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1AB1B2 Print Jul19 PDF
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1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Jul19/Technical Training
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat. A B1 B2 1.1 - 1
Basic Maintenance Module 1 Mathematics
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Jul19/Technical Training
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat. A B1 B2 1.1 - 2
Basic Maintenance Module 1 Mathematics
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
1.1 Arithmetic
Jul19/Technical Training
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Basic Maintenance Module 1 Mathematics
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Signs Description 3 1 8
÷
5 0 9 (509 = 500+0 +9 )
Divide
2 8 6 2 ( 9 x 318 )
Plus
+ 1 5 9 0 0 0 ( 500 x 318 )
- Minus
1 6 1 8 6 2 Results
X Multiply
Methods of Multiplication
Example 1
Calculate 46 x 15
4 6
x 1 5 ( 15 = 10 + 5 )
2 3 0 ( 5 x 46 )
4 6 0 ( 10 x 46 )
6 9 0 Results
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Multiplication Table
1 2 3 4 5 6
1x4=4 2x4=8 3 x 4 = 12 4 x 4 = 16 5 x 4 = 20 6 x 4 = 24
1x5=5 2 x 5 = 10 3 x 5 = 15 4 x 5 = 20 5 x 5 = 25 6 x 5 = 30
1x6=6 2 x 6 = 12 3 x 6 = 18 4 x 6 = 24 5 x 6 = 30 6 x 6 = 36
1x7=7 2 x 7 = 14 3 x 7 = 21 4 x 7 = 28 5 x 7 = 35 6 x 7 = 42
1x8=8 2 x 8 = 16 3 x 8 = 24 4 x 8 = 32 5 x 8 = 40 6 x 8 = 48
1x9=9 2 x 9 = 18 3 x 9 = 27 4 x 9 = 36 5 x 9 = 45 6 x 9 = 54
1 x 10 = 10 2 x 10 = 20 3 x 10 = 30 4 x 10 = 40 5 x 10 = 50 6 x 10 = 60
1 x 11 = 11 2 x 11 = 22 3 x 11 = 33 4 x 11 = 44 5 x 11 = 55 6 x 11 = 66
1 x 12 = 12 2 x 12 = 24 3 x 12 = 36 4 x 12 = 48 5 x 12 = 60 6 x 12 = 72
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7 8 9 10 11 12
7 x 2 = 14 8 x 2 = 16 9 x 2 = 18 10 x 2 = 20 11 x 2 = 22 12 x 2 = 24
7 x 3 = 21 8 x 3 = 24 9 x 3 = 27 10 x 3 = 30 11 x 3 = 33 12 x 3 = 36
7 x 4 = 28 8 x 4 = 32 9 x 4 = 36 10 x 4 = 40 11 x 4 = 44 12 x 4 = 48
7 x 5 = 35 8 x 5 = 40 9 x 5 = 45 10 x 5 = 50 11 x 5 = 55 12 x 5 = 60
7 x 6 = 42 8 x 6 = 48 9 x 6 = 54 10 x 6 = 60 11 x 6 = 66 12 x 6 = 72
7 x 7 = 49 8 x 7 = 56 9 x 7 = 63 10 x 7 = 70 11 x 7 = 77 12 x 7 = 84
7 x 8 = 56 8 x 8 = 64 9 x 8 = 72 10 x 8 = 80 11 x 8 = 88 12 x 8 = 96
7 x 9 = 63 8 x 9 = 72 9 x 9 = 81 10 x 9 = 90 11 x 9 = 99 12 x 9 = 108
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Methods of Division
Example 2
Example 1
Divide 6239 by 27
Divide 64 by 4
64 ÷ 4 = 16 6239 ÷ 27 = gives a Quotient of 231 and a Remainder of 2
2 3 1 Quotient
1 6 Quotient
2 7 6 2 3 9
4 6 4
- 5 4
- 4
8 3
2 4
- 8 1
2 4
2 9
0 Remainder
- 2 7
2 Remainder
* Remainder is the number that is “left over” from the result of division.
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Exercise 1.1.1
a) 326 x 19
b) 537 x 160
c) 671 x 407
d) 992 ÷ 8
e) 6445 ÷ 8
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64
Simplifying Fractions we often simplify a fraction by reducing it to its b) 88
lowest terms. A fraction in its lowest terms has a numerator and
denominator that have no common factor except 1. 66
c) 143
Example
75
120 24𝑥5 24 8 d)
= = = 90
375 75𝑥5 75 25
625
e) 1000
When the answer to a mathematical problem is in the form of a fraction,
the result is usually expressed in its lowest terms for simplicity.
70
Reduce to its lowest terms using prime factorisation. Prime
245
factorisation is the decomposition of a composite number into indivisible
numbers.
70 2𝑥5𝑥7 2
= =
245 5𝑥7𝑥7 7
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3 2 x 4 + 3 11
2 = =
4 4 4
5 7 x 9 + 5 68
7 = =
9 9 9
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Thus, the factors of 60 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, and 60.
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2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 26
The index notation is used to denote the power of the number or the
number of times the number will multiply itself.
For example 22 shows that the number will multiply itself by 2 times and
23 shows that the number will multiply itself by 3 times.
Prime Factorization
Every natural number (except 1) is either a prime number or a
composite number. A composite number can be expressed as the
product of two or more prime numbers, which are called prime factors.
The process of decomposition of a composite number into prime factors
is known as prime factorisation.
Example
1) 30 = 2 x 15 = 2 x 3 x 5
2, 3, 5 are all prime numbers
2) 60 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 5
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Exercises 1.1.5
1) Express the following using index notation. 3) Factorise each of the following numbers into prime factors.
a) 100
b) 225
a) 7x7 c) 125
b) 2x2x5x5 d) 360
c) 3x7x7x7 e) 147
d) 5 x 5 x 11 x 11 x 11 f) 567
e) 2 x 2 x 13 x 13 x 31 x 2 g) 216
f) 5 x 5 x 5 x 19 x 29 x 19 x 23 x 29 h) 648
a) 28
b) 108
c) 48
d) 144
e) 54
f) 192
g) 88
h) 256
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The factors of 30 are 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30. 1) Find all the common factors:
The common factors between these two numbers are 1, 2, 3, and 6. b) 15 and 18
Examples d) 36 and 60
Find the highest common factor of 60, 180 and 210 e) 12 and 16
180 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 5 = 22 x 32 x 5 x 1 a) 24 and 64
210 = 2 x 3 x 5 x 7 x 1 b) 28 and 56
d) 99 and 165
e) 12 and 42
f) 90 and 108
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The first 3 common multiples common to 9 and 12 are 36, 72 and 108. 18 = 2 x 32
30 = 2 x 3 x 5
36 = 22 x 32
22 x 32 x 5 = 180
Therefore the LCM of 30 and 36 is 180
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Exercise 1.1.7
a) 24 and 18
b) 30 and 25
c) 81 and 54
d) 100 and 75
a) 18 and 42
b) 21 and 28
c) 26 and 39
e) 150 and 45
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3x9 27
=
4x9 36
5x4 20
=
9x4 36
7x3 21
=
12x3 36
5 7 3
, ,
9 12 4
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7 4 7−4 3 1 35 16
− = = = = −
9 9 9 9 3 40 40
8 15
= +
18 18
8 + 15
=
18
23 5
= =1
18 18
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Example 1 1 3
b) (6 4 − 1 4)
1 3 25 7
Evaluate 6 −1 = −
4 4 4 4
8 5
a) (3 15 + 1 8) 25 − 7
=
8 5 4
= 3+1+( + )
15 8
18
=
(64 + 75) 4
=4+
120
1
=4
139 2
=4+
120
Example 3
19
=4+1 Evaluate
120
7 7 5
c) (4 10 + 15 − 2 6)
𝟏𝟗 7 7 5
=𝟓 =4−2+( + − )
𝟏𝟐𝟎 10 15 6
21 + 14 − 25
=2+( )
30
1
=2
3
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For improper fractions, convert to mixed numbers before adding or e) The police conduct regular anti-secret society operations among
subtracting. 3 1
youths. On Friday night, the officers spent 4 hours 1 and
2
1
9 21 2 4 hours checking on 3 youth hangouts respectively. Find the
+
4 16 total time the officers spent on their operation.
9 21 1 5
+ =2 +1
4 16 4 16
4+5
=3+
16
𝟗
=𝟑
𝟏𝟔
Exercise 1.1.9
4 5 11
a) 7
+ 21 + 42
5 21 17
b) 8
+ 10 − 20
19 1 61 1
c) 2 24 − 18 + 72 − 36
3 1
d) Mary has 6 cups of flour. She used 2 cups of flour in one
4 2
1
receptacle and 2 cups of flour in another.
4
1. How much flour did she use altogether?
2. How much flour has she left?
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Multiplication of Fractions 2 5 8 5
(2 x ) = x
3 14 3 14
The rule of multiplication of fractions is
40
=
a c
x =
ac
Where a, b, c, d are whole numbers and b and d are not 0 42
b d bd
20
Example 1 =
21
5
Mr Lee has two bookstores. In October, his book distributor sent him
6
of an order for a school textbook, which he had expected to distribute Example 3
equally between his two stores. What fraction of his original order will
5 8 14
each store receive? Evaluate (7 x 15 x 3
)
Solution 5 8 14 1x8x2
1 ( x x )=
Each store will get of the books received, but the books received make
2
7 15 3 1x3x3
5 1 5
up of only 6 of the original order. Each store will receive 2 of 6 16
=
𝟏 𝟓 𝟓 9
𝒙 =
𝟐 𝟔 𝟏𝟐 7
=1
9
Example 1
Example 4
3 7
Evaluate ( x ) 1 3 3
8 5 Evaluate (2 x3 x )
3 7 4
3 7 3x7 21
x = = 1 3 3 7 x 24 x 3
8 5 8x5 40 (2 x3 x ) = =6
3 7 4 3x7x4
Example 2
2 5
Evaluate (2 3 x 14)
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Example 1 4 4 1
(1 x 7 ÷ 11 )
13 5 3
1 3
Evaluate (3 ÷ )
2 4
17 39 3
1 3 7 4 = x x
(3 ÷ ) = x 13 5 34
2 4 2 3
9
28 2 =
= =4 10
6 3
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2) Evaluate the following, expressing your answer in the simplest subtractions, work from left to right.
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Example 1 Example 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 8
Evaluate (2 + 3) x 4 Evaluate 5 3 x 4 2 − 3 4 x 13
= 22
Example 2
3 1 1 1
Evaluate (4 x 3 − 12) ÷ 2
3 1 1 1 3 1 2
( x − ) ÷ = ( − )x
4 3 12 2 12 12 1
3−1
= x2
12
2
= x2
12
1
=
3
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Exercise 1.1.11 2) Find the values of the following, expressing your answer in the
simplest form.
1) Evaluate the following
1 1 3 5
a) x (3 + 4) ÷ 2
1 1 1 3
a) x (3 + 4)
3
1 1 1 1
b) 3
x (4 − 12 + 2)
3 1 2
b) (4 − 2) x 3
1 1 2 1
c) (2 + 3) ÷ (3 x 8)
4 1 2
c) (5 + 3) ÷ 3
3 4 3 1 1
d) 1 4 x (9 + 2) x (1 5 − 2)
3 1 1
d) (1 4 − 2) ÷ 3
2 1 1 1
e) x − 12 ÷ 2
3 1 5 3 4
e) 3 4 x (4 5 − 2 9)
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456 1 1 1
In the decimal system, a number like 4269 can be expressed as 123 = 1x100 + 2x10 + 3x1 + 4x + 5x + 6x
1000 10 100 1000
= 4x1000 + 2x100 + 6x10 + 9x1 7891 1 1 1 1
= 7x + 8x + 9x + = 0.7891
10000 10 100 1000 10000
39
Can we express a fraction like 4269 100 in the same manner?
39 39
4269 = 4269 +
100 100
30 9
= 4269 + +
100 100
30 9
= 4x1000 + 2x100 + 6x10 + 9x1 + +
100 100
39
4269
100
This can be written as 4269.39. The dot (called the decimal point)
separates the integral part from the fractional part.
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Express each of the following as a decimal: Express each of the following as a decimal.
a) 3 6
a) 5
= 10 = 0.6
87
= 0.87
100
Multiply both the numerator and the denominator by 2 mentally ensuring
that the denominator is in the powers of 10.
3 75
b) 4
= 100 = 0.75
2 zeros 2 decimal places Multiply both the numerator and the denominator by 25.
b)
11 c)
27 108
= 100 = 1.08
= 0.0011 25
10,000
21 1 25
d) 4
= 5 4 = 5 100 = 5.25
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95 19
0.95 = = 43
100 20 a) 100
57
b) 1000
8
c) 10000
2 decimal places 2 zeros
27
d)
15 3 20
0.015 = =
1000 200
33
e) 4
2
f) 23
96
3 decimal places 3 zeros g) 15 1000
11.25 = 11 + 0.25
25 1
= 11 + = 11
100 4
31.75 = 31 + 0.75
75 3
= 31 + = 31
100 4
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123.14+
52.76
175.90.-
152.75
23.15
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To find the product of decimals, multiply the numbers in the same way b) 256.7 x 0.0056
as for whole number first before putting in the decimal point. The
number of decimal places in the answer is the total number of decimals 46.75 x 2.12
places in the decimals being multiplied. 2567 x
56
Example 1 15402 +
128350
a) 46.75 x 2.12 143752
4675 x
212
256.7 x0. 0056 = 1.43752
9350 +
46750 +
935000 5 decimal places
991100
4 decimal places
4 decimal places
2 decimal places
2 decimal places
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Multiply the divisor and the dividend by the same power of 10 so that the
Evaluate the following:
divisor becomes a whole number, and then perform a division,
remembering to line up the decimal points. a) 120 x 0.2 x 3.2
b) 3.418 x 0.45
2.345 2.345x100
= c) 3.94 x 0.023
0.05 0.05x100
234.5 d) 0.5 x 0.4 x 0.07
= 46.9
5
e) 753.8 ÷10
f) 0.0066 ÷ 10
g) 10000 x 0.0124
h) 63.6 ÷ 6
i) 7.647 ÷ 0.25
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Example
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Exercise 1.1.15 2) Express each of the following as a ratio of the first quantity to the
second, in its lowest term.
