POLARISATION

Consider holding a long string that is held horizontally, the other end of which is
assumed to be fixed. If we move the end of the string up and down in a periodic
manner, we will generate a wave propagating in the +x direction (Fig. 10.21).
Such a wave could be described by the following equation

FIGURE (a) The curves represent the displacement of a string at t = 0 and at t = ∆t,
respectively when a sinusoidal wave is propagating in the +x-direction. (b) The curve
represents the time variation

of the displacement at x = 0 when a sinusoidal wave is propagating in the +x-direction. At

x = ∆x, the time variation of the displacement will be slightly displaced to the right.

y (x,t) = a sin (kx – ωt) (10.32) where a and ω (= 2πν) represent the amplitude
and the angular frequency of the wave, respectively; further,
2π

λ= (10.33) k
represents the wavelength associated with the wave. Since the displacement (which
is along the y direction) is at right angles to the direction of propagation of the
wave, we have what is known as a transverse wave. Also, since the displacement is
in the y direction, it is often referred to as a y-polarised wave. Since each point on
the string moves on a straight line, the wave is also referred to as a linearly
polarised wave. Further, the string always remains confined to the x-y plane and
therefore it is also referred to as a plane polarised wave.

In a similar manner we can consider the vibration of the string in the x-z plane
generating a z-polarised wave whose displacement will be given by
z (x,t) = a sin (kx – ωt)
It should be mentioned that the linearly polarised waves are all transverse waves;
i.e., the displacement of each point of the string is always at right angles to the
direction of propagation of the wave. Finally, if the plane of vibration of the string
is changed randomly in very short intervals of time, then we have what is known as
an unpolarised wave. Thus, for an unpolarised wave the displacement will be
randomly changing with time though it will always be perpendicular to the
direction of propagation.
Light waves are transverse in nature; i.e., the electric field associated with a
propagating light wave is always at right angles to the direction of propagation of
the wave. This can be easily demonstrated using a simple polaroid. You must have
seen thin plastic like sheets, which are called polaroids. A polaroid consists of long
chain molecules aligned in a particular direction. The electric vectors along the
direction of the aligned molecules get absorbed. Thus, if an unpolarised light wave
is incident on such a polaroid then the light wave will get linearly polarised with
the electric vector oscillating along a direction perpendicular to the aligned
molecules; this direction is known as the pass-axis of the polaroid.
Thus, if the light from an ordinary source (like a sodium lamp) passes through a
polaroid sheet P1, it is observed that its intensity is reduced by half. Rotating P1 has
no effect on the transmitted beam and transmitted intensity remains constant. Now,
let an identical piece of polaroid P2 be placed before P1. As expected, the light
from the lamp is reduced in intensity on passing through P2 alone. But now
rotating P1 has a dramatic effect on the light coming from P2. In one position, the
intensity transmitted by P2 followed by P1 is nearly zero. When turned by 90° from
this position, P1 transmits nearly the full intensity emerging from P2.
 FIGURE 10.22 (a) Passage of light through two polaroids P2 and P1. The transmitted fraction
falls from 1 to 0 as the angle between them varies

from 0° to 90°. Notice that the light seen through a single polaroid
P1 does not vary with angle. (b) Behaviour of the electric vector when light passes through
two polaroids. The transmitted polarisation is the component parallel to the polaroid
axis.

The double arrows show the oscillations of the electric vector.

The above experiment can be easily understood by assuming that light passing
through the polaroid P2 gets polarised along the pass-axis of P2. If the pass-axis of
P2 makes an angle θ with the pass-axis of P1, then when the polarised beam
passes through the polaroid P2, the component E cos θ (along the pass-axis of P2)
will pass through P2. Thus, as we rotate the polaroid P1 (or P2), the intensity will
vary as:
I = I0 cos2θ where I0 is the intensity of the polarized light after passing through P1.
This is known as Malus’ law. The above discussion shows that the intensity
coming out of a single polaroid is half of the incident intensity. By putting a
second polaroid, the intensity can be further controlled from 50% to zero of the
incident intensity by adjusting the angle between the pass-axes of two polaroids.

Polaroids can be used to control the intensity, in sunglasses, windowpanes, etc.

Polaroids are also used in photographic cameras and 3D movie cameras.

