodity in the eyes of consumers.

A ban from the Lahore High Court on washing cars at homes using the hose pipes couldn‘t bring

fruits. Even a prior order of the court to only allow registered service stations to operate that will

11
use water recycling facility hasn‘t been implemented. It was recently revealed during a court

hearing that Lahore Waste Management Company washes the Lahore city roads with drinkable

water wasting some 30,500 liters every day.

5.3 RAPID CLIMATE CHANGE

The major sources of Pakistan‘s fresh water and power generation, the mighty Indus River and

other tributary rivers originated from Himalayas and Karakorum Mountain ranges are being

adversely affected by rapid climate changes in the region. Scientists and experts believe that

climate change is taking place due to increasing emission of greenhouse gases, which is also one

of the main reasons for global warming. The situation ultimately resulted into irregular rain

patterns causing extreme weather condition and flooding in the country. Hydrologic-cycle is

being disturbed by the rise in temperatures, which has had a substantial impact on the water

resources availability, changes in water quality and change in the precipitation (rain) pattern.

High temperatures are disturbing the summer-winter precipitation cycle, which has a direct

impact on the forest and vegetation cover, which is associated with balancing of the water-cycle.

Keeping in view the country‘s vulnerability to climate change, the Global Climate Risk Index of

2017 ranked Pakistan at 7th out of 181 countries (in 2015, the country ranked 11th). Similarly,

Maplecroft Index of Climate Change Vulnerability (2017) has placed Pakistan in the extreme

risk category by ranking it at 16th out of 170 countries (in 2010, Pakistan ranked at 29th

position).

Below are the implications of climate change on water cycle:

5.3.1 MORE DEMAND OF WATER

12
The rise in temperature would require more water for irrigation due to prolonged dry and warmer

season; for farm animals to meet their hydration needs; for individuals to cope with higher

atmospheric temperature; for industries to take care of increased cooling requirements; and for

discharge into the sea so that intrusion of saline water into delta regions could be prevented.

5.3.2 EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE ICE AND SNOW

ACCUMULATION PATTERNS IN THE ZONES THAT SUPPLY INDUS

BASIN WITH ITS FLOWS

The overall river supplies would come under pressure as rising temperatures would increase

evaporation losses in the system. At the same time, the climate change would shift the peak flow

points in time. Rising mercury levels in the upper Indus basin would result in earlier seasonal

melting of the glacial ice sheet. This effect would lead to a shift in peak river runoff towards

winter and early spring.

5.3.3 HEIGHTENED RAINFALL VARIABILITY IN THE CATCHMENT AREAS

OF THE INDUS BASIN IS EXPECTED TO AFFECT GROUNDWATER

RESOURCES

Variability in intensity of precipitation under rising mercury levels will alter the recharge and

discharge patterns. This will affect the quality of the water due to salt intrusion in Indus Basin

Aquifer. For example, in times of low surface flows, there would be less recharge available

which would increase the demand for ground water, creating an imbalance. Net discharge would

deteriorate quality of water through intrusion of saltwater into freshwater areas.

5.4 UNRESTRICTED AND UNPLANNED URBANIZATION

13
Pakistan is urbanizing at a rate of 3 percent per annum, the fastest in South Asia. Since 1951 to

2017, the percentage of population living in urban areas has increased manifold-17.7 percent to

36.4 percent. As concrete, asphalt, bricks absorb and reflect energy differently than vegetation

and soil. Cloudiness and fog occur with greater frequency. When it rains, water is less likely to

be absorbed into the ground and instead flows directly into river channels. Energy consumption

for electricity, transportation, cooking, and heating is much higher in urban areas than in rural

villages.

Due to rapid population growth, industrialization, contamination of fresh water from the factories

and household effluents, water quality in developing countries like Pakistan has extremely

deteriorated.

In order to fulfill the water need, barely half of the urban population of Pakistan has the facility

of tap water inside their houses, whereas five percent are dependent on the water supply outside

house, 38 percent counts on hand pump and motor pump, and the rest of the population rely

heavily on systems such as digging wells, public standpipes, water sellers, etc.

5.4.1 BAD IMPLICATIONS OF URBANIZATION

Problems related to sanitation and water is found to be prevalent because of this growing

population. Residential issues are also prevailing due to the growing population and people are

facing problems related to the settlement of housing as well as availability of clean drinking

water which is going to be a scare for all the inhabitants of cities. Water pollution owing urban

mess and similarly air pollution due to traffic smoke are very emerging and common problems in

14
the study area. This growing urban mess has polluted water of the rivers and underground water

resources are also being affected because of leakage of sewerage pipes.

5.5 LIMITED STORAGE CAPACITY RESULTING INTO CANAL WATER

SHORTAGES AND EXCESSIVE LOSSES TO THE ARABIAN SEA

The current storage capacity is inadequate as the three major water reservoirs in Pakistan, i.e.

