2014-15

LAB MANUAL

ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SUBJECT CODE: 2110006
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ENROLLMENT NO.: __________________________

NAME: ____________________________________

SHREE SWAMINARAYAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

NEAR EDI & SARDAR PATEL RING ROAD CIRCLE,

GANDHINAGAR TO AHMEDABAD AIRPORT HIGHWAY,
BHAT, GANDHINAGAR-382428.
 INDEX

Sr. List of Experiment Page Date of Date of Sign.

No. No. Completion Submission

1 STUDY OF ENERGY SOURCES

2 STUDY OF STEAM BOILERS

3 STUDY OF BOILER
MOUNTINGS AND
ACCESSORIES

4 STUDY OF FOUR STROKE I. C.

ENGINE

5 STUDY OF TWO STROKE I. C.

ENGINE

6 STUDY OF PUMPS

7 STUDY OF AIR COMPRESSORS

8 STUDY OF COUPLINGS,
CLUTCHES AND BRAKES

9 STUDY OF MOTION AND

POWER TRANSMISSION
ELEMENTS

10 STUDY OF ENGINEERING
MATERIALS
 Satsang Shiksha Parishad Sanchalit

Shree Swaminarayan Institute of Technology

This is to Certify that Mr./Ms………………………………………………………………...

Of Semester…………………. and……………………………………………………Branch
Enrollment No………………………………… has satisfactorily completed his/her
Practical and Term Work in the Subject …………………………………………………
Academic year of 20 -20

Date of Submission

Teacher Head of the

In-charge Department
 1

Date: __/__/__

PRACTICAL NO – 01
STUDY OF ENERGY SOURCES

Aim: - To study about different energy sources.

Learning Objectives:-
 To understand about prime movers.
 To understand about different energy sources.
 To understand about different types of fuels.
 To understand about the calorific values of the fuel.

Theory:-
Prime movers: - Prime mover is the device which use energy from the natural sources and
convert in to mechanical energy. Before development of the machine, in olden days
man had depended on his own strength and on animal, mainly on horse. Hence when
the mechanical system was invented, then the unit for power was horse power only.

Energy: - The term “Energy” is derived form the Greek word “Energia” meaning capacity
for doing work. The unit of energy is the unit of work i.e. Joule. Another important
unit of energy is kilowatt-hour. The different forms of energy are:-

1. Mechanical energy

2. Thermal or heat energy

3. Chemical energy

4. Electrical energy

5. Nuclear energy

High and Low grade energy: - The second law of thermodynamics prohibits the
complete conversion heat into work. Sources of energy may be divided into two
groups viz.

A. High grade energy – Energy that can be completely converted into the work. Ex.
Mechanical energy, electrical energy, wind and tidal power, etc.

B. Low grade energy – Only a certain portion of energy that can be converted into
mechanical work. Ex. Thermal or heat energy, heat derived from combustion of fuels,
etc.

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Types of Energy sources used by prime movers

Fuels :-

Classification of fuels: - The detailed classification of fuels is given as under –

1. Solid fuels
a. Natural – Wood, Peat, Lignite oil, etc.
b. Artificial – Coke, Charcoal, Pulverized coal, etc.
2. Liquid fuels
a. Natural – Petroleum
b. Artificial – Gasoline, Diesel, Kerosene, Alcohol, etc.
3. Gaseous fuels
a. Natural – Natural gas.
b. Artificial – Petroleum gas, Producer gas, Coal gas, etc.

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Review Questions:-
1. Define Prime mover. Give the classification of prime movers.
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2. Write a brief note on Non-conventional sources of energy.
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3. Write a short note on LPG and LNG.
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4. State the advantages and disadvantages of gaseous fuels.
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Marks Obtained -

Signature of Faculty -

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Date: __/__/__

PRACTICAL NO – 02
STUDY OF STEAM BOILERS
Aim: - To study about different steam boilers.
Learning Objectives:-
 To understand the definition of boiler as per IBR.
 To understand the classification of boilers.
 To understand the essential requirements for a good boiler.
 To understand construction and working of different types of boilers.