10.7.1 Polarisation by scattering

The light from a clear blue portion of the sky shows a rise and fall of intensity
when viewed through a polaroid which is rotated. This is nothing but sunlight,
which has changed its direction (having been scattered) on encountering the
molecules of the earth’s atmosphere. As Fig. 10.23(a) shows, the incident sunlight
is unpolarised. The dots stand for polarisation perpendicular to the plane of the
figure. The double arrows show polarisation in the plane of the figure. (There is no
phase relation between these two in unpolarised light). Under the influence of the
electric field of the incident wave the electrons in the molecules acquire
components of motion in both these directions. We have drawn an observer
looking at 90° to the direction of the sun. Clearly, charges accelerating parallel to
the double arrows do not radiate energy towards this observer since their
acceleration has no transverse component. The radiation scattered by the molecule
is therefore represented by dots. It is polarised perpendicular to the plane of the
figure. This explains the polarisation of scattered light from the sky.

FIGURE 10.23 (a) Polarisation of the blue scattered light from the sky.

The incident sunlight is unpolarised (dots and arrows). A typical molecule is shown. It
scatters light by 90° polarised normal to the plane of the paper (dots only). (b)
Polarisation of light

reflected from a transparent medium at the Brewster angle (reflected ray perpendicular to
refracted ray).

The scattering of light by molecules was intensively investigated by C.V. Raman

and his collaborators in Kolkata in the 1920s. Raman was awarded the Nobel Prize
for Physics in 1930 for this work.
A SPECIAL CASE OF TOTAL TRANSMISSION
When light is incident on an interface of two media, it is observed that some
part of it gets reflected and some part gets transmitted. Consider a related
question: Is it possible that under some conditions a monochromatic beam of
light incident on a surface (which is normally reflective) gets completely
transmitted with no reflection? To your surprise, the answer is yes.

10.7.2 Polarisation by reflection

Figure 10.23(b) shows light reflected from a transparent medium, say, water.
As before, the dots and arrows indicate that both polarisations are present in the
incident and refracted waves. We have drawn a situation in which the reflected
wave travels at right angles to the refracted wave. The oscillating electrons in
the water produce the reflected wave. These move in the two directions
transverse to the radiation from wave in the medium, i.e., the refracted wave.
The arrows are parallel to the direction of the reflected wave. Motion in this
direction does not contribute to the reflected wave. As the figure shows, the
reflected light is therefore linearly polarised perpendicular to the plane of the
figure (represented by dots). This can be checked by looking at the reflected
light through an analyser. The transmitted intensity will be zero when the axis
of the analyser is in the plane of the figure, i.e., the plane of incidence.
When unpolarised light is incident on the boundary between two transparent
media, the reflected light is polarised with its electric vector perpendicular to the
plane of incidence when the refracted and reflected rays make a right angle with
each other. Thus we have seen that when reflected wave is perpendicular to the
refracted wave, the reflected wave is a totally polarised wave. The angle of
incidence in this case is called Brewster’s angle and is denoted by iB. We can see
that iB is related to the refractive index of the denser medium. Since we have iB+r =
π/2, we get from Snell’s law:
sin𝑖 sin𝑖𝐵 sin𝑖𝐵
µ= = =
sin𝑟 sin (π/2 –𝑖𝐵) cos𝑖𝐵
=tan iB

This is known as Brewster’s law.

For simplicity, we have discussed scattering of light by 90°, and reflection at the
Brewster angle. In this special situation, one of the two perpendicular components
of the electric field is zero. At other angles, both components are present but one is
stronger than the other. There is no stable phase relationship between the two
perpendicular components since these are derived from two perpendicular
components of an unpolarised beam. When such light is viewed through a rotating
analyser, one sees a maximum and a minimum of intensity but not complete
darkness. This kind of light is called partially polarised.

Let us try to understand the situation. When an unpolarised beam of light is

incident at the Brewster’s angle on an interface of two media, only part of light
with electric field vector perpendicular to the plane of incidence will be reflected.
Now by using a good polariser, if we completely remove all the light with its
electric vector perpendicular to the plane of incidence and let this light be incident
on the surface of the prism at Brewster’s angle, you will then observe no reflection
and there will be total transmission of light.
POLARIZATION OF LIGHT
Polarization (also polarization) is a property applying to transverse waves that
specifies the geometrical orientation of the oscillations. In a transverse wave, the
direction of the oscillation is perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave.
A simple example of a polarized transverse wave is vibrations traveling along a
taut string, for example, in a musical instrument like a guitar string. Depending on
how the string is plucked, the vibrations can be in a vertical direction, horizontal
direction, or at any angle perpendicular to the string. In contrast, in longitudinal
waves, such as sound waves in a liquid or gas, the displacement of the particles in
the oscillation is always in the direction of propagation, so these waves do not
exhibit polarization. Transverse waves that exhibit polarization include
electromagnetic waves such as light and radio waves, and transverse sound waves
(shear waves) in solids.

