Motor Control 1:

Descending Control of Spinal Circuits

and the Motor Cortex

Reading

Bear, Connors & Paradiso, 4th edition, Chapter 14

(Kandel, Schwartz and Jessel, 4th edition, Chapter 37, 38)

 The Motor System
The cerebral cortex and
voluntary movement
- the motor cortex
- sensory input

Descending Motor
Pathways
- lateral (= ‘voluntary’)
- ventromedial
(brainstem control)

Spinal cord
- motor neurons
- sensory input
Principles of Neural Science
Kandel et al.
- local reflexes
 Cerebral Cortex
[Premotor & supplementary
motor cortex] [Primary Motor Cortex]

Thalamus
Basal
ganglia

Cerebellum Brain stem

Muscle
Spinal cord contraction
& movement

Sensory
receptors

Sensory consequences of movement

Lecture 1
 Basic Types of Movement

• reflex - protective e.g. limb withdrawal

- motor patterns generated in the spinal cord
- ‘closed loop’

• rhythmic motor patterns

- e.g. chewing, walking, breathing
- a combination of reflex and voluntary

• voluntary
- purposeful, goal-directed
- command originates from higher centres
- ‘open loop’
 Lower motor neurons

the alpha motor neuron (α-MN)

α-MNs alone directly control muscle contraction

‘the final common pathway’ of motor control

 Spinal Motoneuron Activity
is governed by inputs from:

1. Sensory input
local feedback control (via dorsal roots)
REFLEXES
2. Spinal interneurons
circuitry generating motor programmes

3. Upper motor neurons

initiation and control
 Spinal cord circuits can generate
movement in isolation

• even when descending influences are severed,

coordinated movements can occur

“see the headless chickens running”

• central pattern generators

- circuits within the spinal cord are responsible
 POSTURE The musculature:
Proximal (elbow, knee)
definitions and roles

FINE MOTOR

Axial
(trunk muscles) Distal (hands, feet, digits )

Innervated by Innervated by
MEDIAL motoneurons LATERAL motoneurons
Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain. Bear et al.
 Descending spinal tracts

Distal muscles Proximal / axial muscles

flexors extensors
VOLUNTARY POSTURE

Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain.

Bear et al.
 Descending Tracts of the Spinal Cord

Corticospinal tract

Rubrospinal tract

‘Lateral pathways’

Medullary reticulospinal tract

Vestibulospinal Pontine reticulospinal tract

tract
Tectospinal tract

‘Ventromedial pathways’
Lateral pathways

corticospinal

rubrospinal

Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain.

Bear et al.
Lateral pathways:

(i) The Corticospinal (= Pyramidal) Tract

a “direct line” contralateral projection from cortex to

lateral spinal motor neurons

• monosynaptic contact with αMNs

• majority of axons from neurons with cell bodies in the

motor cortex (areas 4 and 6)

• innervate αMNs controlling distal muscles, particularly

flexors
Lateral Pathways:
(ii) The Rubrospinal Tract

• Contralateral projections from red nucleus

running down the lateral column of the spinal cord

• similar role to corticospinal tract

• much smaller component of the lateral pathway

• An evolutionary throwback ??
(cortical control predominates in primates)
Ventromedial Motor Pathways
(‘extra pyramidal tracts’)

• all originate from brain stem nuclei

• both contra- and ipsilateral descending projections

→ control of motor output to proximal and axial muscles

→ control of body position and posture

NB. the ‘extrapyramidal side effects’ of dopaminergic drugs

affect trunk muscles
 Ventromedial pathways
four pathways: can be viewed as 2 pairs

•pontine
reticulo-spinal • vestibulo-spinal

•medullary • tecto-spinal
reticulo-spinal

Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain.

Bear et al.

balance, body position and visual input →

modulate spinal reflexes and maintain body balance/posture
The pontine reticulo-spinal and medullary reticulo-
spinal tracts

Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain.

Bear et al.
Ventromedial pathways

Pontine reticulo-spinal tract

• enhances anti-gravity reflexes of spinal cord

• facilitates leg extensors to maintain standing posture

Medullary reticulo-spinal tract

• has opposing effect

• frees antigravity muscles from reflex control

- allows voluntary override

The vestibulo-spinal and tecto-spinal pathways

Midbrain

Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain.

Bear et al.
Ventromedial pathways

Vestibulospinal tract

• relays gravitational sensory information from vestibular

labyrinth (inner ear) and stretch receptors in axial muscles

• maintains head and neck position, and also legs

Tectospinal tract

• relays visual sensory information from retina and visual

cortex

• orientates head & eyes to visual and auditory stimuli

The cerebral cortex and
voluntary movement
Organisation of Cortical Motor Areas
• control of voluntary movement involves almost all of
the neocortex

• Because movement involves not just the execution,

but also:
- sensory input
- planning
- deciding appropriate action
- holding plan in memory

• principle areas involved identified through electrical

stimulation and recording from cortical surface
Cortical motor and sensorimotor areas

Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain.

Bear et al.
Somatotopic representation in the motor cortex

SENSORIMOTOR
SYSTEM
Cortical motor areas: terminology

THE MOTOR CORTEX

Area 6 Area 4

Primary
Supplementary
Premotor area motor cortex
motor area
(M1)
lowest stimulus
more complex movement threshold
= ……………..
……………….
Roles of Cortical Motor Areas

PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX (M1; area 4)

• Control of distal musculature (fine motor control)

PREMOTOR CORTEX (Area 6, lateral)

• Control of proximal musculature (posture, balance)
• Control of movement sequencing
• Preparation for movement, initiation

SUPPLEMENTARY MOTOR AREA (Area 6, fronto/medial)

• Role in planning and initiation
• Bi-manual co-ordination
Primary Motor Cortical Output Neurons
‘upper motor neurons’

• contribute ~50% of corticospinal tract axons

• pyramidal type, cell body in cortical layer V (Betz cell)

• somatotopically organised

• activate small groups of muscles rather than single ones

• individually encode the force OR direction of movement

Damage to Upper Motor Neurons
e.g. caused by stroke, tumour

• Initial muscle weakness

• eventual spasticity (↑ resistance to passive movement)
- ↑ muscle tone (hypertonia)
- ↑ reflex responses (hyper-reflexia)
(mechanisms complex)

• affects side contralateral to damage

• Recovery possible
primary motor cortex circuitry shows adaptive alterations