Theory:
Introduction: - Boiler - “It is a closed vessel in which the heat produced by the
combustion of the fuel is transferred to water for its conversion into steam at the
desired temperature and pressure.”
A boiler is a device used for generating: - (a) Steam for power generation (b) Hot water for
heating purpose

Boiler according to I.B.R

According to the Indian Boiler Regulation (I.B.R) a boiler is a close
pressure vessel with capacity exceeding 22.75 liters used for generating
steam under pressure.

Classification of Boilers:-
1. Horizontal, Vertical and Inclined boiler
2. Fire tube and Water tube boiler
3. Externally fired and internally fired boiler
4. Forced Circulation and Natural circulation boiler
5. High, medium and low pressure boilers
6. Stationary and portable boilers
7. Single tube and multi tube boilers

Basic parts of a Boiler

1. Cylindrical shell
2. Grate
3. Furnace (fire box)
4. Ash pit
5. Fire hole

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6. Smoke chamber (smoke box)

7. Man hole
8. Hand holes
9. Mud box
10. Steam collecting pipe (Anti priming pipe)

Figure 2.1 Basic construction of a Boiler

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Cochran Boiler:- It is a modification of simple vertical boiler where heating surface has
been increased by increasing number of fire tubes. It is used for low rate of steam generation.

Figure 2.2 Cochran Boiler

Babcock and Wilcox Boiler:-

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This is an example of water tube boiler and is used in stationary and marine engine.
The efficiency of this boiler is much greater than that of the fire tube boiler. This
boiler is an exclusively used when pressure is above 10 bar and steam generating
capacity is required higher than 7000 kg/hr. This boiler is a horizontal boiler, multi-
water tube boiler, externally fired, natural circulation of water, forced circulation for
air and hot gases, solid as well as liquid fuel fired.

Figure 2.3 Babcock and Wilcox Boiler

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Review Questions:-
1. Define Boiler as per IBR. Also state the classification of steam boilers.
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2. Give comparison between Fire tube boiler and Water tube boiler.
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3. State the functions of the following boiler parts – (a) Grate (b) Smoke chamber (c)
Mud box (d) Anti priming pipe.
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4. State the advantages and disadvantages of Lancashire boiler.
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5. Enlist the advantages of High pressure boilers

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Marks Obtained -
Signature of Faculty -

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Date: __/__/__

PRACTICAL NO – 03
STUDY OF BOILER MOUNTINGS AND ACCESSORIES
Aim: - To study about different boiler mountings and accessories.
Learning Objectives:-
 To understand the basics of boiler mountings and accessories.
 To understand the construction and working of different boiler mountings.
 To understand the construction and working of different boiler accessories.

Theory:-
Introduction: -
 Boiler mountings: - These are different fittings and devices which are necessary
for the operation and safety of a boiler. Normally these devices are mounted over the
boiler shell.
 Boiler accessories: - These are auxiliary parts required for steam boilers for their
proper operation and increase the efficiency of a boiler.

According to IBR the following mountings should be fitted to the boilers.

1. Two safety valves
2. Two water level indicators
3. A pressure gauge
4. A steam stop valve
5. A feed check valve
6. A blow off cock
7. A man hole
8. Mud holes or sight holes
Commonly used boiler accessories are as under:-
1. Feed pumps
2. Injector
3. Economizer
4. Air preheater
5. Super heater
6. Steam separator

Pressure Gauge: - It is an instrument used to measure the pressure of stream in the boiler.
The gauge is mounted on the front top of the shell or the drum. It has a dial graduated to read
pressure in kgf/cm2 or bar above atmosphere. A bourdon pressure gauge is as shown in figure.

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Figure 3.1 A Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

Water level indicator: - It is an instrument used to indicate the level of water inside the
boiler vessel. It shows the level of water in the boiler drum. Normally two water level
indicators are fitted to the boiler. These are fitted at the front end of every boiler. Water level
indicators consist of three cocks and glass tube as shown in figure. The glass tube is protected
by means of a cover, made of specially toughened glass.