Mangla , Tarbela and Chashma , have a total designed capacity of 15.75 MAF, which has been

reduced to 13.1 MAF due to sedimentation. These reservoirs can store water equivalent to 30

days of consumption, whereas the standard minimum requirement is 120 days; most of the

advanced countries have capacities of 1-2 years. The continued excess flows to the Arabian Sea

also suggest that the country requires additional storage capacity. The key reason for such high

flows in the sea is the limited storage capacity and seasonality in river flows, as around 80

percent of the flow in the upper Indus occurs July to September. The average flows to sea

increase significantly during floods. The water losses are likely to increase further as climate

change may hasten the glacial melting.

5.6 TRANSBOUNDARY DISPUTES INTENSIFYING RIVER SUPPLY

VULNERABILITY

The Indus System Rivers flowing into Pakistan originate in India hence, for peaceful water

management, the Indus Water Treaty of 1960 prevails between the two countries. According to

the treaty, the western rivers (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab) are reserved for Pakistan, whereas the

eastern rivers are reserved for India. Despite its sole dependence on The Indus basin, Pakistan

was allocated 75 percent of Indus water. Moreover, the treaty allows India some limited use of

15
water in western rivers for irrigation, storage and for generating hydroelectric power, but under a

condition that the use would neither affect the quantity of water in rivers, nor alter the natural

timing of flows. However, in the past disputes have emerged over the treaty when India started

developing a number of power projects on the western rivers, e.g., Baglihar dam and Ratle

Project on the Chenab, and Kishanganga Project, on tributary of Jhelum. Pakistan claims that

these projects do not follow the specifications and criteria provided in the treaty, and would

therefore affect the hydrology and ecology of western rivers flowing into Pakistan. For example,

the Kishanganga dam is expected to divert 10-33 percent of river flows from Neelam River and

hence affect water availability for the Neelum-Jhelum hydropower plant. Pakistan has been

pursuing its legitimate objections to a number of such Indian projects on western rivers at

platforms defined under the treaty. As for Afghanistan, (Pakistan also derives water from the

Kabul River), the construction of hydropower projects on the river has also raised concerns.

Being the lower riparian state in this case, Pakistan reserves certain rights; however, no such

water sharing agreement exists between the two neighbors. Construction of storages and

hydropower projects is expected to lead to decrease of around 17 percent in the annual river

flows. Hence, there is a need for an official agreement between the two countries that defines the

terms of sharing and construction of hydropower and other water storing facilities on the Kabul

River.

5.7 OUTDATED DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM RESULTS IN LOW PRODUCTIVITY

AND INEQUITABLE DISTRIBUTION OF WATER

The inefficient distribution system (also known as warabandi) has resulted into low water

16
productivity in Pakistan. For instance, over 90 percent of total annual water available in the

country goes to agriculture. Furthermore, the supply of water is linked to the canal command

area, and farmers are required to consume water even when it is not required. Thus, the output

produced against a unit of water remains extremely low. This unreliable and rigid water

distribution system also explains the low productivity of water (defined as the average crop

product per unit of water consumed). According to a study, water productivity for cereal crops in

Pakistan is almost one-third of that in India, and one sixth of the productivity realized in China.

Domestic water distribution is also characterized by inequity and several inefficiencies. In the

country‘s largest province, Punjab, only 18 percent of the population in rural areas relies on tap

water as source of water and rest utilizes groundwater, as compared to 51 percent of urban

population with access to tap water. This indicates that a large number of households have to rely

on other expensive sources of water, such as underground water and tankers.

5.8 GROUNDWATER RESOURCE DEPLETING RAPIDLY DUE TO OVER-

PUMPING

Due to the unpredictability associated with canal water supplies, farmers have turned to

groundwater pumping. Thus, the number of tube wells installed has increased sharply over the

years, and groundwater has now become a significant source of water, as its contribution to

irrigated agriculture has doubled in the last 40 years from (25.6 to 50.2 MAF). This is equivalent

to 50 percent of overall canal water withdrawal for irrigation. Industries and domestic sector also

relies on groundwater resources for water supply. Even in the domestic sector, unmonitored

groundwater exploitation is on the rise due to improper water provision. In Faisalabad for

17
instance, households have turned to groundwater due to inefficient supplies and non-monitoring

by local WASA. It is true that precipitation and river flows constantly recharge most of these

groundwater aquifers – a process that enables people to have reliable access to this key water

resource even for a very long period. However, no matter how large these aquifers may be,

excessive pumping would also deplete this valuable resource. This is what is happening in many

regions across Pakistan, where unregulated and excessive use of groundwater is leading to falling

water tables and reduced quality. For instance, Lahore has seen reduction in water tables at 0.5

meters annually for past 30 years. In KP, Kohat, Bannu and D.I Khan are some regions where

over pumping has lowered water tables and resulted in contamination from deep saline

groundwater. In Balochistan, there are reports of intrusion of saline water into aquifer zones in

coastal areas.