1) Express each of the following ratios in its simplest form.
a) 25 cents, 80 cents
a) 6: 10
b) 210º, 360º
b) 44: 8
c) 250 cm, 1 m
c) 3.6: 4.5
d) 80 cents, $1.20
d) 0.4: 20
e) 1 kg 250 g, 3 kg
1
e) 12 :2
f) 3 min 30 s, 1 h
f) 32:40:24
1 2 1
g) 1 : :
3 3 6
h) 1.2: 2: 2.8
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number of present staff 55 11 2) Decrease $288 in the ratio of 2:9, what is the result?
= =
number of previous staff 45 9
We say that the number of teachers has been increased in the ratio 11:9 3) Find the result of increasing or decreasing the quantities in the
11 11 given ratios:
or 9
. In other words, the number of present staff is 9
.times that of
previous staff. Hence, we have
a) 40kg, 5 : 8
9
no. of previous staff = no. of present staff b) 35 hectares, 2.5 : 1
11
Examples c) 56m, 8 : 7
1) Increase $20 in the ratio of 6: 5; what is the result?
d) 25cm, 2 : 5
6
The new value is $20 x 5 = $24
4) The price of petrol drops from $1.20 per litre to 95 cents per litre.
2) A newspaper agent orders 84 copies of newspaper every day. Find the ratio in which the price decreases.
During the holidays, he decreases his order to 63 copies. The
ratio (no. of copies ordered during the holidays): (usual no. copies 5) Two sums of money are in the ratio 5 : 8. The smaller amount is
3
ordered) = 63:84 = 3:4 or 4 $65. Find the larger amount.
We say that the number of copies ordered per day has been
3 6) A proud prospective owner of a car was disappointed with a price
decreased in the ratio of 3: 4 or , during the holidays. In the other
4 increase ratio of 11: 8. If the original price was $25,600, what is
words, the number of copies ordered per day during the holidays the new car price?
3
is 4 of the usual number of copies ordered.
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Direct Proportion
A = kB
Examples
I suppose that you all have hand-phones. Simple common sense tells us
that greater utilization of hand-phones will incur greater costs. If the rate
for the hand-phone charges is 15 cents per minute, how much will it cost
us to use the hand-phone for 3 minutes?
No. of
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Minutes
Cost
15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
(cents)
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We are going to learn the imperial system and the metric system
measurement because these are the most common systems used in the
world today. We need to know about the process of conversion from one
system to another. For example, the equivalent of one kilogram is 2.2
pounds.
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Length Area
Length
1 nautical mile (nm) 1.15 mile 1.852 km 1 sq km (km2) 100 ha 0.3861 miles2
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Volume
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Mass Mass
1 milligram (mg) 0.0154 grain (g) 1 ounce (oz) 437.5 grain 28.35 gm
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Examples Solution
1) A passenger wanted to check in 30 kgs of baggage. Will he a) Size of the flat in square feet.
be penalised if the weight limit is set at 60 pounds?
1 ft2: 0.0929 m2
Solution 1 ft 2 0.0929 m2
:
Find the ratio of the kg: lb from the table given above and 0.0929 0.0929
multiply both sides by 30.
10.764 ft2: 1 m2
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1 gallon: 4.5461 litres 1) David B. gained 1 stone weight after a long holiday. Sir Alex was
angry upon the news, ordered a strict diet and exercise regime
45,000 x 1 gallons: 45,000 x 4.5461litres for him, preparing him for the physically arduous league ahead.
Suppose, he can only lose 250 grams of weight per day, how
45,000 gallons: 204574.5 litres many days are required before he can be ready for the league?
The 45,000 gallons is equivalent to 204574.5 litres 2) The A345-500 plane travels 9,000 nautical miles to New York.
Suppose the flight takes 18 hours, what is the average distance
The cost of re-fuelling the aircraft is (km) travelled per hour?
204574.5 x $0.60 = $122744.7 dollars. 3) Suppose the area of a Boeing 747’s wing is 5400 ft2. If a cleaner
takes 1 hour to clean 1 m2, how long will he/she take to clean the
whole wing?
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Averages Example 1
Suppose we have a group of 5 children with the following ages: David, Mikes and Sam each has $15, $20 and $x respectively. If they
have an average of $18 each, how much money does Sam have?
Child Age (yrs)
Solution
1 7
Total amount of money = $18 x 3 = $54
2 9
x = $54 − $15 − $20 = $19
3 6
Therefore Sam has $19.
4 4
Example 2
5 10
Two cyclists, A and B travelled 90 km in a race and finished in 5 hours
1
and 4 2 respectively. Which cyclist travels faster?
Sum of ages for whole group = 7 + 9 + 6 + 4 + 10 = 36
Solution
The average age of the group of children
Cyclist B travels faster since he takes less time to complete the race.
Sum of ages for whole group 36
= = = 7.2 yrs
Total number of children in the group 5 We can also find the speed at which each cyclist travels to find out who
travels faster.
Similarly, for any given group of values, the average is the value of each
group member as if the sum of all the values were equally divided out 90 km
Cyclist A’s speed = = 18 km/h
among the group members (i.e. each member has the same value) 5 hrs
Sum of all Values 90 km
Averages is given by = Cyclist B’s speed = = 20 km/h
Group Size 1
4 hrs
2
Averages can be used on continuous quantities such as speed.
Cyclist B travels faster since he travels at a greater speed.
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When calculating the speed of each cyclist, we assume that one travels
at the same speed all the time. In reality, each cyclist will have difficulty
cycling at the speed all the time. For example, he may slow down when
he is cycling up a slope or he speed up when he is going down a slope.
Therefore, the speed calculated for each cyclist is not his exact speed at
a particular instant. Instead, it is his average speed.
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Examples Solution
1) A car travelled 510 km in 6 hours. Find the average speed of the car 1) 18 km = 18 x 1000 m,
for the whole journey.
1h = (60 x 60) s
Distance Travelled = 510 Km
18 km 18 x 1000 m 5m
Therefore = = = 5 m/s
Time Taken = 6 hours h 60 x 60 s s
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Exercises 1.1.18
6) A car travelled on a normal road for 20 minutes at an average
1) Complete the following table speed of 57 km/h and then travelled a distance of 55 km in 30
minutes on an expressway. Find
Distance Time Average
Travelled Taken Speed 7) The distance the car travelled on the normal road.
1 180 km h 1.5 hrs 120 km/h 8) The average speed, in km/h, of the car when it travelled on the
expressway.
2 200 m 25 s
4) How long will a man take to run, once, round a circular track of
radius 28 m at an average speed of 8 m/s? (π = 3.142)
A cyclist begins on a 24-km journey at 0923hrs. When will he
5)
complete his journey if he travels at an average speed of 16 km/h?
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100
5) 100% = 100 = 1
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To change a decimal to a percentage, multiply it by 100. To change a fraction to a percentage, multiply it by 100. It is common
practise to write percentages in decimal places instead of fractions.
Examples
7 7
1) 40
= x 100% = 17.5%
Express each decimal as a percentage. 40
5 5
24
1) 0.24 = 100 = 24% 2) 8
= 8 x 100% = 62.5%
2 5
72
2) 0.72 = 100 = 72% 3) 1 3 = 3 x 100% = 166.7%
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6
2) Write each decimal as a percentage. f) 125
a) 0.17
b) 0.575
c) 2.36
d) 0.09
e) 0.025
f) 0.0005
g) 1.2
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Areas and Volumes Area of the rectangle = Length (L) X Width (W)
Units of Area
A = ( 9 x 14 ) cm2
Area of the rectangle (A) Width (W)
= 126 cm2
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Area of a Triangle 𝟏
= 𝐱 𝐛 𝐱 𝐡 (𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐄𝐆 – 𝐅𝐆 = 𝐛)
We see that a triangle of base b and height h occupies half of 𝟐
rectangle BCD. Therefore
Either method of defining the base and height gives the same result
E for area.
D C
Height (h)
Height (h)
A B
Base (b)
B
1
Area of triangle AEB = x base x height
2 E F G
Base (b)
𝟏
= 𝐱𝐛𝐱𝐡
𝟐
1 1
= EG x h – FG X h
2 2
1
= x (EG – FG) x h
2
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Exercises 1.1.20
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Area of a Parallelogram
D G C
Height (h)
A E B F
Base (b)
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Area of a Trapezium 1
= 𝑥 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑥 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠
A trapezium, like a rectangle, has four sides. The difference between 2
a rectangle and the trapezium is that the rectangle has all the
In general,
opposite sides parallel to each other and they are also at right angles
to one another. 𝟏
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒛𝒊𝒖𝒎 = 𝒙 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒙 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒔
𝟐
The trapezium is a quadrilateral with only one pair of parallel sides.
H
Area of Trapezium ABCD = area of ∆ADB + area of ∆BCD
1 1
= 𝐴𝐵 𝑥 ℎ + 𝐶𝐷 𝑥 ℎ
2 2
1
= 𝑥 ℎ 𝑥 (𝐴𝐵 + 𝐶𝐷)
2
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Worked Examples
Example 1
7 cm 5 cm
12cm 1 12 cm
= 12 cm x 7 cm = 84 cm2
1
area of trapezium = x height x sum of parallel sides
2
1
= x 5 cm x (7 + 11)cm
2
= 45 cm2
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Example 2 Solution
In the figure below, the sides AB and DC of the quadrilateral ABCD are 1
Area of ∆ABC = x AB x AC
both perpendicular to the diagonal AC. Given AB = 2 cm, DC = 8 cm and 2
the area of ∆ABC = 6 cm2, calculate
1
6cm2 = x 2 x AC
2
1. The length of AC ∴ AC = 6 cm
B 1
2 cm = x 8 cm x 6 cm = 24 cm2
2
= 30 cm2
8 cm
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Exercises 1.1.21 2) Calculate and complete the following table for each trapezium (a), (b)
and (c).
1) Find the area of the triangle in the following cases.
a b c
height 6 14 8
7 cm
12 cm
X cm
6 cm
19 cm
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17 cm 27 cm
14 cm
X cm
X cm
31 cm
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Perimeter of a Circle
A circle consists of points that are all equidistant* from a particular point where
called the centre. d = diameter and
r = radius and
The perimeter of a circle or the length of its boundary is called the π = 3.14
circumference. 2
d2
Area of the circle = πr or π x
4
The distance from the centre of a circle to any point on its circumference
is called the radius.
Circumference (c)
Diameter (d)
Radius (r)
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Worked Examples
1) A circle has a radius of 7 m. Find its area and circumference. 3) The diameter of the wheel of a car is 0.35 m. Find the number of
22
revolutions made by the wheel per minute when the car is travelling
Take π = 22
at 33 km/h. (Takeπ = )
7
7
Solution
22
Area of circle = πr 2 = x 7m x 7m = 154 m2 Solution
7
In 60 minutes (1h), the car travels (33 x 1,000m)
Circumference of circle = 2πr = 2 x (3.14) x (7)m
33 x1000
= 43.96 m In 1 minute, the car travels 60 m
2) The area of a circle is 78.5 cm2. Calculate the circumference of the distance travelled in 1 min
=
circle. (Take π = 3.14) Circumference of wheel
78.5
r2 = = 25
3.14
r = √25 = 5 cm
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Exercise 1.1.22 4) Two wires making circles of diameter 12 cm and 8 cm are cut
and then joined to make one larger circle. Find the diameter of
1) Complete the following table below for each circle this larger circle.
Circumference 176 mm 6) If the minute hand of a big clock is 1.12 m long, find the rate
at which its tip is moving in centimetres per minutes.
Area 616 cm2
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Volumes
The volume of an object is the amount of space it occupies. The object
that occupies more space is said to have greater volume. In the
standard case of the cube, the volume of the cube is given by length x
width x height, which is 1 cm3.
Height (h)
Width (w)
Length (l)
Worked Example
Solution
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a) 24 mm 18 mm 5 mm
b) 5 cm 3 cm 120 cm3
d) 12 m 6m 576 m3
4) It took two and a half years and 2.85 million m3 of earth to filled
an empty reservoir. If each truck can carry a maximum load of
6.25m3 of earth per trip,
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Cylinders
Radius (r)
Height (h)
Volume of Cylinder
Since a cylinder is a right prism with uniform cross-section, we can find
its volume by applying the same method used in finding the volume of a
right prism.
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Find the mass, in kg, of a cylindrical metal bar 1.2 m long and 1.4 cm H = 3m = 300 cm
in radius. (The density of the metal is 6.5 g/cm3)
Volume of water discharged per second = πr 2 h
Solution
Radius = 1.4 cm, h = 1.2 m = 120 cm 22
= x 2.82 x 300 cm3
7
Volume of cylinder = πr 2 h
= 7392 cm3
22
= x (1.4)2 x 120 cm3 Volume of water discharged per minute = (7392 x 60)cm3
7
= (7.5 x 739.2)g
= 5544 gm
Example 2
If water flows through a 56-mm diameter pipe at the rate of 3 m/s, what
22
is the volume of water, in litres, is discharged per minute? (Take π = 7
)
Diameter = 56 mm 3 m/s
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A right prism has a uniform cross-section; the cross section of the prism
is identical to the two parallel ends and the height of the base is at right
angles to the height. This enables us to calculate the volume of the
prism by finding the area of the base and multiply it by the height of the
right prism.
volume of the prisms = area of the circular base (πr2) x height (h)
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Example 1
Solution
Area of the base = the area of the triangle and the area of the rectangle.