Figure 3.2 Water Level Indicator

Blow off Cock: - The blow off cock or valve performs the two functions – (a) To
discharge periodically a portion of water which contains mud, scale or sediments at bottom of
boiler vessel while boiler is in operation. (b) To empty the boiler when necessary for
cleaning, inspection and repair. It is fitted on the boiler shell directly or the short branch pipe
at lowest part of the water space.

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Figure 3.3 Blow off Cock

Super heater: - Its function is to increase the temperature of the steam above its
saturation point. The steam generated above the surface of water is always wet. The main
negative effect of supplying wet steam to steam turbine or steam engine are erosion of
turbine blades, pipes, etc. and condensation losses occur. Therefore the steam must be super
heated before supplying to steam turbine or steam engine. The super heater is very important
accessory of a boiler. They are located in the path of the furnace gases so that heat is
recovered by the super heater from the hot gases.

Figure 3.4 Super Heater

Air Preheater: - Its function is to increase the temperature of air before it is supplied to
the furnace using the heat from flue gases passing through chimney.

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Advantages of air preheating:

1. Preheated air increases combustion rate and then increases steam generation rate of
boiler.
2. Due to higher temperature of air, furnace temperature increases, so low grade coal can
be burnt efficiently.
3. Air heated by the heat of exhaust gases. It reduces the fuel consumption. Therefore
thermal efficiency of the boiler is increased.

Figure 3.5 Air Preheater

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Review Questions:-
1. State the difference between boiler mountings and boiler accessories.
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2. State the following boiler mountings.
(a) Pressure gauge (b) Spring load safety valve (c) Water level indicator
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3. State the following boiler accessories.
(a) Economizer (b) Air preheater (c) Super heater
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4. State the functions of Feed Check Valve and Blow-off Cock.
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5. Enlist the merits and demerits of Dead weight safety valve.
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Marks Obtained -
Signature of Faculty -

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Date: __/__/__

PRACTICAL NO – 04
STUDY OF FOUR STROKE I. C. ENGINE
Aim: - To study about four stroke I. C. engines.
Learning Objectives:-
 To understand the basics of heat engine and its classification.
 To understand the construction of four stroke I.C. engine.
 To understand the working of four stroke I.C. engine.
 To understand the comparison between 4-stroke petrol and diesel engines.

Theory:-
Introduction: - The heat engine is device which converts the chemical energy of the fuel
into heat energy and this heat energy is used to convert into the mechanical work. Heat
engine mainly consists of a source of heat, a medium to carry the heat energy and a
converting machine.

Classification of Heat Engines:- Heat engines are classified into two broad classes: -
External combustion engines and Internal combustion engines.
In the external combustion engines, the combustion of fuel takes place outside the cylinder
(i.e. in a furnace). Also these engines are large in size and less efficient.
In the internal combustion engines, the combustion of the fuel takes place inside the engine
cylinder. Also these engines are compact in size and more efficient.

Construction of I. C. Engine: - The various parts of an I. C. engine and their functions

are as under.
 Cylinder ► It is the heart of the engine in which the fuel is burnt and the power is
developed.
 Cylinder Head ► It covers the top end of the cylinder. It provides space for valve
mechanism, spark plug, fuel injector, etc.
 Piston ► The power developed by the combustion of the fuel is transmitted by the
piston to the crank shaft through the connecting rod.
 Piston pin or Gudgeon pin ► It is the pin joining small end of the connecting
rod and piston.
 Connecting Rod ► It is the member connecting piston through piston pin and
crankshaft through crankpin. It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into
rotary motion of the crankshaft.
 Crank and Crankshaft ► The crank is a lever that is connected to the end of
the connecting rod by a pin joint with its other end connected rigidly to a shaft called
crankshaft.
 Valves ► Engine has both intake and exhaust type of valves which are operated by
valve operating mechanism. The valves are the devices which controls the flow of the
intake and the exhaust gases to and from the engine cylinder.