5.9 EXTREMELY LOW WATER TARIFFS ARE DISTORTING INCENTIVES FOR

WATER CONSERVATION

In Pakistan, canal water charges, also called abiana, are very low, as the canal irrigation cost

stands negligible when compared to its close alternate, say tube well irrigation. Furthermore,

abiana rates have no link with the amount of water being consumed. Currently, provincial

governments charge a flat rate as abiana on the basis of cropped area. As a result, once the

cropped area has been determined, the incremental cost of applying extra water falls to zero.

Similarly, the tariffs are unreflective of the water intensity of various crops. For example, rice

and cotton on average are charged at Rs 85 per acre; even though rice consumes 60 percent more

water than cotton. The prevailing pricing structure, which has no link with consumption,

18
discourages water conservation.

5.10 WASTE DISCHARGE INTO DRAINS AND RIVERS HAS RESULTED INTO

DETERIORATING WATER QUALITY

50 million people in the country are at risk of arsenic poisoning from contaminated groundwater.

Specifically, the underground water samples had arsenic level of over 200 micrograms per liter,

which was considerably higher than the WHO‘s recommendation of 10 micrograms and the

Government‘s limit of 50 micrograms. Another source of pollution stems from direct discharge

of waste from households and industries into nearby rivers, drains, streams and ponds and the

unregulated and heavy use of chemical, fertilizers, and pesticides in agriculture. For example,

around 90 percent of industrial and municipal waste, which is largely untreated and toxic, is

dumped into open drains and filtrated into aquifers. The waste water does not stay in fresh water

bodies but is also seeped into the groundwater aquifers. Hence, this pollution is directly affecting

the quality of drinking water, and in turn adding to health concerns. There is absence of

monitoring of adequate waste disposal to water bodies or facilities to treat waste water. Finally,

the overexploitation of groundwater has also resulted in an increase in arsenic content in areas

where groundwater pumping is a source of clean drinking water.

5.11GAPS IN GOVERNANCE LEADING TO INEFFICIENT WATER

MANAGEMENT

Interprovincial disputes continue to dominate the policy debate on water reforms. Although the

Water Accord 1991 divides water among provinces as per a given formula, the disagreement

prevails on sharing shortages. Indus River System Authority (IRSA), the implementing body for

19
the accord, lacks its own telemetry system to gauge surface flows on continuous basis and hence

has to rely on provinces for information regarding river flows. This absence of own monitoring

system erodes IRSA‘s ability to act as a mediator between provinces in the event of water-related

disputes. Hence, grievances among provinces have persisted over time and even postponed the

development of new major water storages on the Indus River. Besides this, the management of

domestic and industrial water supply also faces shortcomings. The issue in fact is not of the

availability of water rather the system of governance. One such example of a major city facing

erratic supplies is Karachi, where at least half the population relies on tankers for water supply.

The issue is less of availability and more of water management and governance. Governance

issues are also widespread in the domestic sector, particularly in major urban centers. For

example, Karachi, the biggest metropolitan city of the country, faces serious issues related to

water supply and quality. In fact, the outdated and deficient supply infrastructure, weak

administration, and limited financial resources, have led to a situation where shortages are

common. Unfortunately, these shortages are often plugged by supplies from illegal hydrants,

which charge exorbitant rates from the end-consumers. As a result, the underprivileged suffer the

most, as they are unable to get adequate and affordable water due to limited financial and

infrastructure support. Finally, the weak governance also results in the poor quality of water

being supplied to the masses.

6. WATER-SECURITY NEXUS

Over the last decade, Pakistan became a water-stressed country: The United Nations (UN)

currently estimates an annual per capita availability of 1,090 cubic meters. The UN‘s Food and

20
Agriculture Organization (FAO) measures the pressure on national water resources by

calculating water withdrawal as a percentage of total renewable water resources (TRWR).

Stresses are considered high if the TRWR value is above 25 percent. Pakistan‘s water pressure

amounts to a staggering 74 percent. This pressure is exorbitant even compared with neighboring

high-pressured countries, including India at 34 percent and Afghanistan at 31 percent. The

country is expected to become water scarce—less than five hundred cubic meters per capita per

year—by 2035, some analysts even predicting by 2020. This alarming prediction is derived from

a growing population, inefficient supply management, distribution inequalities, and the effects of

climate change. Despite uncertainty surrounding how quickly water resources are being depleted

and what future populations and industries may need, it is clear that Indus basin water is

precarious.

Security refers both to national security, in terms of direct conflict and violence between

different groups and users, and to human security, defined as an individual‘s security from

environmental extremes and social instability. Water is the material basis of existence,

livelihoods, and production, and lack of access adversely affects not only human security but

also social stability. Human security and social instability typically manifest themselves at the

subnational scale.

Intrastate water tensions and challenges are deeply linked with agriculture. This sector has seen

production growth over the last few decades, but it is rife with inefficiency and mismanagement.