1
Area of the base = {(6 x 5) + x 4 x 3} = 36 cm2
2
5 cm
6 cm
3 cm
4.5 cm
4 cm
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Exercises 1.1.24 2) The height of right prism h is 9 cm and the width of the triangle b
is 12 cm. The length H is 26 cm. Find the volume of the right
1) Find the volume and the surface area of the solid, which is the prism shown.
shape of the right prism, as shown.
9 cm
2 cm
6 cm
7 cm
5 cm
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3) Complete the table shown below for the right angle prism shown 4) Find the volume of the prisms shown below.
in the figure below:
B D
Area of Volume
AB BC CD
∆ABC of Prism
(a) 3 cm 4 cm 7 cm
(b) 9 cm 11 cm 63 cm2
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5) A fuel storage tank, 100 m long 30 m wide, 3 m deep at the 8) A cylindrical can radius 5 cm and height 8 cm is used to pour
shallow end and 10 m deep at the other end, find the volume of water into a larger cylinder of radius 20 cm and height 2 m.
water in the tank when it is full. How many times must this be done to fill the larger cylinder?
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784 = (2 x 2) x (2 x 2) x (7 x 7)
6cm = (2 x 2 x 7)2
Therefore 36 is said to be the square of 6.
2
∴ √784 = √(2 x 2 x 7)2
For short, we write 6 = 36
= 2x2x7 = 28
And we read “the square of 6 is 36” or simply “6 squared is 36”
2) Find the positive square root of 2025
Clearly, to find the side of a square whose area is 36 cm2, we find
a positive number y such that 36 = y x y = y2 Solution
Now y= 6 and we say that 6 is a positive square root of 36 and we write Using prime factorisation
√36 = 6 2025 = 5 x 5 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3
2
Similarly, = (5 x 3 x 3)
3 x 3 = 32 = 9 and √9 = 3 = 5 x 3 x 3 = 45
4 x 4 = 42 = 16 and √16 = 4
5 x 5 = 52 = 25 and √25 = 5
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3
Volume of a Cube 5x 5 x 5 = 53 = 125 and √125 = 5
The volume of the cube of side 6 cm is given by:
3
7x 7 x 7 = 73 = 343 and √343 = 7
Examples
6cm Solution
= (2 x 2 x 2)3
3
6cm ∴ √512
3
= √(2 x 2 x 2)3
6cm
=8
In short, we write 63 = 216 and we read “the cube of 6 is 216” or simply Using prime factorisation
“6 cubed is 216”
5832 = (2 x 3 x 3) x (2 x 3 x 3) x (2 x 3 x 3)
3
2 x 2 x 2 = 2 = 8 and √8 = 2
3
= (2 x 3 x 3)3
3
3 x 3 x 3 = 33 = 27 and √27 = 3 3
∴ √5832 = (2 x 3 x 3) = 18
3
4x 4 x 4 = 43 = 64 and √64 = 4
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Exercises 1.1.25
a) 1156
b) 1296
c) 1764
d) 9801
e) 11025
a) 3375
b) 4096
c) 13,824
d) 21,952
e) 46,656
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1.2 Algebra
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Algebra allows us to write mathematical equations or formulae in a 1) Subtract 2x from y and multiply the difference by z.
convenient way. Algebraic expressions are written in the same way as
arithmetic expressions. Solution
Subtraction 5–4=1 x – y = z 2) Divide the sum of x and y by the difference when x is subtracted
Multiplication 5 x 4 = 20 x x y = z from y.
Division 36 ÷ 9 = 4 x ÷ y= z Solution
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Polynomial, Variables, Coefficients and Constant Terms Since the value of 4x varies according to the value given to x, x is called
a variable. In the term 4x, the constant factor 4 is called the coefficient
An algebraic expression involves numbers and operational signs such of the term.
as +, -, x and ÷. The + and – signs in an algebraic expression separate it Thus, the coefficient of x in 5x is 5, and
into terms. the coefficient of xy in 7xy is 7, and
the coefficient of abc in 23abc is 23, and so on.
For example, the expression
Check Point
(8y + 7z) consist of 2 terms What is the coefficient of x2 in 25x2?
(7x2 – 2xy + 7y2) consists of 3 terms while The polynomial in b) will take on different values of x given. For
example, when:
xy consists of only 1 term x=2, 5x + 7 = 5 x 2 + 7 = 17
x=3, 5x+7 = 5 x 3 + 7 = 22
A polynomial is an algebraic expression consisting of one or more terms. x=5, 5x+7 = 5 x 5 + 7= 32 and so on.
For example, the expressions x + 5, x + 3y, 5x + 7y and x2 + 4x –3 Notice that the value of the polynomial depends on x; the numeral 7
are polynomials. always remains unchanged. We call this numeral a constant term or
simply a constant.
Example
Consider the algebraic expressions. Each polynomial has a degree, which is given by the highest power of
a) 4x the variable.
and For example, in 8x3 – 7x2 + 5x + 3, the highest power of the
b) 5x + 7. variable x is 3. Therefore, the degree of the polynomial 8x3 – 7x2 + 5x +3
is 3.
The polynomial in a) will take on different values for different values of x.
For example, when: Check Point
What is the degree of the polynomial of 5x2 – 3x3 + 5x4 – 7x +2?
x=2, 4x = 4 x 2 = 8.
x=3, 4x =4 x 3 = 12 Usually, a polynomial is expressed such that the degrees of the terms
x=5, 4x = 4 x 5 = 20 and so on. appear in descending order, for example, 3x3 + 2x2 – 4x + 7.
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Example
Write an algebraic expression for each of the following:
(a) Add 2x to 3y
Solution: 2x + 3y
Solution: 12 - 5x
(c) Multiply u by 3v
Solution: u x 3v = 3uv
(d) Divide 3k by 7x
3k
Solution: 7x
Solution (p + q) − 3xy
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Ali is 3 times as old as Beng and Beng is 5 years older than Chandra. If a) The sum of three consecutive integers, of which x is the
Beng is x years old, write algebraic expressions for each of the middle integer.
following:
b) The product of two consecutive odd integers, of which, x is
the smaller integer.
a) Ali’s age today.
c) The total cost of x number of 10¢ stamps and y number of
b) Chandra’s age today.
25¢ stamps.
c) Ali’s age in 5 years’ time.
Solution
d) The sum of Ali’s age and Beng’s ages in 2 years’ time. a) The integer after x is (x + 1) and the one before x is (x-1).
e) The sum of Beng’s and Chandra’s ages 4 years ago. The sum of the three consecutive integers is (x-1) + x +
(x + 1) = 3x.
Solution
b) The greater of the two consecutive odd integers is (x+2). The
a) Ali’s age is 3x years old.
product of the two integers is x(x+2).
b) Chandra’s age is (x-5) years old.
c) The cost of x 10¢ stamps = 10x¢. The cost of y 25 ¢ stamps
c) Ali will be (3x+5) years old.
= 25y¢ The total cost = (10x + 25y)¢.
d) In 2 years’ time, Ali will be (3x+2) years old and Beng will be
(x+2) years old. The sum of their ages is (3x+2) + (x+2) =
(4x+4).
e) Four years ago, Beng was (x – 4) years old and Chandra was
(x-5- 4), i.e. (x - 9) years old. The sum of their ages then was
(x-4) + (x – 9) = (2x –13) years old.
.
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Example 3
Evaluate 2x + 5y when
Solution
2x + 5y = 2(3) + 5(5) = 6 + 25 = 31
2x + 5y = 2(2) + 5(-1) = 4 – 5 = -1
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Exercises 1.2.1 (f) The total value of h 50¢ coins and k $2 notes in
dollars.
1. Express the following polynomials so that the degrees of the
terms are in descending order: (g) The total cost of buying x sets of stamps to
commemorate the 50th anniversary of the inter-
(a) 3x + 7x2 + 4 – 5x3
religious organisation (IRO) at $1.82 per set and y
(b) 7x4 – 4x + 7x3 – 5x2
sets of the Rabbit Zodiac series at $2.22 per set.
(c) 4x2 + 5x3 – 7x + 4
(d) 7x2 + 5x5 – 6x3 + 7
4. If a = 2, b = -3, c = 4, d = 5 and e = -6, find the value of each of
the following:
2. Write an algebraic expression for each of the following:
a) 3a – 3(2c - e)
a) Add 2x to 14
b) 4(a - 3b) - 5c
b) Subtract 14 from 5a
c) 4c – (a – 2b – e)
c) Multiply 4 by 2k.
d) 9c – 3(2d + c)
d) Divide 8x by 24y
e) 7e – 5b2 + 4ac
e) Add 2x to twice 3y
f) 5abe – 4(e + c)2
f) Subtract 5x from half of y
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5ac−2b2
a) 2ab
5a+3bc−c2
c) 2ac−4b
7a+8b+2c
d) 3c−2b−4a
2c−4b+5ab
e) (c+a)(c−a)
a c
( )( )
b b
f) a a
−
b c
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a) 3a + 5a = 8a Exercises 1.2.2
b) 7b – 3b = 4b Simplify the following expression:
c) 2a + 5b + 4a + 8b = (2a + 4a) + (5b + 8b) = 6a + 13b a) 5n x 12
d) 9c + 7d – 4c – 5d = (9c - 4c) + (7d – 5d) = 5c +2d b) –2 x 6a
e) 7a + 9b – 5a – 4b + 2a -b c) –4 x (-2k)
= (7a – 5a + 2a) + (9b – 4b – b) = 4a +4b 1
d) 3
x15a
3m
e) 2x
In multiplication and division, the term coefficients and the variables are 4
multiplied or divided.
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12 3
Use of Bracket in Algebraic Expression In arithmetic a fraction such as can be simplified to by ‘cancelling’
16 4
(dividing) the numerator and the denominator by 4.
When bracket occurs in an algebraic expression, the rules by which
operations are performed apply exactly as in arithmetic: Applying this process to the following example:
y 2x−3 s(x + y)
The expression is called an algebraic fraction. In the fractions
x 4 t (x + y)
5x−7 2x−3
and the numerators can be placed within the brackets. Thus,
6 4
(2x−3) 5x−7 (5x−7) Cancelling the numerator and the denominator by (x+y) we get.
can be written as and can be written as . s
4 6 6
With division, only like symbols may be cancelled as seen below. =
t
8𝑥 2 𝑦
8𝑥 2 𝑦 ÷ 2𝑥 =
2𝑥 Thus, to simplify the expression x +2(3x + x) - 6x ÷ 2x
= 4𝑥𝑦 x + 2(3x + x) − 6x ÷ 2x = x + 2(4x) − 6x ÷ 2x
= x + 8x − 3 = 9x − 3
In this last example, a procedure known as 'cancelling' is applied. This
is used to simplify the expression.
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Removal of Brackets
Multiplying the sides together may be written as:
As we have previously seen the bracket is a useful device for grouping
terms or quantities, however care must be exercised when the removal
of brackets is necessitated. Area of the rectangle = (3 + 2)(2 + 1)
To solve this, a sequence of operations would be required. Here is the
rule, multiply the latter bracket by each term inside the first bracket.
Consider a rectangle whose sides are respectively 5 and 3 units, as
shown in figure 1. = 3(2 + 1) + 2(2 + 1)
3 x1 1c
2x1 m
Sequence 1 2 3 4
(3 x 2) + (3 x 1) + (2 x 2) + (2 x 1)
3x2 2x2 2c 6 + 3 + 4 + 2
m
That gives us a total of 15 square units the same answer as before.
3c 2c
m m
The area of this rectangle is the product of the two sides ie 5 x 3 = 15.
If however, the sides are now expressed as (3+2) and (2+ 1), then the
area would still be obtained from their product, but to achieve this, a
particular sequence of operations would be required.
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Multiply (x - 3) by (x - 7)
If the sides of the rectangle are now expressed in algebraic form as
shown in figure 2 below whose sides are (X+2) and (X+1), the removal = (x-3) (x-7)
of the brackets would still require the same sequence to be followed. = x2 - 7x - 3x +21
= x2 - 10x + 21
Xx1 2x1 1c
Example 2
m
Multiply (2x - 5) by (4x + 3)
XxX = X2 2xX X cm = (2x - 5) (4x + 3)
= 8x2 + 6x - 20x - 15
= 8x2 - 14 x - 15
X cm 2c Example 3
m
Area of the rectangle = (X + 2)(X + 1) Remove the brackets from (3y - 7) (2y - 2)
(3y - 7) (2y - 2)
Sequence 1 2 3 4 = 6y2-6y-14y+l4
X2 + X + 2X + 2
= X(X + 1) + 2(X + 1)
= 𝑋2 + 𝑋 + 2𝑋 + 2
= 𝑋2 + 3𝑋 + 2
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Exercises 1.2.3
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2 1 2𝑥 − 4 − 3𝑥 + 9
+ =
x y 6
2y x 5−𝑥
= + =
xy xy 6
𝑥 + 2𝑦
=
𝑥𝑦
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Worked Examples
1) 3a + 5b – 3c –2b +7c – a + 4c – 6b + 8a
= (3 – 1 + 8) a + (5 – 2 – 6) b + (-3 + 7 + 4) c
= 10a – 3b +8c
2) 3x + 2(x + 4) – (2x – 3) + 5x – 7
Relieve the brackets and group all the like terms together.
= 3x + 2x + 8 – 2x + 3 + 5x – 7
= (3 + 2 – 2 + 5)x + (8 + 3 – 7)
= 8x + 4
Relieve the inner most bracket and then square bracket and group all
the like terms together.
= 2(4p - 3m - 3p)
= 2(p – 3m)
= 2p – 6m
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c) a − (b − (c + d))
d) −2[3a − 4(a − (2 + a))]
1 2
e) (4x − 2y) − 3 (9x − 3y) − 2(x − y)
2
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Factorizing Linear Expressions And by inspection we see that the factor 2a is common to each term in
the expression which may be drawn out and written as follows:
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If we now expand this according to the rules that we learnt in the Factorize (x 2 − 2xy + y 2 )
previous section.