An electromagnetic wave such as light consists of a coupled oscillating electric

field and magnetic field which are always perpendicular; by convention, the
"polarization" of electromagnetic waves refers to the direction of the electric field.
In linear polarization, the fields oscillate in a single direction. In circular or
elliptical polarization, the fields rotate at a constant rate in a plane as the wave
travels. The rotation can have two possible directions; if the fields rotate in a right
hand sense with respect to the direction of wave travel, it is called right circular
polarization, while if the fields rotate in a left hand sense, it is called left circular
polarization.

Light or other electromagnetic radiation from many sources, such as the sun,
flames, and incandescent lamps, consists of short wave trains with an equal
mixture of polarizations; this is called unpolarized light. Polarized light can be
produced by passing unpolarized light through a polarizer, which allows waves of
only one polarization to pass through. The most common optical materials (such as
glass) are isotropic and do not affect the polarization of light passing through them;
however, some materials—those that exhibit birefringence, dichroism, or optical
activity—can change the polarization of light. Some of these are used to make
polarizing filters. Light is also partially polarized when it reflects from a surface.

According to quantum mechanics, electromagnetic waves can also be viewed as

streams of particles called photons. When viewed in this way, the polarization of
an electromagnetic wave is determined by a quantum mechanical property of
photons called their spin. A photon has one of two possible spins: it can either spin
in a right hand sense or a left hand sense about its direction of travel. Circularly
polarized electromagnetic waves are composed of photons with only one type of
spin, either right- or left-hand. Linearly polarized waves consist of photons that are
in a superposition of right and left circularly polarized states, with equal amplitude
and phases synchronized to give oscillation in a plane.

Polarization is an important parameter in areas of science dealing with transverse

waves, such as optics, seismology, radio, and microwaves. Especially impacted are
technologies such as lasers, wireless and optical fiber telecommunications, and
radar.

There are different kinds of polarization in physics as well as chemistry. Here is a

list of polarizations that occur in nature.

Dielectric Polarization
When a dipole moment is formed in an insulating material because of externally
applied electric field this behaviour is termed as dielectric polarisation. This occurs
when current interacts with the insulating material causing a shift in the charge
distribution with positives aligning with an electric field and negative aligning
against it. A simple example of this behaviour can be shown as an example using a
capacitor. below you can observe a dielectric material in between two conducting
parallel plate.

Ionic Polarization
This type of polarisation typically occurs in ionic crystal elements such as NaCl
and KCl. This mechanism contributes to relative permittivity. Inside these
materials, there is no net polarisation in the absence of electric field. This is
because dipole moments of the negative ions are canceled out by the positive ions.
When an external field is applied, the ions are displaced, this leads to an
induced polarization. you can see the effect of the external electric field in the
figure shown below.
Orientational Polarization

Permanent dipole moment in a material gives rise to orientational polarisation. this

orientational polarisation is seen in materials such as HCl and H2O. these materials
have a net permanent dipole moment because the charge distributions of these
molecules. Consider the hydrogen chloride molecule in which chlorine atom will
be negatively charged and the hydrogen atoms will be positively charged. This
causes the molecule in hydrogen chloride to be dipolar. In the absence of an
electric field, the dipole moment is canceled out by thermal agitation, therefore, net
zero dipole moment per molecule is formed. Else there is no dipole moment even if
the material is dipolar. When an electric field is applied the molecule begins to
rotate and aligns with the field, causing a net average dipole moment per molecule.
Below is the effect of electric field shown in a material that exhibits Orientational
Polarization.

Interfacial Polarization

This occurs when there is an accumulation of charge at an interface between two

materials because of an external field. This kind polarization is also called space
charge polarization. When there are two electrodes connected to a dielectric
material instead of affecting bound positive and negative charges i.e. ionic and
covalent bonded structures, interfacial polarization also affects free charges. This
makes it different from orientational and ionic polarization. interfacial polarization
is usually observed in amorphous or polycrystalline solids. The electric field will
cause a charge imbalance mobile charges in the dielectric will migrate over
maintain charge neutrality. This then causes interfacial polarization.