Water constraints will require changes in the types of food produced as well as more efficient

irrigation practices that improve water quality. About 80 percent of cultivated land in Pakistan is

irrigated, of which about 33 percent is affected by waterlogging and soil salinity, leading to

21
significant declines (an estimated 25 percent) in crop yields, especially downstream. These issues

will remain problematic until more sustainable irrigation practices are put in place.

Urban water supply and sanitation is another security concern. Pakistan is home to eight cities

with populations of more than one million, including the megalopolis of Karachi, which

produces more than a quarter of the country‘s gross domestic product (GDP). Water-related riots

as a result of poor water and sanitation services are not unknown, and ―water mafias‖ often

operate in collusion with criminal elements in the urban areas, especially in Karachi. Poor access

to water supply and sanitation has obvious consequences for human security, and diminished

security runs the risk of evolving into civil unrest and political instability.

Climate change has the potential to shift the dynamics of the water-security nexus. Extreme

weather events and shifts in water supply patterns could add more pressure to each of the

anticipated security concerns, highlighting the need for a comprehensive disaster risk

management strategy integrated into a national water policy. Because Pakistan is a

predominantly agricultural economy, any decrease in crop yields will affect not only livelihoods

but also food security in both rural and urban populations. Such insecurity runs the risk of

aggravating existing social inequalities in water use and availability and intensifying the

sociopolitical factors that imperil Pakistan today. Although more or less isolated now, these

flashpoints could heighten the reactions of disgruntled groups unless sustainable and efficient

practices are implemented.

6.1 WATER CRISIS; A THREAT TO NATIONAL INTEGRATION

Major source of trouble is interprovincial water conflict, often leveraged by ethno nationalist

22
movements to arouse passions and at times to justify separatist agendas. Water conflict between

the economically and geographically dominant upper riparian Punjab province and the lower

riparian Sindh province over the distribution of the Indus River and its tributaries is one of the

most notorious in the country. Ongoing arguments over royalties from dams and dam

construction between the Punjab and the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) province, however, must

be evaluated in light of the political economic effects of recent changes in federal structure.

Passage of the 18th Amendment in 2010, which gave more autonomy to the provinces, failed to

address the underlying causes of provincial water disputes and resulted only in discontinuities in

water management structures. The ensuing complexities in governance show how the provinces

proved to be unprepared to handle the problems of water quality, allocation, and distribution.

7. INDUS BASIN WATER TREATY: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS

The Indus Basin system is the major water reservoir in the subcontinent. It comprises six major

rivers: three western rivers (Indus, Jhelum and Chenab) and three eastern rivers (Sutlej, Beas and

Ravi). It cuts across both Pakistan and India. With partition arose the issue of Jammu and

Kashmir, a disputed territory in northern India from where the Indus river system originates and

passes through both countries. Under the terms of the treaty, the water use of three eastern rivers,

was given to India, and the use of the western rivers was allocated to Pakistan. Two further

provisions were added regarding the allocation of limited water for consumptive use in Jammu

and Kashmir, and allowance for India to use water from western rivers for hydropower

generation. The IWT (Indus Water Treaty) is widely considered to be the most important water

treaty in the world, and has endured despite more than five decades of hostility between India

23
and Pakistan. The IWT (Indus Water Treaty) offers a viable framework for resolving water

disputes between Pakistan and India, and remained neutral in its overtones by neither upholding

India‘s claim of exclusive rights over the rivers passing through its boundaries, nor Pakistan‘s

demands for the restoration of pre partition status quo of unobstructed access to the waters of the

rivers of the Indus Basin. The IWT (Indus Water Treaty) therefore enjoys the support of

governments, experts and civil society within and outside the South Asian region.

7.1 PAKISTAN’S RESERVATIONS UNDER INDUS BASIN WATER TREATY

Being upper riparian, India is in much better position as compared to Pakistan as it has complete

control over the water resources, placing Pakistan in a very precarious situation. Pakistani

policymakers are concerned that India is not only fast building dams on the western rivers, it is

simultaneously engaged in activities aimed at stopping Pakistan from building storage dams on

these rivers by controlling the supply of water by filling water in its dams in clear violation of the

IWT. Pakistan, which is a single basin country, relies heavily on the Indus Basin water to meet

its domestic, agricultural and industrial needs. Indian projects on the rivers allocated to Pakistan

including the Wullar Barrage, Baglihar and Kishenganga dams in Indian Occupied Kashmir have

rung alarm bells in Pakistan. Pakistan‘s apprehensions arise out of increasing water scarcity in

Pakistan as it is dependent on fresh water supply from the western rivers. The IWT permits India

to build run-of-the-river projects, which are small-scale hydroelectric projects that require no

dam, reservoir or flooding to generate electricity – the natural flow and elevation of a river are

used to create power, and almost all Indian reservoirs on the Indus, Chenab and Jhelum can be

termed as run-of-the-river projects. But these projects can have serious repercussions for the

24
downstream country. There have been apprehensions on the Pakistani side that these projects

will let India acquire manipulative control over water flows into Pakistan, and, in the worst case

scenario, store water in the dry season and release it in the wet season. Pakistan‘s objections to

the run-of-the-river projects pertain to violations of the design criteria suggested in the IWT, and

the storage projects the Indians are building on the western rivers.