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 Flywheel ► It minimizes cyclic variation in speed by storing the energy during the
power stroke and the same is released during the other strokes.
 Carburetor ► It is used in petrol engine for proper mixing of air and petrol.
 Fuel Injector ► It is used to inject diesel fuel in the form of fine atomized spray
under pressure at the end of the compression stroke.
 Spark Plug ► It is used in petrol engine to produce a high intensity spark for
ignition of air - fuel mixture in the cylinder.

Working of Four Stroke Spark Ignition Engine: - The petrol engine works on the
principle of theoretical Otto Cycle, also known as constant volume cycle. A four stroke petrol
engine is shown in figure. The piston performs four strokes to complete on working cycle.
The four different strokes are –
1. Suction stroke
2. Compression stroke
3. Power stroke or expansion stroke or working stroke
4. Exhaust stroke

Figure 4.1 Working of Four Stroke S. I. Engine

Working of Four Stroke Compressed Air Ignition Engine: - The diesel engine
works on the principle of theoretical Diesel Cycle, also known as constant pressure cycle.
The four stroke diesel engine cycle also consists of suction, compression, power and exhaust
strokes. The basic construction of the fur stroke diesel engine is same as that of four stroke
petrol engine, except instead of spark plug, a fuel injector is mounted in its place.

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Review Questions:-
1. Define I. C. engine and E. C. engine. Also state the difference between I. C. engine
and E. C. engine.
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2. Explain the function of the following engine components
Cylinder Crankshaft
Piston Flywheel
Connecting rod Sparkplug
Piston pin Fuel injector
Crank Carburetor
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3. What do you mean by Stroke, Clearance volume, Swept volume and Compression
ratio with respect to I. C. engine?
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4. Explain the working of four stroke Petrol engine along with the p-V diagram.
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Marks Obtained -

Signature of Faculty –

Date: __/__/__

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PRACTICAL NO – 05
STUDY OF TWO STROKE I. C. ENGINE
Aim: - To study about two stroke I. C. engines.
Learning Objectives:-
 To understand the main components of a two stroke I.C. engine.
 To understand the working of two stroke I.C. engine.
 To understand the comparison between 4-stroke and 2-stroke engines.

Theory:-
Introduction: - “Two stroke engines” as the name itself implies, all the processes in the
two stroke cycle are completed in two strokes. In the four stroke engine two complete
revolutions of crank shaft is required. The cycle of operations, i.e. suction, compression,
expansion and exhaust is completed in one complete revolution of the crankshaft in these
engines. These engines have one power stroke per revolution of the crankshaft. In the two
stroke engines, there are two openings called ports are provided in place of valves of four
stroke engines. These ports are opened and closed by reciprocating motion of the piston in the
cylinder. One port is known as inlet port and the other port is known as exhaust port.

Two stroke Petrol Engine: - The construction of a two stroke petrol engine is shown in
the figure. Control of admission and exhaust in this engine is by means of ports provided into
the side of the cylinder and also by means of the piston. The piston in this type of engine
works as a engine valve. The crankcase is made gas tight. This is because the incoming air-
fuel mixture passes through the crankcase on its way into the cylinder. The air – fuel mixture
passes into the crankcase through an inlet port, provided in the bottom of the cylinder. A
transfer port is led from the crankcase into the cylinder through which the air – fuel mixture
is transferred from crank case to cylinder. The exhaust port connects cylinder to the
atmosphere. Through this port, the products of combustion are exhausted to atmosphere.

Figure 5.1 Construction of Two Stroke S. I. Engine

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Advantages of Two stroke Engines: -

 Two-stroke engines do not have valves, which simplifies their construction and
lowers their weight.
 Two-stroke engines fire once every revolution, while four-stroke engines fire once
every other revolution. This gives two-stroke engines a significant power boost.
 Two-stroke engines can work in any orientation, which can be important in something
like a chainsaw. A standard four-stroke engine may have problems with oil flow
unless it is upright, and solving this problem can add complexity to the engine.