Polarisation Of Light By Scattering

When an unpolarized ray of light travels through a medium, it undergoes
scattering. The medium is composed of a large number of atoms and ray of light
contains number of light photons. When a light ray strikes the atoms in the
medium. They transfer their energy to the atoms, as a result, the electrons in the
atoms are set for vibration. These vibrating electrons emit electromagnetic
radiation(in visible range i.e., light) in all directions. These radiations strict the
same frequency as the incident radiation. This mechanism keeps propagating
throughout the medium. This absorption and reemission of light radiation
cause scattering of light in the medium. The scattered light will have completely
polarised light, partially polarised light and completely unpolarized light
depending upon the direction of emitted radiation. This phenomenon is also
observed when sunlight passes through Earth’s atmosphere. Polarization also
occurs when light is scattered while traveling through a medium. When light
strikes the atoms of a material, it will often set the electrons of those atoms into
vibration.
The vibrating electrons then produce their own electromagnetic wave that is
radiated outward in all directions. This newly generated wave strikes neighboring
atoms, forcing their electrons into vibrations at the same original frequency. These
vibrating electrons produce another electromagnetic wave that is once more
radiated outward in all directions. This absorption and reemission of light waves
causes the light to be scattered about the medium. (This process of scattering
contributes to the blueness of our skies) .This scattered light is partially polarized.
Polarization by scattering is observed as light passes through our atmosphere. The
scattered light often produces a glare in the skies. Photographers know that this
partial polarization of scattered light leads to photographs characterized by
a washed-out sky. The problem can easily be corrected by the use of a Polaroid
filter. As the filter is rotated, the partially polarized light is blocked and the glare is
reduced. The photographic secret of capturing a vivid blue sky as the backdrop of a
beautiful foreground lies in the physics of polarization and Polaroid filters. The
mechanism involved here is well explained below.
Uses :

1. USES OF POLARIZED LIGHT

1. 2. •Polaroid sunglasses •Liquid Crystal Display •Polarisation of Radio and

Microwave signals •Quantum Cryptography •Decoration •3D effects

2. 3. POLAROID SUNGLASSES • We use Polaroid sunglasses to minimise

'glare'.

4. LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAYS

• is a flat panel display, electronic visual display, or video display that uses the
light modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light
directly.
• LCDs are available to display arbitrary images or fixed images which can be
displayed or hidden, such as pre- set words, digits, and 7-segment displays as in a
digital clock.

•LCDs are used in a wide range of applications including computer monitors,

televisions, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and signage.

3. POLARISATION OF RADIO AND MICROWAVE SIGNALS • Using

polarisated transmission and reception makes it possible to minimise the use of the
'airwaves'.
Leavo rotatory:-An enantiomer that rotates plane-polarized light in the positive
direction, or clockwise, is called dextrorotary [(+), or d-] , while the enantiomer
that rotates the light in the negative direction, or counterclockwise, is called
levorotary .

Dextrorotatory:-An enantiomer that rotates plane-polarized light in the positive

direction, or clockwise, is called dextrorotary [(+), or d-] , while the enantiomer
that rotates the light in the negative direction, or counterclockwise, is called
dextrorotary .

Optical activity describes the phenomenon by which chiral molecules are

observed to rotate polarized light in either a clockwise or counterclockwise
direction. This rotation is a result of the properties inherent in the interaction
between light and the individual molecules through which it passes.

Polarization by Reflection
Unpolarized light can also undergo polarization by reflection off of nonmetallic
surfaces. The extent to which polarization occurs is dependent upon the angle at
which the light approaches the surface and upon the material that the surface is
made of. Metallic surfaces reflect light with a variety of vibrational directions;
such reflected light is unpolarized. However, nonmetallic surfaces such as asphalt
roadways, snowfields and water reflect light such that there is a large concentration
of vibrations in a plane parallel to the reflecting surface. A person viewing objects
by means of light reflected off of nonmetallic surfaces will often perceive a glare if
the extent of polarization is large. Fishermen are familiar with this glare since it
prevents them from seeing fish that lie below the water. Light reflected off a lake is
partially polarized in a direction parallel to the water's surface. Fishermen know
that the use of glare-reducing sunglasses with the proper polarization axis allows
for the blocking of this partially polarized light. By blocking the plane-polarized
light, the glare is reduced and the fisherman can more easily see fish located under
the water.