7.2 INDIAN JUSTIFICATION OF DAM CONSTRUCTION UNDER INDUS BASIN

WATER TREATY

The Indian argument has been that the IWT gives it the right to develop hydropower and water

storage reservoirs on the western rivers of the Indus Basin. Moreover, India asserts, all the

projects being carried out in the Indian Occupied Kashmir are based on the run-of-the-river

hydroelectric plants, which will not change the course of the western rivers flowing into

Pakistan, and that mass storage would not be undertaken. India also claims that no single

completed or proposed Indian project on the three western rivers of the Indus Basin alone has the

potential to significantly limit flows of water into Pakistan, because, India argues, water flow in

the western rivers is dependent upon melting of snow and rainfall, rather than diversion of water

supply through its water reservoirs.

7.3 POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS UNDR INDUS BASIN WATER TREATY

Pakistan being a semi-arid country is facing severe water issues and loses significant amounts of

water due to the lack of storage facilities as it has constructed no water storage reservoir on the

Indus since the Tarbela dam was built in 1976. There is a need for adequate management of

water supplies by Pakistan within its borders by starting work on the stalled water storage

25
projects like the Diamer-Bhasha (4500 MW), Dasu (2160 MW) and Bunji (7100 MW) dams,

which would not only cater to its water needs but also improve its energy generation capacity.

The following recommendations can be used by the policy-makers on both sides to come up with

a suitable resolution to the thorny issue of water sharing:

1. The IWT‘s dispute resolution mechanism should be modernised according to the

changing environmental and demographic realities on both sides of the border to bring it

more in line with contemporary international watercourse law, which pertains to the use

and conservation of all waters that cross international boundaries, including both surface

and groundwater.

2. There should be an institutional mechanism to exchange data regarding the hydrology of

the current and planned projects on the shared rivers, especially the flow data to ensure

equitable sharing of water.

3. Both countries should use the platform of South Asian Association for Regional

Cooperation (SAARC) on issues like water management and agricultural growth with

emphasis on greater interaction and cooperation between member countries to seek water

management solutions through joint hydropower projects and energy swaps between the

countries.

4. Strong political will should be demonstrated by both sides to make joint management of

the Indus Basin possible without politicising the issue.

5. A Regional Centre for Water Management should be set up to ensure efficient use of

available water resources. Both India and Pakistan should send their researchers to the

Centre to study and deliberate on water issues.

26
 6. Water issue should be separated from other outstanding issues between the two countries,

and the resolution of water disputes should be made a top priority in any future

confidence building measures.

8. GENERAL SOLUTIONS TO COPE WITH DILEMMA OF WATER CRISIS

8.1 INVENT NEW WATER CONSERVATION TECHNOLOGIES

In areas where aquifers are drying up and rainwater is increasingly unpredictable, innovation is

needed. But as we attempt to cope with freshwater scarcity and develop conservation

technologies, energy consumption is an important consideration.

8.2 RECYCLE WASTEWATER

In March, World Water Day panelists urged a new mindset for wastewater treatment. Some

countries, like Singapore, are trying to recycle to cut water imports and become more self-

sufficient. The rich East Asian republic is a leader in developing advanced technology that

cleanses wastewater for other uses, including drinking.

8.3 IMPROVE IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES

Some 70 percent of the world‘s freshwater are used for agriculture. Improving irrigation can help

close supply and demand gaps. In certain cases profligate irrigation practices meant for an earlier

era has weakened the ability of farmers to provide food and fiber to a growing world.

8.4 APPROPRIATELY PRICE WATER

Water pricing and rights go hand in hand, with consumers questioning the benefit of higher

27
prices. According to experts from the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

(OECD), an international economic forum of the world‘s richest countries, raising prices will

help lower waste and pollution.

8.5 DEVELOP ENERGY EFFICIENT DESALINATION PLANTS

To date, desalination has been an energy-intensive solution to water scarcity. Typically the

Middle East has capitalized on its large energy reserves to build desalination plants. But Saudi

Arabia could be fostering a new kind of desalination plants. Britain has taken a different

approach with small-scale facilities for agriculture.

8.6 IMPROVE WATER CATCHMENT AND HARVESTING

Water catchment systems are essential for areas with no other reliable water

sources. Pakistan and India—two countries that contend with some of the worst effects of

climate change—are overhauling rainwater harvesting systems. These efforts provide

independent control of water resources.

8.7 LOOK TO COMMUNITY-BASED GOVERNANCE AND PARTNERSHIPS

Community organizations elevate the experiences of those whose voices merit more influence. In

April, for instance, indigenous groups met at the alternative climate change conference in

Bolivia, a gathering meant to foster international partnerships among underrepresented groups.