(a + b)(a + b) = a2 + 2ab + b2 − − − − − −(1) By inspection we see that (x 2 − 2xy + y 2 ) resembles (2) if a = x and b =
y Therefore
Any 3 term quadratic expression where we could identify a, and b which
satisfy the identity (1) could be factorized using this identity. (x 2 − 2xy + y 2 ) = (x − y)(x − y) = (x − y)2
Example 1 Example 2
By inspection we see that (x 2 + 2xy + y 2 ) resembles (1) if a = x and b = This may be rewritten as follows where a = y and b = 5
y therefore
y 2 − 10y + 25 = (y 2 − 2x5xy + 52 )
(x 2 + 2xy + y 2 ) = (x + y)(x + y) = (x + y)2
Since it now resembles (2) we may factorize it using the identity (2)
Example 2
(y 2 − 10y + 25) = (y − 5)2
Factorize (y 2 + 10y + 25)
Since it now resembles (1) we may factorize it using the identity (1)
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Identity 3
Difference of squares
a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b) − − − − − − − (3)
(a + b)(a − b) = a2 − ab + ab − b2
= a2 − b2
Example 1
Factorize (x 2 − y 2 )
Therefore
(x 2 − y 2 ) = (x + y)(x − y)
Example 2
Factorize (y 2 − 25)
y 2 − 25 = y 2 − 52
Since it now resembles (3) we may factorize it using the identity (3)
(y 2 − 25) = (y + 5) (y − 5)
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x 2 + 6x + 8 Example 2
To return to the original bracketed pairs it is necessary to first start with Factorise x2 - 9x + 14
a pair of brackets: = (x 7) (x 2)
( )( ) For the product of 7 and 2 to be +14 and their sum to be -9, both must
be negative, ie
Given that the first term, in the expression x2 + 6x + 8 is x2 and that this
is the product of x and x, an x may be placed in each of the brackets. (x - 7) (x - 2)
(x ) (x ) Example 3
The last term is 8 and this is obtained either from the product of 8 x 1 or Factorise x2 - x - 12
4 x 2, but only the sum combination of 4 and 2 will provide 6, the value = (x 4) (x 3)
of the middle term. So, inserting 4 and 2 into the bracketed pair gives: 4 and 3 are chosen since their product is twelve and their sum is minus
(x 4)(x 2) one if considered as -4 and +3. Note that it is the larger of the two
2
quantities which takes the sign of the middle term of the original
As every term in x + 6x + 8 is positive there are no complications with quadratic. ie, (x - 4)(x + 3)
sign allocation. Both the 4 and 2 will be positive.
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i.e. (6x ) (x )
or
(3x ) (2x )
with
(15 )( 1)
( 3) ( 5)
Here the solution is (2x + 3) (3x - 5) but there is no easy path to factorise
such a quadratic equation.
Example 5
Factorise x2 – 9 = (x - 3) (x + 3)
This is a special type of quadratic and should be recognised as being
'the difference between two squares'. Factorising such an expression is
relatively easy and needs only for the root of the number part to be
found. It should be noted however that the signs associated to these
roots must be both positive and negative as shown below.
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Example 1
Find the sum of 4x2 – 9x + 3 and x2 – 2x – 8
Solution
The expressions are arranged so that the like terms are grouped
together.
Example 2
Find the sum of (2a + 3b –4c), (3a –2b), (-4a +5c) and (a –2b + c)
Solution
Grouping all the like terms together would give.
(2a + 3b –4c)+ (3a –2b),+ (a –2b + c) + (-4a + 5c)
= 2a + 3a - 4a + a + 3b - 2b - 2b - 4c + 5c + c =2a – b + 2c
Example 3
Subtract x3 –5x2 + 6x –7 from 2x3 – 7x2 + 11x + 6
Solution
(2x3 – 7x2 + 11x + 6) - (x3 –5x2 + 6x –7)
= 2x3 – x3 –7x2 + 5x2 +11x – 6x + 6 +7 = x3 – 2x2 + 5x +13
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2. Subtract
(1) 3x2 – x – 1 from 4x2 + 3x –3
(2) 3x2 –5x from 2x2 – 4x – 5
(3) a – 2b + 6c from 3a + 3b – 4c
(4) 2q – 3r – s from p – 4q – 6r
(5) 3x2 + 2x – 4 from x3 – 3x2 – 5x +6
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Equation Identity is a mathematical statement which is true for all values of the
unknown whereas an equation is only true for a particular value(s) of the
In mathematics, an equation is an equality containing one or more unknown.
unknowns. Solving the equation consists of determining which values of
the unknown make the equality true. The value(s) which satisfy the 𝑥 2 − 4 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) − − − − − − − − − (3)
equality are known as the solutions. 3𝑥 + 2 = 8 is an equation with a
single unknown x. This equation would be true only if the value of the
unknown x was 2. Therefore 2 is said to be the solution of this equation. (3) Is an identity since the expression on the RHS is equal to the
expression on the LHS for all values of x.
Linear Equations
𝑥 3 − 𝑦 3 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 ) − − − − − − − (4)
A Linear equations is one in which the unknown is in the first order.
Example
(4) is an identity again since the RHS expression is equal to the LHS
4𝑥 + 3 = 15 − − − − − − − − − (1) expression for whatever set of values you choose for x and y.
is a linear equation with a single unknown. It is a linear equation
because the unknown x is of the first power of x. On the other hand
4𝑥 2 + 3 = 39 − − − − − − − − − (2)
is not a linear equation since the unknown x is in the 2nd order (ie 𝑥 2 ). It
is called a second order equation or a quadratic equation.
Number of Solutions
Linear equations such as (1) with a single unknown have only one value
of the unknown that satisfies the equation. In other words they have only
one solution. Quadratic equations such as equation (2) in general have
2 values of the unknown which satisfy them or in other words they have
2 solutions. Equation (2) for instance has +3 and -3 as its solutions.
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Solving Linear Equations In order to isolate x on the LHS we need to divide both sides of the
equation by 4 which leaves us with:
Solving an equation as we said before is to find the value of the 𝑥 =2
unknown for which the equation holds true. The answer you find is
Let’s solve
called the solution to the equation.
𝑥
= 5 − − − − − − − −(8)
3
𝑥 + 3 = 5 − − − − − − − −(5)
In order to isolate x we need to multiply both sides of the expression by
3 which leave us with:
By observation we know that equation (5) would be true if x was 2. 2 is
therefore said to be the solution of equation (5). x = 15
Though mental mathematics may work well in solving a simple equation
like (5) it may not work so well when the equation gets complicated and Let’s attempt to solve the following equation:
therefore we need to find more methodical means of solving an 4𝑥+3
equation. 5
+ 7 = 10 − − − − − − − − − −(9)
In solving equation (5) we need to isolate the x and in order to do so we By subtracting 7 from either side fo the equation we could say:
may subtract 3 from either side of the equation which does not affect the
balance of the equation. 4𝑥 + 3
=3
Subtracting 3 from either side of equation 5 we end up with. 5
By multiplying both sides by 5 we arrive at:
𝑥+3−3= 5−3
4𝑥 + 3 = 15
𝑥=2
By subtracting 3 from either side of the equation:
Let’s solve
4𝑥 = 12
𝑥 − 5 = 7 − − − − − −(6)
Now dividing both sides by 4 we find the value of x and we have also
In order to solve (6) we add 5 on either side of the equation so that x is
solved the equation.
isolated on the LHS of the equation.
𝑥=3
𝑥−5+5= 7+5
𝑥 = 12
Let’s solve
4𝑥 = 8 − − − −(7)
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In equations of this type we should group the unknown quantities on one RHS = 21
side and the other terms on the other side.
For example, solve 8y + 4 = 5y + 22
If we subtract 4 from both sides, and also subtract 5y from both sides we
will get:
3y = 18
The solution can then be obtained by dividing each side by 3.
3𝑦 18
=
3 3
𝑦=6
Note: As in all cases of solving equations, we can and should check our
solution is correct by substituting the solution in the original equation.
i.e. LHS (8 x 6) + 4 = 48 + 4 = 52
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In this case we must multiply each term by the LCM of the Solve the equation
denominators. 𝑥 − 4 2𝑥 − 1
+ =4
3 2
Example 1
Solve the following equation The LCM of 3 and 2 is 6, so we multiply all of the terms by 6
𝑦 3 3𝑦 𝑥−4 2𝑥 − 1𝑥6
+ = −2 𝑥6 + = 4𝑥6
4 5 2 3 2
2(𝑥 − 4) − 3(2𝑥 − 1) = 24
The LCM of the denominators 4, 5 and 2 is 20, so we must multiply each
term in the equation by 20 2𝑥 − 8 − 6𝑥 + 3 = 24
𝑦 3 3𝑦 −4𝑥 − 5 = 24
𝑥20 + x20 = 𝑥20 − 2𝑥20
4 5 2
−4𝑥 = 29
5𝑦 − 12 = 30𝑦 − 40
𝟐𝟗
5𝑦 − 30𝑦 = −40 − 12 𝒙=− = −𝟕. 𝟐𝟓
𝟒
−25𝑦 = −52
𝟓𝟐
𝒚=
𝟐𝟓
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(𝑁 − 𝑛) 3𝑉 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
𝐶= = = 𝑟 2 (Divide both sides by h)
2𝑝 𝜋ℎ 𝜋ℎ
In other words we are required to express the formula with N as the
subject. Remember, we want N on one side by itself. It is important to Remember, to find r, take the square root of r2 and do the same to both
get a 'feel' for the form of the equation. To help, we will put brackets sides.
around (N - n).
So 3𝑉
(𝑁 − 𝑛) √ = √𝑟 2 = 𝑟
𝐶= 𝜋ℎ
2𝑝
𝟑𝑽
To remove the 2p we must multiply both sides by 2p 𝒓=√
𝝅𝒉
(𝑁 − 𝑛)
𝐶𝑥2𝑝 = 𝑥2𝑝 This is what transposition is all about. We are re-arranging formulas
2𝑝
expressed as equations, which then allows us to find a particular
numerical value for one (unknown) quantity if the other numerical values
Which gives us are given.
One important point, it is only possible to find an unknown quantity if all
2Cp = (N – n) the other values are known. This is known as 'solving an equation'.
To remove the -n, we must add n to both sides
2Cp + n = (N – n) + n = N
That's it, 𝐍 = 𝟐𝐂𝐩 + 𝐧
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Exercise 1.2.7
a) 3x − 7 = −28
b) 8x − 3 = −11
c) 2x + 3 = 4
1 4
d) 3
x +3 = 2
e) 11x − 1 = 10
f) 0.01x − 1 = 0
g) 5x − 4 − 2x + 3 = −7 − 3x + 5 + 2x
1 𝑥 2
h) 𝑥 + 2 = 2 − 3
i) 2(𝑥 − 4) + 4(2 − 𝑥) = 5𝑥 − 4(𝑥 + 1)
4𝑥+5 2𝑥−1
j) 6
− 3 =𝑥 1
3
2. Transpose the following equations with the parameter shown in
brackets as the subject
a) 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 (𝑅 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡)
b) 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 (𝑎 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡)
c) 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 (𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡)
d) 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 (𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡)
1
e) 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 (𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡)
2
𝑙
f) 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑔 (𝑙 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡)
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Equations 1 and 2 are referred to as simultaneous equations. They : (2) x 2 → 6x + 10y = 22 − − − − − − − (4)
involve 2 unknowns. In general when there are two unknowns 2
equations are required to determine the value of each known. If there (4) -(3): y =1 Substitute y = 1 into (1): 2x+3=7 x=2
are 3 unknowns 3 equations are required to determine the 3 unknowns
and so on. These simultaneous equations are referred to as first order .˙. The solution is x = 2 and y = 1.
simultaneous equations since each unknown x and y are of the first
order. Substitution Method
In this method we express one unknown in terms of the other unknown
We shall now proceed to see how these equations could be manipulated by manipulating either one of the equation. In this example we express x
to find the values of each unknown x and y. there are two methods that in terms of y by rearranging equation 1. then we substitute for x with this
are generally employed to solve these equations the first method is expression in equation 2 which now leaves us with an equation with one
called the elimination method and the second method is called the unknown namely y. This may now be solved for y the same way a linear
substitution method. equation is solved.
Solve the following simultaneous equations.
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Exercise 1.2.8
Solve the following simultaneous equations
1.
y= 2x + 3 ; y = 5x − 3
2.
y = 3x − 1 ; 2x + 4y = 10
3.
6x + y = 4 ; 5x + 2y = 1
4.
x − 3y = 1 ; 2x + 5y = 35
5.
1
2x + y = 1 ; 3x + 5y = 6
3
6.
3y=1
4x + 3y = 5 ; 2x − 4
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Second Degree Equations (with one unknown) Area of the frame = (6+2x) (11+2x) - 66 =38
if this simplified it leads to 4x2 + 34x − 38 = 0
This discussion is about single-variable quadratic equations and their Dividing by 2 we get 2x2 + 17x − 19 = 0
solutions. A second degree equation or a quadratic equation is one in
which the highest power of the unknown is 2. In general a quadratic equation has 2 solutions however not both
solutions may be realistic. In this example x=1 and x=-19/2 are both
In elementary algebra, a quadratic equation (from the Latin quadratus solution which satisfies this equation, however only x=1 gives us a
for "square") is any equation having the form where x represents an realistic answer to the problem.
unknown, and a, b, and c represent known numbers such that a is not
equal to 0. The numbers a, b, and c are the coefficients of the Let us now explore how we could have solved this equation to find the
equation, and may be distinguished by calling them, respectively, the values of x.
quadratic coefficient, the linear coefficient and the constant.
Picture frame needs to be cut out from a wooden plank to hold a picture 11cm
of 11cmx6cm. What should be the thickness (x) of the frame if the area
of the border should be 38 sq. cm?