Polarization by Refraction
Polarization can also occur by the refraction of light. Refraction occurs when a
beam of light passes from one material into another material. At the surface of the
two materials, the path of the beam changes
its direction. The refracted beam acquires some
degree of polarization. Most often, the
polarization occurs in a plane perpendicular to
the surface. The polarization of refracted light is
often demonstrated in a Physics class using a
unique crystal that serves as a double-refracting
crystal. Iceland Spar, a rather rare form of the
mineral calcite, refracts incident light into two
different paths. The light is split into two beams
upon entering the crystal. Subsequently, if an
object is viewed by looking through an Iceland
Spar crystal, two images will be seen. The two
images are the result of the double refraction of
light. Both refracted light beams are polarized - one in a direction parallel to the
surface and the other in a direction perpendicular to the surface. Since these two
refracted rays are polarized with a perpendicular orientation, a polarizing filter can
be used to completely block one of the images. If the polarization axis of the filter
is aligned perpendicular to the plane of polarized light, the light is completely
blocked by the filter; meanwhile the second image is as bright as can be. And if the
filter is then turned 90-degrees in either direction, the second image reappears and
the first image disappears. Now that's pretty neat observation that could never be
observed if light did not exhibit any wavelike behavior.
Polarization by Scattering
Polarization also occurs when light is scattered while traveling through a medium.
When light strikes the atoms of a material, it will often set the electrons of those
atoms into vibration. The vibrating electrons then produce their own
electromagnetic wave that is radiated outward in all directions. This newly
generated wave strikes neighboring atoms, forcing their electrons into vibrations at
the same original frequency. These vibrating electrons produce another
electromagnetic wave that is once more radiated outward in all directions. This
absorption and reemission of light waves causes the light to be scattered about the
medium. (This process of scattering contributes to the blueness of our skies) .This
scattered light is partially polarized. Polarization by scattering is observed as light
passes through our atmosphere. The scattered light often produces a glare in the
skies. Photographers know that this partial polarization of scattered light leads to
photographs characterized by a washed-out sky. The problem can easily be
corrected by the use of a Polaroid filter. As the filter is rotated, the partially
polarized light is blocked and the glare is reduced. The photographic secret of
capturing a vivid blue sky as the backdrop of a beautiful foreground lies in the
physics of polarization and Polaroid filters.

Applications of Polarization
Polarization has a wealth of other applications besides their use in glare-reducing
sunglasses. In industry, Polaroid filters are used to perform stress analysis tests on
transparent plastics. As light passes through a plastic, each color of visible light is
polarized with its own orientation. If such a plastic is placed between two
polarizing plates, a colorful pattern is revealed. As the top plate is turned, the color
pattern changes as new colors become blocked and the formerly blocked colors are
transmitted. A common Physics demonstration involves placing a plastic protractor
between two Polaroid plates and placing them on top of an overhead projector. It is
known that structural stress in plastic is signified at locations where there is a large
concentration of colored bands. This location of stress is usually the location where
structural failure will most likely occur. Perhaps you wish that a more careful
stress analysis were performed on the plastic case of the CD that you recently
purchased.
Polarization is also used in the entertainment industry to produce and show 3-D
movies. Three-dimensional movies are actually two movies being shown at the
same time through two projectors. The two movies are filmed from two slightly
different camera locations. Each individual movie is then projected from different
sides of the audience onto a metal screen. The movies are projected through a
polarizing filter. The polarizing filter used for the projector on the left may have its
polarization axis aligned horizontally while the polarizing filter used for the
projector on the right would have its polarization axis aligned vertically.
Consequently, there are two slightly different movies being projected onto a
screen. Each movie is cast by light that is polarized with an orientation
perpendicular to the other movie. The audience then wears glasses that have two
Polaroid filters. Each filter has a different polarization axis - one is horizontal and
the other is vertical. The result of this arrangement of projectors and filters is that
the left eye sees the movie that is projected from the right projector while the right
eye sees the movie that is projected from the left projector. This gives the viewer a
perception of depth.
Our model of the polarization of light provides some substantial support for the
wavelike nature of light. It would be extremely difficult to explain polarization
phenomenon using a particle view of light. Polarization would only occur with a
transverse wave. For this reason, polarization is one more reason why scientists
believe that light exhibits wavelike behavior.