Ensuring more effective governance at the grassroots-level gives communities stature, and can

lead to effective policy changes on a national scale.

8.8 DEVELOP AND ENACT BETTER POLICIES AND REGULATIONS

28
As water scarcity complicates food security and pollution, governments need to redefine their

role. The U.S. government is considering expanding the Clean Water Act to ensure more

protections.

8.9 HOLISTICALLY MANAGE ECOSYSTEMS

Simply put, holistic management applies to a practical, common-sense approach to overseeing

natural resources that takes into account economic, cultural, and ecological goals. In essence, the

whole is greater than the sum of its parts, and each facet is related to and influences the others

(holistic approach). Good examples of holistic management are communities that operate sewage

treatment plants while pursuing partnerships with clean energy producers to use wastewater to

fertilize algae and other biofuel crops. The crops, in turn, soak up nutrients and purify

wastewater, significantly reducing pumping and treatment costs.

8.10 IMPROVED DISTRIBUTION INFRASTRUCTURE

Poor infrastructure is devastating to health and the economy. It wastes resources, adds costs,

diminishes the quality of life, and allows preventable water-borne diseases to spread among

vulnerable populations, especially children. The problem is not confined to the developing

world. Pipes burst on a regular basis in the U.S., prompting boil alerts. Sewage treatment systems

regularly overflow and malfunction, causing beach closures.

8.11 BUILD INTERNATIONAL FRAMEWORKS AND INSTITUTIONAL

COOPERATION

Binding international accords for natural resource issues are hard to achieve. The 2009 United

Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen is evidence of that point. And that‘s not just

29
because the freshwater crisis, arguably the most visible and dire of the climate change risks, was

ignored. Regional agreements regarding trans boundary or shared water bodies such as the Great

Lakes Compact in the U.S., and Nile River basin agreement in Africa are just as difficult to

ratify. But policymakers and advocates need to keep trying. Humanitarian-oriented treaties, such

as the U.N.‘s drinking water Millennium Development Goals, indicate that comprehensive global

strategies are possible.

8.12 ADDRESSING WATER POLLUTION

Measuring and monitoring water quality is essential to human health and biodiversity. This

monumental issue rears its head in many forms and can be addressed in just as many ways.

While securing the quality of drinking water and at the local level, it‘s essential to build

international bridges to solutions.

8.13 PUBLIC COMMON RESOURCES / EQUITABLE ACCESS

One of the key United Nations‘ Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) is ensuring access to

drinking water. While the steps to achieve this goal are debated, the thesis that water is a basic

right comes into play. As countries such as Chile attempt to reform water rights, U.S. politicians

are considering how access rights translate into federal protection of Lake Michigan, one of the

world‘s largest reserves of freshwater.

8.14 RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT/ INNOVATION

Access to water in a water-scarce world will become a much higher priority in business

decisions. Communities are likely to pursue public-private partnerships that draw on the

innovative capacities of companies. One example— cities that operate sewage treatment plants

30
are likely to pursue partnerships with clean energy producers to fertilize algae and other biofuel

crops with wastewater.

8.15 WATER PROJECTS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES / TRANSFER OF

TECHNOLOGY

Climate change and water scarcity are producing the most dramatic consequences in developing

regions, such as northwest India and Sub-Saharan Africa. One proposed solution is to transfer

water conservation technologies to these dry areas. Doing so is tricky because economies are

weak and there are gaps in skills that often compel government and business authorities to

impose these changes on local citizens.

8.16 CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION

Climate change and water scarcity go hand-in-hand to cause some of the biggest contemporary

challenges to the human race. These issues have a reciprocal relationship, identified by the

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), in which, ―water management policies and

measures can have an influence on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.‖ As renewable energy

options are pursued, the water consumption of these mitigation tactics must be considered in

producing alternatives ranging from bio-energy crops to hydropower and solar power plants.

8.17 POPULATION GROWTH CONTROL

Because of the accelerating growth in global population, parts of the world could see a supply-

demand gap of up to 65 percent in water resources by 2030. Currently, more than one billion

people don‘t have access to clean water. And with 70 percent of the world‘s freshwater used for

agriculture, water‘s critical role in food production must be considered as climate and resource

31
conditions change.

9. SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS TO COPE WATER CRISIS IN PAKISTAN

9.1 CANAL WATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

9.1.1 WATER COURSE IMPROVEMENT

Tertiary level irrigation system in the Punjab comprises of more than 58,500 watercourses. It has

been established that a significant portion of irrigation water (about 40%) is lost in these century

old community watercourses because of their poor maintenance and aging.