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Solving Quadratic Equations by the previous argument we may now conclude that either
x+2=0 or x+1=0
Therefore 𝑥 = −3
By factorization
Only a few quadratic expressions with certain quadratic and linear
coefficients however may be written in the form above.
When an expression doesn't lend itself to be written in this form we may
resort to the method of factorization to solve the equation.
Example solve x2+3x+2=0 by inspection the expression on the LHS may
be written as a product of (x+1) (x+2) = 0
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Case 1
Any quadratic equation that appears in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 may be
solved by using the formula. x2-25=0 this is a quadratic equation with no linear term (b=0) and may
be solved by factorization using the difference of squares method that
−b ± √(b2 − 4ac) we learnt under factorization.
x=
2a
As we said before any quadratic equation has 2 solutions and they are x2-25=0 may be written as 𝑥 2 − 52 = 0
given by: Which may be written as
(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 5) = 0
−b + √b2 − 4ac
x=
2a Using the identity for difference of squares from which it follows that x=5
or -5.
−b − √b2 − 4ac
x= Case 2
2a
Example 5𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 = 0
Solve x2+3x+2=0 which is the same equation that we solved by 5𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 = 0 is a quadratic equation with no constant term (c=0) and
factorizing. may be solved by factorizing by taking the common term out.
−3 ± √32 − 4x1x2
x=
2x1 From which it follows that x =2 or 0
x = −1 or − 2 Note:
This answer agrees with the answer that we found by factorizing. Should you, at any time in your solution of quadratic equations, arrive at
a situation which requires you to find the square root of a negative
number, then you will be unable to proceed any further, as a solution is
not possible using the mathematical principles you have considered so
far in this unit.
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Exercises 1.2.9
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𝑎𝑚
= 1 = 𝑎𝑚 ÷ 𝑎𝑚
In this section, you will learn how to: 𝑎𝑚
1. Simplify expressions involving indices; = 𝑎(𝑚−𝑚) = 𝑎0
2. Solve simple exponential equations;
Rule 3
If a is a positive integer, we have a x a x a = a³.
Here, a is called the base, and 3 is the index or exponent or power. (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛
Thus, a4 means the 4th power of a.
In general, an means the nth power of a, where n is any positive index Example
of the positive integer a.
There are several important rules to remember when dealing with (23 )2 = 23 𝑥23
Indices.
If a and b are positive and m and n, any rational indices then. = 2𝑥2𝑥2𝑥2𝑥2𝑥2
Rule 1 = 26
Example = 62
3𝑥3𝑥3𝑥3
34 ÷ 32 =
3𝑥3
= 3𝑥3 = 32
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Case 1 1
𝑛 ( )
√𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑛
𝑎0 = 1
Proof
Proof 1 1 1
𝑎 = 𝑎(3) 𝑥𝑎(3) 𝑥𝑎(3)
𝑎𝑚
= 1 = 𝑎𝑚 ÷ 𝑎𝑚 1
𝑎𝑚 ∴ √𝑎 = 𝑎(3)
3
= 𝑎(𝑚−𝑚) = 𝑎0
Case 2
1
𝑎(−𝑛) =
𝑎𝑛
Proof
𝑎3
= 𝑎3 ÷ 𝑎5 = 𝑎−2
𝑎5
Alternatively
𝑎3 1
5
= 2
𝑎 𝑎
Therefore
1
𝑎(−2) = 2
𝑎
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Example Note
Evaluate each of the following without using a calculator:
1) 𝒂𝒎 𝒙 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂(𝒎+𝒏) 𝐡𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐫 𝒂𝒎 + 𝒂𝒏 ≠ 𝒂(𝒎+𝒏)
a) 27½ x 3½
b) 2−3 x 16¾ 2) 𝒂𝒎 ÷ 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂(𝒎−𝒏) 𝐡𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐫 𝒂𝒎 − 𝒂𝒏 ≠ 𝒂(𝒎−𝒏)
c) 8⅓ ÷ 16¼
3) (𝒂 + 𝒃)𝒎 ≠ 𝒂𝒎 + 𝒃𝒎 𝐞. 𝐠 (𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒃 + 𝒃𝟐
Solution:
Method 1 Exercise 1.2.11
½ ½ ½
a) 27 x 3 = (27 x 3) 1) Evaluate each of the following without using a calculator:
= 81½ = 9 3
a) 7−1 x 170 x 49(2)
Method 2 2 1
½ ½ 3 ½ ½ b) 8(−3) x4
( )
2 ÷ 2−3
a) 27 x3 = (3 ) x 3
1 1
3
c) √𝑎 𝑥 √𝑎
⅓ ¼ (23 )⅓ 4 ¼
c) 8 ÷ 16 = ÷ (2 )
d) 12𝑎−4 ÷ 4𝑎−6
=2÷2=1 4
e) √𝑎3 𝑥√𝑎
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a) 4x = 8 a) 3x = 81
b) 4(x + 1) = 0.25 b) 5x = 125
Solution: c) 32x = 8
1
a) 4x = 8 d) 2x = 8
1
4𝑥 = 8 e) 16x = 2
(22 )𝑥 = 23
22𝑥 = 23
∴ 2𝑥 = 3
𝟑
𝒙=
𝟐
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Logarithms
x = log 𝑎 𝑦
52 = 25 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
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Example Note
(a) Logarithms of a positive number (<1) maybe negative.
Convert the following to logarithmic form:
10−2 = 0.01 ∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10(0.01) = −2
a) 23 = 8
-2 (b) Logarithms of 1 to any base is 0.
b) 3 = 1/9
c) 2x = 47 𝑎0 = 1 ∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 1 = 0
𝑎1 = 𝑎 ∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑎 = 1
a) 23 = 8 ∴ log 2 8 = 3
1 1
b) 3−2 = 9 ∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 (9) = − 2 (d) Logarithms of a negative numbers are not defined.
c) 2𝑥 = 47 ∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (47) = 𝑥 For example 𝑙𝑜𝑔5 (−7) is not defined.
Convert the following to exponential form: (e) The base of logarithms cannot be negative or 1.
a) 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 32 = 5
b) 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 9 = 2
1
c) 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 ( ) = 𝑥
4
Solution
a) 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 32 = 5 ∴ 25 = 32
b) 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 9 = 2 ∴ 32 = 9
1 1
c) 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 ( ) = 𝑥 ∴ 2𝑥 =
4 4
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Common Logarithms
When denoting common log we drop the base and simply write lg x.
The base is understood to be 10. Example lg 100=2
𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏 ∴ 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝟏 = 𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎 ∴ 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏
lg 0 1 2 3 4 5
From the table above we observe that any number between 1 and 10
has a lg values between 0 and any number between 10 and 100 has a
lg value between 1 and 2 and so on.
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Use of logarithmic tables to find the common log of a number Finding the common log of a number greater than 10
The logarithmic table on the opposite page shows the common log of all If we need to find the lg of a number between 10 and 100 such as 43.8
the number between 1 and 10. It does not show the common log of any we may rewrite it as
number greater than 10. The first page shows the common log of
numbers from 1.00 to 5.49 and the second page shows the common log lg43.8 = lg (4.38x10)
of numbers from 5.50 to 9.99. Though the left most column of sheet 1 = lg10 + lg 4.38
reads as 10 to 54 it should be treated as 1.0 to 5.4 = 1 + lg4.38
= 1.6415
For instance the common log of 4.38 may be found by locating 4.3 on the
left most column titled N on sheet 1 and then going across the row and We already know that the lg 4.38 is 0.6415 and therefore the log 43.8 is
looking up the number listed under the column titled 8 which gives us a 1.6415
value of 6415. This number should be read as 0.6415. You may cross
check with you calculator to confirm this value. We recall that the log of So in general if you need to find the common log of any number greater
any number between 1 and 10 is always less than 1 or in other words a than 10, we rewrite the number as a product of a number between 1 and
decimal value. 10 and the appropriate power of 10. For example if we need to find the
log10 4.38 = 0.6415 common log of 243.5 we rewrite this as 2.435x102. This form is called the
standard form or the scientific notation.
If we need to find the log of a number with 3 decimal place, we need to
additionally use the differential part column as well. For example to find Now the log of 243.5 is the same as the log of (2.435x102).
the log of 4.386 we need to add the number listed under the column titled
6 on the differential part (along the same row) which is 6, to the log10(243.5) = log10 (2.435𝑥102 )
number we found already for 4.38.
= log10 100 + log10 (2.345) = 2 + log10(2.435)
This would be 0.6415+0.0006 = 0.6421. You may cross check with your
calculator to confirm that this value is correct to 4 decimal places. From the table
log10(2.435) = 0.3865
∴ log10(243.5) = 2.3865
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We saw how we could use the table to find the common log of a number
in the previous section. We will now explore how we find the original
number from the table if the common log of a number is given. This is
called inverse log. For instance let’s say we are asked to find the
number whose common log is 0.6415 in other words what is the value of
for x for which
log10 𝑥 = 0.6415?
𝑥 = 100.6415
We first realize that the value of x is a number between 1 and 10 (the log
of a number between 1 and 10 is less than 1). We then look for this
number in the table and identify the row and the column under which it
falls. It occurs along row 4.3 and under column 8. Therefore the inverse
log of 40.6415 is 4.38
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Decimal is the most common numeral system used in the world. This is
because humans have ten fingers; for example, in English, ‘digits’ is also
the anatomical term referring to fingers and toes. However, some
cultures do or did historically use other numeral systems, including the
Tzotzil, who use a base 20 system (using all 20 fingers and toes), some
Nigerians who use several base 12 systems, the Babylonians, who used
base 60 and the Yuki, who reportedly used base 8.
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The Decimal Number Base Systems Computers commonly use a different system, binary, internally. For
external use by computer specialist, this binary representation is
The Decimal Number System uses base 10. It includes the digits from 0 sometimes presented in a related octal or hexadecimal system. For
through 9. The weighted values for each position is as follows: most purposes however, binary values are converted by a computer to
the equivalent decimal values for presentation to humans.
104 103 102 101 100 10-1 10-2 10-3 Nevertheless, sometimes computers do use internal representations,
10 000 1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.2 0.3 which are equivalent to decimal for doing arithmetic. Frequently this
arithmetic is done on data in the form of binary-coded decimal, but there
You have been using the decimal (base 10) numbering system for so are other decimal representations in use.
long that you often take it for granted. When you see a number like "123", Probably the biggest stumbling block most beginning programmers
you don't think about the value 123. Instead, you generate a mental encounter when attempting to learn assembly languages is the common
image of how many items this value represents. In reality, however, the
use of the binary and hexadecimal numbering system. Understanding
number 123 represents:
these numbering systems is important because their use simplifies other
complex topics including Boolean algebra and logic design, signed
1 x 102 + 2 x 101 + 3 x 100 = 1 x 100 + 2 x 10 + 3 x 1 numeric representation, character codes and packed data.
=100 + 20 + 3 = 123
Each digit appearing to the left of the decimal point represents a value
between 0 and 9 times power of 10 represented by its position in the
number. Digits appearing to the right of the decimal point represent a
value between 0 and 9 times an increasing negative power of 10.
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Most modern computer systems operate using binary logic. The We typically write binary numbers as a sequence of bits (bits is short for
computer represents values using two voltage levels (usually 0V for binary digits). We have defined boundaries for these bits. These
logic 0 and either +3.3 V or +5V for logic 1). With two levels we can boundaries are:
represent exactly two different values. These could be any two different
values, but by convention we use the values 0 and 1. These two values,
coincidentally, correspond to the two digits used by the binary number Name Size (Bits) Example Name
system.
Bit 1 1 Bit
Since there is a correspondence between the logic levels used by the
computer and the two digits used in the binary numbering system, it Nibble 4 0101 Nibble
should come as no surprise that computers employ the binary system.
Byte 8 0000 0101 Byte
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The Bit If you use a bit to represent a Boolean (true/false) value then that bit (by
your definition) represents true or false. For the bit to have any true
The smallest "unit" of data on a binary computer is a single bit. Since a meaning, you must be consistent. That is, if you're using a bit to
single bit is capable of representing only two different values (typically represent true or false at one point in your program, you shouldn't use
zero or one) you may get the impression that there are a very small the true/false value stored in that bit to represent red or blue later.
number of items you can represent with a single bit. Not true! There are Since most items you will be trying to model require more than two
an infinite number of items you can represent with a single bit. different values, single bit values aren't the most popular data type.
With a single bit, you can represent any two distinct items. Examples However, since everything else consists of groups of bits, bits will play an
include zero or one, true or false, on or off, male or female, and right or important role in your programs. Of course, there are several data types
wrong. However, you are not limited to representing binary data types that require two distinct values, so it would seem that bits are important
(that is, those objects which have only two distinct values). by themselves. However, you will soon see that individual bits are difficult
to manipulate, so we'll often use other data types to represent Boolean
To confuse things even more, different bits can represent different things. values.
For example, one bit might be used to represent the values zero and
one, while an adjacent bit might be used to represent the values true and
false. How can you tell by looking at the bits? The answer, of course, is
that you can't. But this illustrates the whole idea behind computer data
structures: data is what you define it to be.
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1 1 1 1
B3 B2 B1 B0
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The Byte (16 Bit) Since a byte contains eight bits, it can represent 28, or 256, different
values. Generally, we'll use a byte to represent:
Without question, the most important data structure used by the 80 x 86
micro-processor is the byte. This is true since the ASCII code is a 7-bit 1) unsigned numeric values in the range 0 => 255
non-weighted binary code that is used on the byte boundary in most 2) signed numbers in the range -128 => +127
computers. A byte consists of eight bits and is the smallest addressable 3) ASCII character codes
datum (data item) in the microprocessor. 4) Other special data types requiring no more than 256 different
values. Many data types have fewer than 256 items so eight bits
Main memory and I/O addresses in the PC are all byte addresses. This is usually sufficient.
means that the smallest item that can be individually accessed by an 80x
86 programs is an 8-bit value. To access anything smaller requires that Since the PC is a byte addressable machine, it turns out to be more
you read the byte containing the data and mask out the unwanted bits. efficient to manipulate a whole byte than an individual bit or nibble. For
this reason, most programmers use a whole byte to represent data types
The bits in a byte are numbered from bit zero (b0) through seven (b7) as that require no more than 256 items, even if fewer than eight bits would
follows: suffice. For example, we'll often represent the Boolean values true and
false by 00000001 and 00000000 (respectively).
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Probably the most important use for a byte is holding a character code.
B7 B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 B1 B0 Characters typed at the keyboard; displayed on the screen, and printed
on the printer all have numeric values. To allow it to communicate with
the rest of the world, the IBM PC uses a variant of the ASCII character
set. There are 128 defined codes in the ASCII character set. IBM uses
Bit 0 is the low order bit or least significant bit, bit 7 is the high order bit or
the remaining 128 possible values for extended character codes
most significant bit of the byte. We'll refer to all other bits by their number.
including European characters, graphic symbols, Greek letters, and math
symbols.
A byte also contains exactly two nibbles. Bits b0 through b3 comprise the
low order nibble, and bits b4 through b7 form the high order nibble. Since
a byte contains exactly two nibbles, byte values require two hexadecimal
digits.
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For the 8085 and 8086, a word is a group of 16 bits. We will number the A double word is exactly what its name implies, two words. Therefore, a
bits in a word starting from bit zero (b0) through fifteen (b15) as follows: double word quantity is 32 bits. Naturally, this double word can be
divided into a high order word and a low order word, four bytes, or eight
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 nibbles.
B15 B14 B13 B12 B11 B10 B9
Double words can represent all kinds of different data. It may be
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
B8 B7 B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 B1 B0 1) an unsigned double word in the range of 0 => 4,294,967,295,
2) a signed double word in the range -2,147,483,648=>
2,147,483,647,
Like the byte, bit 0 is the LSB and bit 15 is the MSB. When referencing 3) a 32-bit floating point value
the other bits in a word use their bit position number. 4) Any data that requires 32 bits or less.
Notice that a word contains exactly two bytes. Bits b0 through b7 form
the low order byte, bits 8 through 15 from the high order byte. Naturally, a
word may be further broken down into four nibbles. Nibble zero is the low
order nibble in the word and nibble three is the high order nibble of the
word. The other two nibbles are "nibble one" or "nibble two".
With 16 bits, you can represent 216 (65,536) different values. These could
be the unsigned numeric values in the range of 0 => 65,535, signed
numeric values in the range of -32,768 => +32,767 or any other data type
with no more than 65,536 values. The three major uses for words are
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The binary number system works like the decimal number system except
the binary number system:
1. uses base 2
2. includes only the digits 0 and 1 (any other digit would make the
number an invalid binary number)
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 2-1 2-2
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 0.5 0.25
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It is very easy to convert from a binary number to a decimal number. Just 2671/2 1335 1 1
like the decimal system, we multiply each digit by its weight position.
1335/2 667 1 11
Decimal to Binary
667/2 333 1 111
To convert decimal to binary is slightly more difficult. There are two 333/2 166 1 1111
methods that may be used to convert from decimal to binary, namely the
division and subtraction method. 166/2 83 0 0 1111
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Weighted
For this method, start with a weighted position value greater that the Subtraction Remainder Binary Number
Value
number.
212 = 4096 2671 - 0 2671 0
1. If the number is greater than the weighted position for the
digit, write down a 1 and subtract the weighted position value. 212 = 4096 2671 – 2048 623 01
This process is continued until the result is 0. When performing the 212 = 4096 111 – 0 111 0 1010
subtraction, the digits, which will represent the binary equivalent of the
decimal number are written beginning at the most significant digit (the 212 = 4096 111 – 0 111 0 1010 0
left) and each new digit is written to the next lesser significant digit (on
212 = 4096 111 – 64 47 0 1010 01
the right) of the previous digit. Consider the same number, 2671, using a
different method. 212 = 4096 47 – 32 15 0 1010 011
212 = 4096 1-1 0 0 1010 0110 1111 212 = 4096 15 – 0 15 0 1010 0110
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Octal Numbering System Donald Knuth wrote in his book “The art of computer programming” that
King Charles XII of Sweden was the inventor of octal in Europe. Octal
numerals can be made from Binary numerals by grouping consecutive
The octal number system:
digits into groups of three (starting from the right). For example, the
1. uses base 8 binary representation for decimal 74 is 1001010, which groups into 1
2. includes only the digits 0 through 7 (any other digit would 001 010 — so the octal representation is 112.
make the number an invalid octal number) Octal is sometimes used in computing instead of hexadecimal. It has the
advantage of not requiring any extra symbols as digits (the hexadecimal
85 84 83 82 81 80 system is base-16 and therefore needs six additional symbols beyond
32768 4096 512 64 8 1 0–9). It is also used for digital displays. However it has a disadvantage
in that while two hex digits make a byte, three octal digits would be
required, with the most significant octal digit inelegantly representing
The weighted value for each position is as follows: only two binary digits (and in a series the same octal digit would
It is reported that the Yuki Native Americas of California used an octal represent one binary digit from the next byte).
system because they counted using the spaces between their fingers
rather than the fingers themselves. Octal counting may have been used
in the past instead of decimal counting, by counting the spaces like the
yuki or by counting the fingers other than the thumbs. This may explain
why the Latin word novem (nine) is so much the word novus (new). It
may have meant a new number.
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Binary to Octal Conversion For this method, divide the decimal number by 8, and write the remainder
on the side as the least significant digit. This process is continued by
It is easy to convert from an integer binary number to octal. This is dividing he quotient by 8 and writing the remainder until the quotient is 0.
accomplished by: When performing the division, the remainders which will represent the
octal equivalent of the decimal number are written beginning at the least
1. Break the binary number into 3-bit sections from the LSB to significant digit (right) and each new digit is written to the next more
the MSB. significant digit (the left) of the previous digit. Consider the number
2. Convert the 3-bit binary number to its octal equivalent. 44978.
1. Convert the decimal number to its 3-bit binary equivalent. 5622/8 702 6 62
2. Combine the 3-bit sections by removing the spaces.
702/8 87 6 662
Octal to Decimal Conversion 87/8 10 7 7662
To convert from Octal to Decimal, multiply the value in each position by 10/8 1 2 27662
its octal weight and add each value.
1/8 0 1 127662
Decimal to Octal Conversion
Repeated Division By 8
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0 0000 0
1 0001 1
2 0010 2
3 0011 3
4 0100 4
6 0110 6
7 0111 7
8 1000 8
9 1001 9
A 1010 10
B 1011 11
C 1100 12
D 1101 13
E 1110 14
F 1111 15
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Repeated Division by 16
For this method, divide the decimal number by 16, and write the
remainder on the side as the least significant digit. This process is
continued by dividing the quotient by 16 and writing the remainder until
the quotient is 0. When performing the division, the remainders which will
represent the hex equivalent of the decimal number are written beginning
at the least significant digit (right) and each new digit is written to the next
more significant digit (the left) of the previous digit. Consider the number
44978.
44978/16 2811 2 2
2811/16 175 11 B2
175/16 10 15 FB2
10/16 0 10 0AFB2
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Exercise 1.2.4
Exercises 1.2.6
1.
a) 5a + 7b 1.
b) 15v – 2u
a) 4x 2 – x + 8
c) 3b – 5a
b) 2a2 + 4a + 13
d) 4x – 8y
c) 6p – 2q + 3r
e) 11m – 8n
f) 7k – 18h d) 𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 4x + 15
g) 7a – 9b + 10c e) 3p + 5q + 3r – 5s
h) 9y – 5x – 6 f) 2xz
i) 6q – 5p + 20 g) 2x 4 + 3𝑥 3 – 4𝑥 2 – 10x + 5
h) 4𝑥 4 + 8𝑥 2 + 3x – 14
2. 2.
a) 2x – 3
1) 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 2
b) 4p – 2
2) −𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 5
c) a–b+c+d
3) 2a + 5b – 10c
d) – 6a – 16
e) 3y – 6x 4) p – 6q – 3r + s
f) – 9x – 10y 5) 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 10
17𝑥−20
g) 35
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𝑇
3. f) 𝑙 = 𝑔(2𝜋)2
Exercise 1.2.8
a) 5𝑎2 − 2𝑎
b) – 3a + 3b a) x = 2, y = 7
c) – 8a + 26b – 62ab
d) 13a – 8b – 2c b) x = 1, y = 2
e) 3a + 6b – 10c
c) x = 1, y = −2
f) – 37a + 12b – 37c
g) 61a – 68b + 7c d) x = 10, y = 3
h) – 12a – 53b + 54c
e) x = 1/3, y = 1
Exercise 1.2.7
f) x = 3/4, y = 2/3
1.
Exercise 1.2.9
a) X=-7
1.
b) X=-1 a) x=2
c) X=1/2 b) x=5
d) X=2 c) x=-2
e) X=1 d) x=-1
f) X=100 e) x=-1/2
2.
g) X=-1/4
a) x=3 or 13
h) X=7/6
b) x=6 or 4
2. c) x= -3 or -12
𝑉 d) x=-9 or 9
a) 𝑅 = e) x= 2 or -7/2
𝐼
𝐹
b) a=𝑚
3.
𝑣−𝑢
c) 𝑡 = a) X=1 or 2
𝑎
𝑣 2 −𝑢2 b) X=-1 or -2
d) 𝑠 = 2𝑎 c) X=3/2, -1
2(𝑠−𝑢𝑡) d) X=5, -4
e) 𝑡 = √ e) X=1/2
𝑎
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1.3 Geometry
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Simple Geometrical Constructions we have ray XY, ray HK and ray PQ. A line is either straight or
curved.
Points
H
Y P
The basic geometric figure is a point. All other geometric figures are
made up of a collection of points. The smallest dot you can mark on
your paper with a sharp pencil will give you an idea of what is meant by
a geometric point.
A line is the path describe by a moving point. A straight-line segment In this topic, when we speak of a line, it refers to a straight line whereas a
is formed when we use a ruler to join two points, say A and B. curve refers to a curved line. Also, we shall simply use AB to denote line
AB, line segment AB, ray AB and the length of AB.
A B
We call the line segment AB or BA, A and B are called the end-points.
If we extend the line segment AB in each of the two directions
indefinitely, we get a line. This is represented by the following diagram.
A B
The diagrams on the right show parts of lines with only one end-
point and extending in only one direction. We call them rays. Thus
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Planes The box shown in the following figure has six flat surfaces of three
different sizes. We call this solid figure a cuboid.
A plane is a flat surface in which any two points are joined by a straight
line lying entirely on the surface. The floor of a classroom is an example This is a cuboid where AB = 12 cm, BC = 6 cm and CG = 8 cm
of a horizontal plane and the wall of a classroom is an example of a
vertical plane.
Solids
The figure below left shows a pyramid, which has five flat surfaces. Each
surface is part of a plane. The figure below centre shows a prism with
five flat surfaces. Each surface forms parts of a plane. The figure below
right is an example of a prism with seven flat surfaces.
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Curved Surfaces
A surface, which is not flat, does not form part of a plane. Such a
surface is called a curved surface. For example, the surface of a
basketball is a curved surface. The basketball is an example of a
sphere (Figure below left).
Figure above centre shows a solid figure, which has two flat surfaces
and a curved surface. It is called a cylindrical solid figure, or a cylinder.
A cone has only one flat surface and a curved surface (Figure above
right)
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The angle is called angle AOB or angle BOA and is written 𝐴𝑂̂𝐵 or 𝐵𝑂̂𝐴
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The standard unit for measuring angles is one degree (written as 1⁰). It
1
1is defined as 360 of a complete revolution. By definition, one complete
rotation about a point has an angle of 360⁰.
Notice that the graduation marks on the protractor are marked with
two sets of numbers, one greater than 90⁰ and the other less than
90⁰. Hence, when using the protractor, use your common sense to
choose the correct set of numbers. For example, if one arm of the
angle to be measured lies along AB, the set of numbers to be used
is the one in which the numbers increase as you read the
graduations from AB towards AC.
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An obtuse angle is larger than 90⁰ but less than 180⁰. A reflex angle is larger than 180⁰ but less than 360⁰.
Straight Angle
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Two angles are called complementary angles if their sum is 90⁰. Two angles are called supplementary angles if their sum is 180⁰.
The angles 45⁰ and 135⁰ are supplementary angles and so are 53⁰ and
The angles 28⁰ and 62⁰ are said to be complementary and so are the 127⁰, 105⁰ and 75⁰, etc.
angles 40⁰ and 50⁰, 30⁰ and 60⁰, etc.
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In the following figure, XOZ and YOZ are called adjacent angles
because:
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Suppose you have a line XY and wish to construct angle YXZ of 64⁰.
Place a protractor such that its centre is at X and its base is along XY as
shown in the following figure. Make the 64⁰ graduation with your sharp
pencil and label it Z. Join Z to X and we have 𝑋𝑌̂𝑍 = 64⁰(below right).
Y
X
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Example
∴ b= 46⁰
6c = 270⁰
∴ c = 45⁰
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Vertically opposite angles are formed when two straight lines intersect
each other. The angels of AOC and BOD are also vertically opposite to
each other: We shall prove that vertically opposite angles are equal.
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Exercises 1.3.1
4. Refer to the figure on the right in which, XOY is a straight line, and
1. Name relationship between a,b and c
answer the following questions:
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5. Using the figure below, find y in each of the following cases: 6. In the diagram given,
(d) If a = y⁰ and b = 2 y⁰
(e) If b = (y + 30)⁰ and d = (4 y + 16)⁰
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Parallel Lines In the following figure, the line PQ is called a transversal. The angels k1
and k2 are called corresponding angles (corr.s). Similarly l1, l2 are also
Parallel Lines are lines, which extend in the same direction and remain called corresponding angles. Use your protractor to measure the angles
the same distance apart. We can take parallel lines as two points moving k1, k2, l1 and l2. What do you notice about the size of angles k1, k2, l1 and
in the same direction. In geometry, a pair of parallel lines is represented l2. Can you name two other pairs of corresponding angles in the figure
by either a pair of single or double arrows, as shown in the figure below. below?