The watercourse improvement / renovation consists of complete demolishing of community

channel and its rebuilding/re-aligning according to the engineering design to increase

conveyance and efficiency by reducing seepage, evaporation, and operational losses. Parts of

reconstructed channel are lined and necessary water control structures are installed to improve

conveyance of the canal and tube well water. The standard "Pucca" lining carried out under

previous and ongoing OFWM programs is a rectangular shaped channel using double-brick

masonry walls (23 cm) and a brick masonry bed (7 cm) plastered inside and on top of the walls.

This design has proved to be durable and easy to install. Other types of lining e.g. pre-fabricated

concrete (pre-cast parabolic lining), pipe, plastic etc. have also been considered keeping in view

the farmers‘ choice, field conditions, and cost effectiveness.

9.2 LASER LAND LEVELING

Increasing water shortages have compelled the concerned officials for developing strategies for

efficient utilization of available water resources. Enhancement of water productivity at farm

32
level is the most appropriate solution to redress water scarcity. Precision land leveling (PLL) is a

mechanical process of grading and smoothing the land to a precise and uniform plane surface at

grade or no grade (zero slope) with variation of less than ±20 mm (2cm). Generally, traditional

method is used for PLL that involves earth movement with bucket type soil scrapers and tractor

mounted rear blades but it is very laborious and too expensive to finish the land surface to exact

grade.

The LASER controlled land leveling system consists of a LASER transmitter, a signal receiver,

an electrical control panel, and a solenoid hydraulic control valve. The LASER transmitter

transmits a LASER beam, which is intercepted by the signal receiver mounted on a leveling

blade attached to the tractor. The control panel mounted on the tractor interprets the signal from

the receiver and opens or closes the hydraulic control valve, which raises or lowers the leveling

blade. Some LASER transmitters have the ability to level the field on single or dual graded

slopes ranging from 0.01 to 15 percent.

9.3 BED AND FURROW IRRIGATION

Furrows are small, parallel channels, made to carry water in order to irrigate the crop. The crop is

usually grown on the ridges between the furrows. It is a type of flood irrigation which facilitates

diverted water to move into narrow channels (furrows) dug between the rows of the crop. It

reduces the wetted area of the field which considerably saves water besides generating other

benefits. Furrow system is generally used in row crops such as vegetables, cotton, and corn.

33
 9.4 GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT

9.4.1 RAIN-WATER HARVESTING

Rainwater harvesting is collecting the run-off from a structure or other impervious surface in

order to store it for later use. Traditionally, this involves harvesting the rain from a roof. The rain

will collect in gutters that channel the water into downspouts and then into some sort of storage

vessel. Rainwater collection systems can be as simple as collecting rain in a rain barrel or as

elaborate as harvesting rainwater into large cisterns to supply your entire household demand.

34
 9.4.2 CHECK DAM TECHNIQUE

A check dam is a small, sometimes temporary, dam constructed across a swale, drainage ditch,

or waterway to counteract erosion by reducing water flow velocity. Check dams themselves are

not a type of new technology; rather, they are an ancient technique dating from the second

century A.D.

9.5 PRESSURIZES IRRIGATION

In pressurized irrigation systems water is pressurised and precisely applied to the plants under

pressure through a system of pipes.

9.5.1 DRIP IRRIGATION

Water and nutrients are delivered across the field in pipes called ‗dripperlines‘ featuring smaller

units known as ‗drippers‘. Each dripper emits drops containing water and fertilizers, resulting in

the uniform application of water and nutrients direct to each plant's root zone, across an entire

field.

35
 9.5.2 SPRINKLER IRRIGATION

Sprinkler Irrigation is a method of applying irrigation water which is similar to rainfall. Water is

distributed through a system of pipes usually by pumping. It is then sprayed into the air

and irrigated entire soil surface through spray heads so that it breaks up into small water drops

which fall to the ground.

36
 9.6 TUNNEL FARMING

Growing out of season crops in controlled atmosphere is called tunnel farming. In tunnel

farming, crops are being shielded in with transparent polythene sheets and trap the heat of sun. it

creates summer conditions in winter season to get required crops.

37
 9.7 WASTE WATER TREATMENT TECHNIQUES

The causes of water pollution are multiple: industrial wastes, mining activities, sewage and waste

water, pesticides and chemical fertilizers, energy use, radioactive waste, urban development

When water is polluted and decontamination becomes necessary, the best purifcation approach

should be chosen to reach the decontamination objectives.

A purifcation process generally consists of five successive steps as described below:

1. Preliminary treatment or pre-treatment (physical and mechanical).

2. Primary treatment (physicochemical and chemical).

3. Secondary treatment or purifcation (chemical and biological).

4. Tertiary or final treatment (physical and chemical).

38
 5. Treatment of the sludge formed (supervised tipping, recycling or incineration).

9.7.1 TECHNOLOGIES TO REMOVE POLLUTANTS FROM WATER

9.7.1.1 CONVENTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES

9.7.1.1.1 COAGULATION/FLOCCULATION

Coagulation-flocculation is a chemical water treatment technique typically applied prior to

sedimentation and filtration (e.g. rapid sand filtration) to enhance the ability of a treatment

process to remove particles. Coagulation is a process used to neutralise charges and form a

gelatinous mass to trap (or bridge) particles thus forming a mass large enough to settle or be

trapped in the filter. Flocculation is gentle stirring or agitation to encourage the particles thus

formed to agglomerate into masses large enough to settle or be filtered from solution.

39
9.7.1.1.2 BIODEGRADATION

Biodegradation is the decay or breakdown of materials that occurs when microorganisms use

an organic substance as a source of carbon and energy. For example, sewage flows to the

wastewater treatment plant where many of the organic compounds are broken down; some

compounds are simply biotransformed (changed), others are completely mineralized . These

biodegradation processes are essential to recycle wastes so that the elements in them can be used

again.

9.7.1.1.3 ADSORPTION USING AC (ACTIVATED CARBONS)

Activated carbon filtration is a commonly used technology based on the adsorption of

contaminants onto the surface of a filter. This method is effective in removing certain organics

(such as unwanted taste and odours, micropollutants), chlorine, fluorine or radon from drinking

water or wastewater. However, it is not effective for microbial contaminants, metals, nitrates and

other inorganic contaminants. The adsorption efficiency depends on the nature of activated

carbon used, the water composition, and operating parameters.

9.7.1.2 ESTABLISHED TECHNOLOGIES

9.7.1.2.1. SOLVENT EXTRACTION

In solvent extraction process, there are three major operations. First is the extraction in which the

solute is transferred from water to the solvent. The second is the solute removal stage in which

the solute is separated from the solvent and the solvent is recycled to the extractor. Third is the

solvent recovery stage in which the solvent may be removed from the wastewater raffinate.

40
9.7.1.2.2. EVAPORATION

It is a physical vapor deposition technique in which waste water is heated until it is vaporized.

After that vapors are condensed and collected as distilled water leaving the solid waste behind.

9.7.1.2.3. OXIDATION

The wastewater contains heavy metals, oil emulsions, inorganic and organic compounds, which

are difficult to remove due to their solubility in water or due to the presence of persistent and

recalcitrant compounds. These compounds can include, aromatics, sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen,

double bound and highly molecular compounds.

The AOPs generates and uses mainly hydroxyl radicals to oxidize the organic compounds . The

HO• has a high oxidation or standard reduction potential , higher than sulfate radicals, chlorine,

permanganate, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and ozone (O3), only with lower value than fluorine.

The main characteristics of HO• are short-lived, simply produced, powerful oxidant,

electrophilic behavior, ubiquitous in nature, 18 highly reactive and practically non-selective. It

reacts with wide variety organic compounds classes, producing shorter and simpler organic

41
compounds, or in case of full mineralization, carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O) and inorganic

salts described in equation.

Organic species + HO• 22 → CO + HO + inorganic ions

9.7.1.2.4 MEMBRANE SEPARATION

It includes a series of processes in which water is fed through a semi permeable membrane at

high pressure to separate specific materials from wastewater solution. Membranes allow certain

molecules by diffusion or forced diffusion. Rate of diffusion depends upon pressure,

concentration, and temperature of molecules.

9.7.1.2.5 MEMBRANE BIOREACTORS

Membrane Bioreactors combine conventional biological treatment (e.g. activated sludge)

processes with membrane filtration to provide an advanced level of organic and suspended solids

removal. When designed accordingly, these systems can also provide an advanced level of

nutrient removal. In an MBR system, the membranes are submerged in an aerated biological

reactor. The membranes have porosities ranging from 0.035 microns to 0.4 microns (depending

on the manufacturer), which is considered between micro and ultrafiltration.

This level of filtration allows for high quality effluent to be drawn through the membranes and

eliminates the sedimentation and filtration processes typically used for wastewater treatment.

Because the need for sedimentation is eliminated, the biological process can operate at a much

higher mixed liquor concentration.

42
9.7.1.2.6 ION-EXCHANGE

Ion exchange is a water treatment method where one or more undesirable ionic contaminants are

removed from water by exchange with another non-objectionable, or less objectionable ionic

substance. Both the contaminant and the exchanged substance must be dissolved and have the

same type of electrical charge (positive or negative). A typical example of ion exchange is a

process called ―water softening‖ aiming to reduce calcium and magnesium content.

Nevertheless, ion exchange is also efficient in removing toxic metals from water. Ion exchange

processes can also remove various charged atoms or molecules (ions) such as nitrates, fluoride,

sulphates, perchlorate, iron and manganese ions as well as toxic metals (radium, uranium,

chromium, etc.) from water. The most typical application of ion exchange is the preparation of

high purity water for industrial applications, water softening, recovery or removal of metals in

the chemical industry.

In case of any query; e-mail: mukhliseenacademy@gmail.com

or visit Facebook Page/Group ―Mukhliseen CSS Circle‖.

43
Regards
Team Mukhliseen CSS Circle.

44