We use the symbol “//” to represent “is parallel to”. Thus, in fig. above
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The following figure shows two parallel lines AB and CD cut by a The following figure shows two parallel lines AB and XY cut by a
transversal. The angles a1 and a2 are called alternate angles (alt. s). transversal PQ .The angles a and b are called interior angles. The angles
x and y are also interior angles. Use your protector to measure the
Similarly, b1 and b2 are also called alternate angles. Use a protractor to angles a, b, x and y. Find the value of (a + b) and of (x + y). Are the
measure the angles a1, a 2, b1 and b2. What do you notice about the size interior angles supplementary?
of angles a1 and a2, and b1 and b2?
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We can conclude from the above discussion that when two parallel Example 1
lines are cut by a transversal,
Calculate the unknowns in the following figure.
1. The corresponding angles are equal
2. The alternate angles are equal; a = 48⁰ (corr. s, AB// CD)
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Example 2
Find the unknowns in the figure below.
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Perpendicular lines
Two lines, which are at right angles to each other, are said to be
perpendicular to each other. We use the symbol “AB ┴ PQ” to denote
AB is perpendicular to PQ.
(A) Drawing perpendicular lines using a set-square and a ruler Construction steps:
1. Place one edge of the setsquare on AB as shown in the figure
Given: a point K on a line AB above.
To construct: a line through K perpendicular to AB.
2. Slide the setsquare along the length of the ruler until the other edge
Construction steps: passes through k.
1. Place the setsquare on the line AB and place the ruler as shown 3. Draw HK as shown in fig above (ii).
in the figure above.
We write HK ┴ AB
2. Slide the setsquare along the length of the ruler until the other
Note: the length of KH gives the distance of the point K to line AB.
edge of the setsquare passes through K. Draw HK as shown in
In addition, if we draw a line passing through K and parallel to AB,
the figure above.
KH also gives the distance between the two parallel lines.
We write AB ┴ HK
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Use of compasses
A pair of compasses is a mathematical instrument often used for
drawing circles, marking off lengths and measuring the length of a line
segment.
Construction steps:
1. Adjust the arms of the compass until they touch AB
2. Mark a point H on a another line PQ
3. With H as the centre and radius AB, draw an arc to cut PQ at K
4. Hence, AB=HK
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P Q
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Graphs
The data can be presented in many different ways as shown below, and
most data can be presented in any format. However, care should be
taken when selecting a format to use, some formats are better suited to
particular types of data or data sets.
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Construction Look at the largest right-hand, and the smallest left-hand values that will
In order to construct graphs effectively, some simple rules should be be plotted along the x-axis. Subtract the LH value from the RH value to
followed. give a range of values (= some number of units). Study the graph paper
to find how many large squares there are from left to right.
First of all, present the data in a clear, tabular form. The data will data
will generally comprise 2 variables, one that is being varied, the Now divide the value found by the subtraction, by the number of large
independent variable, and the one that changes as a result of the squares. This should give an idea of a suitable scale. That is, so many
variation, the dependent variable (its value depends on the value of the units should be represented by 1 large square along the x-axis. The
other). most useful scales are 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 units etc. etc to 1 large square.
For example, an experiment was conducted, where a volume of gas was The same procedure is used for the y-axis. Subtract the smallest (lower)
heated. As the temperature of the gas increased, it was noted that the value from the largest (upper value) to give the range, divide by the
gas expanded: its volume increased. The first quantity, the temperature, number of large squares between top and bottom of the paper.
is the independent variable and the second quantity, the volume, is the
dependent variable.
The next stage is to plan the use of the graph-paper so as to present the
graph in the clearest manner possible.
Before “plotting” the points, the two axes must be drawn, and the scales
chosen. The horizontal (x-axis) will represent the independent variable
and the vertical (y-axis) the dependent variable. The scales cross at the
origin O.
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Having done this, draw the 2 axes, and mark off the units, using your
chosen scales.
The graph paper has now been prepared for the object of the exercise,
i.e. to transfer the data from the table to the graph.
The transfer is very simple. Take one value of the independent variable
and draws a (faint) line to coincide with its value along the x-axis so as
to intersect with a similar line drawn from the y-axis for its corresponding
dependent value.
The intersection represents one plotted point of the graph.
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The procedure is repeated for each pair of values in turn. When all the
points have been plotted, a continuous line is drawn through the points.
The way in which the line is drawn depends on the nature of the data. It
is probably true to say that most mathematical or scientific data change
gradually or progressively - they may form a definite relationship. In this
case, do not join the points with a series of straight lines.
This probably means that the line only goes through some (not all) of the
points - don’t worry; experimental or plotting errors can occur. There
should be roughly the same number of points on both sides of the
smooth curve. Sometimes, it is fairly obvious that a straight line is the
(most) reasonable ‘fit’ to the point, and this is often the case for simple
scientific experiments.
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Graphs and Mathematical Formulae There are many mathematical functions, examples might be:
Later, it will be seen that one physical quantity will vary as another y = ex, y = cos x etc. etc.
quantity varies, with the two linked by some mathematical law or This topic looks at the shape and characteristics of these functions when
equation. An example is that the drag force (D) varies according to the expressed graphically, so that a simple link can be made with physical
square of the airspeed (V). phenomena, which demonstrates similar characteristics.
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The area under a graph is also often useful and may represent a
physical quantity.
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Nomographs
The need to show how two or more variables affect a value is common
in the maintenance of aircraft. Nomographs are a special type of graph
that enables you to solve complex problems involving more than one
variable.
Most nomographs contain a great deal of information and require the
use of scales on three sides of the chart, as well as diagonal lines.
In fact, some charts contain so much information, that it can be very
important for you to carefully read the instructions before using the chart
and to show care when reading information from the chart itself.
Illustrated is a fairly typical graph of three variables, distance, speed and
time. If any two of the three variables is known, the approximate value of
the third can be quickly determined. In this example, the dotted line
indicates a known speed and time. The resulting distance travelled can
be extracted from the graph at the point where these two dashed lines
meet.
Whilst this nomograph is much too small for accurate computation, it can
be seen that when travelling at around 250 knots for three and a half
hours, you would travel a little less than 1000 nautical miles.
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Simple Trigonometry
Introduction
Trigonometry (from Greek trigōnon, "triangle" and metron, "measure") is
a branch of mathematics that studies relationships involving lengths and
angles of triangles. The field emerged during the 3rd century BC from
applications of geometry to astronomical studies.
The 3rd-century astronomers first noted that the lengths of the sides of a
right-angle triangle and the angles between those sides have fixed
relationships: that is, if at least the length of one side and the value of
one angle is known, then all other angles and lengths can be determined
algorithmically. These calculations soon came to be defined as the
trigonometric functions and today are pervasive in both pure and applied
mathematics.
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Hypotenuse
Opposite
Adjacent
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In any right angle triangle whatever the size of the triangle the ratios
between different sides remains the same. For instance the ratio
between the adjacent and hypotenuse in any of the triangles QPR, SPT,
UPV or XPY remains the same as long as the angle θ remains the
same.
Sine Function
Opposite
: sin(θ) =
Hypotenuse
Cosine Function
Adjacent
cos(θ) =
Hypotenuse
Tangent Function
Opposite
tan(θ) =
Adjacent
Sine, Cosine and Tangent are often abbreviated to sin, cos and tan)
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Hypotenuse X
Y
U
V
Opposite
S
T
Q
Adjacent
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Use of Trigonometric tables to find the Sin, Cos and Tan ratios Example
As early as in the 10th century Arab mathematicians tabulated the Find the sine ratio of the following angles using the table.
different trigonometric ratios for the different angles which are shown in
the table below. 1. 47.5⁰
Let us see how the table could be used to find the Sin, Cos and the Tan 2. 58.5⁰
ratios for any angle ranging from 0 to 90⁰.
Find the cosine ratio of the following angles using the table.
The first and the last column give us the angle in degrees for which we
are seeking the ratio. The first column lists the angles from 0⁰ to 45⁰ 1. 42.5⁰
downwards and the last column the angles from 45⁰ to 90⁰ upwards. 2. 31.5⁰
The sine cosine and the tan ratios for angles form 0 to 45 is sought
under the appropriate header at the top of the table. The Sine cosine
and the tan ratios for angles from 45 to 90 are sought under the
appropriate footer of the bottom of the table.
Aas an example to find the sine ratio of 30⁰ seek 30⁰on the first column
of table and go horizontally along this row for the value listed under the
header titled sine at the top of the table. Following this instructions we
find that the sine of 30⁰ is 0.5.
To find the cosine of 60⁰ seek 60⁰ in the last column of the table and go
horizontally along this row seeking the value listed under the footer titled
cosine at the bottom of the table .Following this instructions we find that
the cosine of 30⁰ is 0.5.
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Finding the Sin Cosine and Tan ratios of an angle by construction We may cross check with the trigonometric table to confirm if these
values are true and they do agree to 2 decimal places with the value
Let’s construct a right angle triangle subtending an angle of 35⁰ to the shown in the table.
horizontal and has a hypotenuse of 4.9cm. If we now measure the
dimension of the other two sides they would be 4.0 cm and 2.8 cm
respectively.
2.8
cm
35⁰
4.0
cm
2.8
𝑆𝑖𝑛350 = = 0.57
4.9
4.0
𝐶𝑜𝑠350 = = 0.82
4.9
2.8
𝑇𝑎𝑛35° = = 0.70
4.0
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Sin and Cos and Tan ratios of certain angles Now we can proceed to write the various trigonometric ratios for 45.
45⁰ √2
45⁰
B
C 1
We can find the value of the side AB using Pythagoras rule as follows.
𝐴𝐶 2 + 𝐵𝐶 2 = 𝐴𝐵2
12 + 12 = 𝐴𝐵2
𝐴𝐵2 = 2
𝐴𝐵 = √2
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θ
B
C
𝐴𝐶
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
𝐴𝐵
𝐴𝐶
𝐶𝑜𝑠 (90 − 𝜃) =
𝐴𝐵
𝐵𝐶
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝐴𝐵
𝐵𝐶
𝑆𝑖𝑛 (90 − 𝜃) =
𝐴𝐵
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠(90 − 𝜃)
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Sin Cos and tan of 30 and 60 Now that we have determined the length of AD we can write the Sin and
Cos ratios for 30⁰ and 60⁰ as follows
A
𝐵𝐷 1
𝑆𝑖𝑛 300 = = = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 60⁰
𝐴𝐵 2
𝐴𝐷 √3
𝑆𝑖𝑛 600 = = = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 30⁰
30 30 2 𝐴𝐵 2
2 𝐵𝐷
𝑇𝑎𝑛 30⁰ =
𝐴𝐷
√3 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛30⁰ =
2 √3
𝐴𝐷
60 60 tan 60⁰ =
0 𝐵𝐷
B C
1 D 1
√3
𝑡𝑎𝑛 60⁰ = = √3
1
In triangle ABD using Pythagoras we can find AD
𝐵𝐷 2 + 𝐴𝐷 2 = 𝐴𝐵2
12 + 𝐴𝐷 2 = 22
𝐴𝐷 2 = 22 − 1
𝐴𝐷 2 = 3
𝐴𝐷 = √3
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A
Sin Cos Tan
0 0 1 0
𝟏 √𝟑 𝟏
30
𝟐 𝟐 √𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
45 1
√𝟐 √𝟐
𝟏
θ 60 √𝟑/𝟐 √𝟑
𝟐
90 1 0
B C
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶
Sin 𝜃 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠θ =
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
Therefore
𝐴𝐶 0 𝐴𝐵
𝑆𝑖𝑛 90 = 𝐴𝐶 = 1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 90 = 𝐴𝐶 = 0 𝑡𝑎𝑛 90 = 0
=∞
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Worked Examples You can use your knowledge of the Pythagorean Theorem and the 3
trigonometric ratios to solve a right triangle. Because a right triangle is a
In this lesson we will return to right triangle trigonometry. Many real triangle with a 90⁰, solving a right triangle requires that you find the
situations involve right triangles. In your previous study of geometry you measures of one or both of the other angles. How you solve will depend
may have used right triangles to solve problems involving distances, on how much information is given.
using the Pythagorean Theorem. In this lesson you will solve problems
The following examples show two situations:
involving right triangles, using your knowledge of angles and
trigonometric functions. We will begin by solving right triangles, which a triangle missing one side, and
means identifying all the measures of all three angles and the lengths of
all three sides of a right triangle. Then we will turn to several kinds of a triangle missing two sides.
problems
Learning Objectives
Solve right triangles.
Solve real world problems that require you to solve a right
triangle
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Example 1 (You may have also recognized the "Pythagorean Triple", 6, 8, 10,
instead of carrying out the Pythagorean Theorem.)
Solve the triangle shown below.
You can also find the third side using a trigonometric ratio. Notice that
the missing side, b, is adjacent to angle A, and the hypotenuse is given.
Therefore we can use the cosine function to find the length of b:
𝑎𝑑𝑗. 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏
cos(53.13°) = =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 10
𝑏
0.6 =
10
𝑏 = 𝟔 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔
We could also use the tangent function, as the opposite side was given.
It may seem confusing that you can find the missing side in more than
one way. The point is, however, not to create confusion, but to show that
you must look at what information is missing, and choose a strategy.
Overall, when you need to identify one side of the triangle, you can
Solution
either use the Pythagorean Theorem, or you can use a trig ratio.
We need to find the lengths of all sides and the measures of all angles.
In this triangle, 2 of the 3 sides are given. We can find the length of the
To solve the above triangle, we also have to identify the measures of all
third side using the Pythagorean Theorem
3 angles. 2 angles are given: 90⁰and 53.13⁰. We can find the third angle
using the sum of angles in a triangle:
82 + 𝑏 2 = 102
180⁰ − 90⁰ − 53.13⁰ = 36.87°
𝟔𝟒 + 𝒃𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑏 2 = 36
𝑏 = ±6
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Example 2 Answer
Now let's consider a triangle that has 2 missing sides We need to find a trigonometric ratio of the known angle of 45⁰ which
would involve the unknown side and the hypotenuse which is known.
Find the magnitude of the side AB in the right angled triangle shown in 𝐴𝐵 𝑋
the diagram below. The hypotenuse of this triangle is 20cm. sin 45 = =
𝐴𝐶 20
We may now look up the table to find the sin ratio of 45 which is 0.71
𝑥
A 0.7071 =
20
𝑥 = 20𝑥 0.7071
𝑥 = 14.142𝑐𝑚
20cm
X
45°
⁰
B C
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You can use right triangles to find distances, if you know an angle of The angle of elevation is the angle between the horizontal line of sight
elevation or an angle of depression. The figure below shows each of and the line of sight up to an object. For example, if you are standing on
these kinds of angles. the ground looking up at the top of a mountain, you could measure the
angle of elevation.
Angle of Depression
The angle of depression is the angle between the horizontal line of sight
and the line of sight down to an object. For example, if you were
standing on top of a hill or a building, looking down at an object, you
could measure the angle of depression.
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Example 3
You are standing 20m away from a tree, and you measure the angle of
elevation to be 38°. How tall is the tree?
Solution:
The solution depends on your height, as you measure the angle of
elevation from your line of sight. Assume that you are 1.5m tall. Then the
figure below shows the triangle you are solving
The figure shows us that once we find the value of T, we have to add
1.5 to this value to find the total height of the triangle. To find T, we
should use the tangent value:
𝑜𝑝𝑝 𝑇
tan(380 ) = =
𝑎𝑑𝑗 20
1.5 1.5
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = (15.63 + 1.5)𝑚
m m
= 17.13𝑚
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Example 4
Solution:
If we ignore the height of the person, we solve the following triangle:
Given the angle of depression is 53°, angle A in the figure above is 37°.
We can use the tangent function to find the distance from the building to
the park:
𝒐𝒑𝒑 𝒅
𝒕𝒂𝒏 (𝟑𝟕°) = =
𝒂𝒅𝒋 𝟏𝟎𝟎
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If we take into account the height if the person, this will change the value
of the adjacent side. For example, if the person is 1.5 m tall, we have a
different triangle:
𝑜𝑝𝑝 𝑑
tan(37°) = =
𝑎𝑑𝑗 101.5
𝑑 = 101.5𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛(37°) = 76.48𝑚
If you are only looking to estimate a distance, then you can ignore the
height of the person taking the measurements. However, the height of
the person will matter more in situations where the distances or lengths
involved are smaller. For example, the height of the person will influence
the result more in the tree height problem than in the building problem,
as the tree is closer in height to the person than the building is.
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Example 5
From a 200 ft observation tower on the beach, a man sights a whale in 200
𝑡𝑎𝑛7° =
difficulty. The angle of depression of the whale is 7⁰. How far is the 𝑥
whale from the shoreline? 200
𝑥= = 1628.66𝑓𝑡
Solution: 0.1228
The angle of depression from the man to the whale is the angle that an
imaginary line connecting the man and the whale makes with respect to
the horizontal; since the man has to look downwards to spot the whale,
this is called the angle of depression (if, on the other hand, he was
spotting a plane in the air, he would have to look upwards and the angle
would be called the elevation angle).
Tower
Angle of depression
7⁰
7
⁰
X e
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Right Triangles and Bearings to an angle from the north, towards the west. N 70° E is the same as the
angle shown in the graph above. N 70° W would result in an angle in the
We can also use right triangles to find distances using angles given as second quadrant.
bearings. In navigation, a bearing is the direction from one object to
another. In air navigation, bearings are given as angles rotated
clockwise from the north. The graph below shows an angle of 70
degrees:
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Example 6 Solution
A ship travels on a N50° E course. The ship travels until it is due north of The angle opposite d is the complement of 50°, which is 40°. Therefore
a port which is 10 nautical miles due east of the port from which the ship we can find d using the cosine function:
originated. How far did the ship travel?
𝒂𝒅𝒋 𝟏𝟎
𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝟒𝟎°) = =
𝒉𝒚𝒑 𝒅
𝟏𝟎
𝒅= = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟎𝟓𝒏𝒎
𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟒𝟎°)
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Example 7
Given that we know the angle of the ramp and the length of the side
opposite the angle, we can use the sine ratio to find the length of the
ramp, which is the hypotenuse of the triangle.
𝟖
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟓𝟎 ) =
𝑳
𝑳𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟓° = 𝟖
𝟖
𝑳= = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟖𝒇𝒕
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟓°
This may seem like a long ramp, but in fact a 5° ramp angle is what is
required by the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). This explains why
many ramps are comprised of several sections, or have turns. The
additional distance is needed to make up for the small slope.
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Example 8
The earth, moon, and sun create a right triangle during the first quarter
moon. The distance from the earth to the moon is about 240,002.5
miles. What is the distance between the sun and the moon?
Solution:
Let d = the distance between the sun and the moon. We can use the
tangent function to find the value of d:
d
tan(89. 50 ) =
240,002.5
Therefore the distance between the sun and the moon is much larger
than the distance between the earth and the moon.
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Technical Terms
Angle of depression
The angle between the horizontal line of sight, and the line of sight down
to a given point
Angle of elevation
The angle between the horizontal line of sight, and the line of sight up to
a given point
Bearings
The direction from one object to another, usually measured as an angle.
Clinometer
A device used to measure angles of elevation or depression.
Theodolite
A device used to measure angles of elevation or depression.
Nautical mile
A nautical mile is a unit of length that corresponds approximately to one
minute of latitude along any meridian. A nautical mile is equal to 1.852
kilometers.
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Exercise 1.3.2
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𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 0.5
𝜃 = arccos(0.5) = 60⁰
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 1
𝜃 = arctan(1) = 45⁰
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Worked Examples
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Example
Find
√3
.cos −1 ( )
2
You may recall that in a 30-60-90 triangle, if the hypotenuse has length
√3
1, then the long leg has length .
2
Since cosine is the ratio of the adjacent side to the hypotenuse, the
value of the inverse cosine is 30°, or about 0.52 radians.
√3
cos−1 ( 2
) = 30⁰
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Question 1
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Question 3 Question 4
d) 48.2°
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Question 5 Question 6
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Question 7
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One Radian
There are two commonly used units of measurement for angles. The
more familiar unit of measurement is that of degrees. A circle is divided Consider a circle of radius r. 1 Radian is equal to the angle created by
into 360 equal degrees, so that a right angle is 90°. We shall, l only taking the radius r of any circle and stretching it along the perimeter of
consider angles between 0° and 360°, though at higher levels we do the circle as shown in the figure. The ratio between the arc length of r
define angles greater than 360° and negative angles. and the radius of the circle is therefore 1. Interestingly this angle would
remain the same whatever the radius of the circle.
Degrees may be further divided into minutes and seconds, but that
division is not as universal as it used to be. Each degree is divided into
60 equal parts called minutes. So seven and a half degree can be called
7 degrees and 30 minutes, written 7° 30'. Each minute is further divided
into 60 equal parts called seconds, and, for instance, 2 degrees 5 1 Radian is about 57.2958⁰
minutes 30 seconds is written 2° 5' 30". The division of degrees into
minutes and seconds of angle is analogous to the division of hours into
minutes and seconds of time.
Radians
Measuring angles in terms of degrees is used in applied areas such as
surveying, navigation and the design of mechanical equipment. In To find the radian measure corresponding to 360°, we must find the
scientific application that requires calculus, it is customary to employ number of times that a circular arc of length r can be laid off along the
radians as a measure of angle.
circumference. The number π is defined as the ratio between the length
The radian is a pure mathematical measurement and therefore is of the arc and the radius of any circle. This number is not an integer or
preferred by mathematicians over degree measures. For use in even a rational number. Thus, an angle of measure 2πr radians
everyday work, the degree is easier to work with, but for purely corresponds to the degree measure 360°, and we write 360° = 2 πr
mathematical pursuits, the radian gives better results. You probably will radians. This result gives us the following relationships.
never see radian measures used in construction or surveying, but it is a
common unit in mathematics and physics.
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Relationships between Degrees & Radians We may use the techniques illustrated in the preceding chart to obtain
the following table, which displays the corresponding radian and degree
(1) 180° = π radians measure of special angles.
The following table illustrates how to change from one angular measure
to another.
π π 5π
Degrees to radians 1500 = 150x ( )=
180° 180 6
180° 7π 7π 180°
Radians to degrees = x( ) = 315°
π 4 4 π
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An alternate definition of radians is sometimes given as a ratio. Take A sector of a circle is that part of a circle bounded by two radii and the
any circle with centre at the vertex of the angle. Then the radian arc of the circle that joins their ends. The area of this sector is easy to
measure of the angle is the ratio of the length of the subtended arc to compute from the radius r of the circle and the angle θ between the radii
the radius r of the circle. when it’s measured in radians. Since the area of the whole circle is πr2,
and the sector is to the whole circle as the angle θ is to 2π, therefore
For instance, if the length of the arc is 3 and the radius of the circle is 2,
then the radian measure is 1.5.
The reason that this definition works is that the length of the
subtended arc is proportional to the radius of the circle. In particular,
the definition in terms of a ratio gives the same figure as that given
above using the unit circle. This alternate definition is more useful,
however, since you can use it to relate lengths of arcs to angles. The
length of an arc is the radius r times the angle θ where the angle is
measured in radians.
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the sine and the tan ratio of small angles tend to equal the angle itself
measured in radians. For example look at the table below which r
tabulates the angle x measured in radians and the sine ratio of that 1
angle. We observe that as the angle gets smaller the sine x = x itself. r
This approximation leads to very interesting formulas in physics such as
the equation that gives the period (T) of a swinging pendulum. r
𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔
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Example
(b) θ = 73.26°
Solution
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Question 4
Exercise 1.3.4
5 revolutions are the same as:
Examination Type Review Questions a) 5π rads
Question 1 b) 7½π rads
180° is the same as: c) 10π rads
a) ½π rads d) 12½π rads
b) π rads
c) 1½π rads Question 5
d) 2π rads 90° is the same as:
a) ½π rads
Question 2 b) π rads
1 complete turn is the same as: c) 1½π rads
a) ½π rads d) 2π rads
b) π rads
c) 1½π rads Question 6
d) 2π rads 1 rad is the same as:
a) (90⁄𝜋)°
Question 3 b) (180⁄𝜋)°
a) 2π rads d) (360⁄𝜋)°
b) 3π rads
c) 4π rads
d) 5π rads
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Question 7 Question 9
2 rads is the same as: 6π rads is the same as:
a) (90⁄𝜋)° a) 1080⁰
b) (180⁄𝜋)° b) 1440⁰
c) (270⁄𝜋)° c) 1620⁰
d) (360⁄𝜋)° d) 1800⁰
Question 8 Question 10
5 rads is the same as: ½π rads is the same as:
a) (450⁄𝜋)° a) 45⁰
b) (500⁄𝜋)° b) 90⁰
c) (900⁄𝜋)° c) 135⁰
d) (1000⁄𝜋)° d) 180⁰
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(𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃)2 + (𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃)2 = 1
A
We may verify this for any angle by using the values from the table
1 3
(𝑆𝑖𝑛 30)2 + (𝐶𝑜𝑠 30)2 = + = 1
4 4
This has been verified to be true for 30 deg. We can try it for any angle and it
would hold true.
B C
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶
Sin 𝜃 = 𝐴𝐶 𝐶𝑜𝑠θ = 𝐴𝐶
From pythagoras
(𝐴𝐵)2 + (𝐵𝐶)2 = (𝐴𝐶)2
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Polar/Rectangular Coordinates An alternative way of specifying the position of a point on a plane would
be to give first its distance from the origin and second the angle the line
In previous chapters it was shown that (x, y) coordinates were used to joining it to the origin makes with the x-axis. This is the basis of polar
represent points of a plane. coordinates.
(a, b) y
y
(r, Φ)
b r
a
0 Φ
x
x
By choosing a pair of perpendicular axes (x & y), then each pair of real The point is at distance r from the origin, such that the line joining it from
numbers (a & b) determines a unique point of a plane. The intersection the origin makes an angle Φ with the positive x axis, has polar
of the two reference numbers completes a rectangle; such coordinates coordinates (r, Φ).
are sometimes known as rectangular coordinates (they are also
referred to as Cartesian coordinates).
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therefore
r is called the polar or radial distance, and Φ is called a polar angle.
x r cos and y r sin
Although the student will not be required to perform extensive
calculations using either system in this module, a basic appreciation is
necessary. This should include the ability to relate one system to the
other. The rectangular coordinates corresponding to the polar coordinates (r,
Φ) are (r cosΦ, r sinΦ)
To convert polar coordinates to rectangular is relatively easy.
Example
If we are given a point with polar coordinates (r, Φ)
(r, Φ)
r
y
x x
x y
cos and sin
r r
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(x, y)
x x
By Pythagoras Theorem,
the length r x y2
x x y y
cos and sin
r x2 y 2 r x2 y 2
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Exercise 1.3.1
1. a)
1. b = c opp angles, a supplementary angle b or c
2. b)
i. b)
Exercise 1.3.2 ii. d)
iii. c)
iv. c)
v. a)
1. A = 58⁰, b = 5.83, a = 9.33 vi. b)
vii. d)
2. 62 + 5.032 = 36 + 25.3009 = 61.3009 = 7.832
viii. c)
3. About 19.9 feet tall ix. a)
x. b)
4. About 120.3 feet
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