These advantages make two-stroke engines lighter, simpler and less expensive to
manufacture. Two-stroke engines also have the potential to pack about twice the power
into the same space because there are twice as many power strokes per revolution. The
combination of light weight and twice the power gives two-stroke engines a great power-
to-weight ratio compared to many four-stroke engine designs.

Review Questions:-

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1. State the applications of two stroke engines.

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2. Explain with line sketch, the working of two stroke diesel engine.
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3. State the function of transfer port in two stroke engines.
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4. Discuss the term „scavenging‟.
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5. State the differences between 2-stroke and 4- stroke engines.
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Marks Obtained -

Signature of Faculty -

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Date: __/__/__

PRACTICAL NO – 06
STUDY OF PUMPS
Aim: - To study about different types of pumps.
Learning Objectives:-
 To understand the classification of pumps.
 To understand the construction and working of Reciprocating pump..
 To understand the construction and working of centrifugal pump.
 To understand about rotary pumps.

Theory:-
Introduction: - The pump is a mechanical device which conveys liquid from one place to
another place. It can be defined as a Hydraulic machine which converts the mechanical
energy into hydraulic energy. The pump is a power absorbing machine. Pumping means
addition of energy to a liquid to move it from one place to the other and this is done by means
of piston, plunger, impeller, propeller, gears, etc. The pumps are used for various applications
in various fields as follows:-

1. Thermal engineering
2. Agriculture and irrigation
3. Chemical industries
4. Municipal water works and drainage system
5. Hydraulic control systems
Classification of pumps: - The pumps can be classified according to principle by which the
energy added to the fluid and their design feature as follows –

(a) Positive displacement pumps.

1. Reciprocating pump – A. Piston pump, B. Plunger pump and C. Bucket
pump.

2. Rotary pump – A. Gear pump, B. Vane pump and C. Screw pump.

(b) Roto – dynamic pumps.
1. Centrifugal pump
2. Propeller (Axial flow) pump
3. Mixed flow pump

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Reciprocating Pump: - The reciprocating pump is a positive displacement pump. In this

pump, the liquid is discharged due to the simple to and fro motion or reciprocating motion of
the piston or plunger working in the cylinder of the pump. Hence it is called a reciprocating
pump.

Figure 6.1 A Single Acting Reciprocating Pump.

Main parts of a reciprocating pump.
The different components of a reciprocating pump and its function are described as under:-

1. Suction pipe – Connects source of liquid to the cylinder.

2. Suction valve – Open during suction stroke and closes at the beginning of delivery
stroke.

3. Cylinder – Accommodates liquid during suction stroke and discharges during delivery
stroke.

4. Piston or plunger – This is a reciprocating part which creates negative and positive
pressure due to its to and fro motion.

5. Delivery valve – Closes during suction stroke and opens at the beginning of delivery
stroke.

6. Crank and connecting rod – Converts the rotary motion of the prime mover into the
reciprocating motion of the piston or plunger.

7. Delivery pipe – Connects pump cylinder to the storage tank.

Centrifugal pumps: - If the mechanical energy is converted into pressure energy by means
of centrifugal force acting on the fluid for conveying liquids from one place to another is

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called a Centrifugal Pump. It is similar to a reversed water turbine in action. Here kinetic
energy of the leaving water from the impeller is converted into potential energy which is
utilized to increase the delivery head of the pump.

Figure 6.2 Installation of Centrifugal Pump.

Types of centrifugal pumps: - The centrifugal pumps are mainly classified based on
the type of casing and number of stages.
1. According to the type of casing (a) Volute casing type pump, (b) Vortex casing type
pump and (c) Diffuser type pump.
2. According to the number of stages (a) Single stage pump and (b) Multi stage pump.

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Review Questions:-
1. Define Pump. State the applications of pump.
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2. Explain with neat sketch, working of Single acting reciprocating pump.
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3. What are the functions of Air Vessel in a reciprocating pump? Where it is fitted?
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4. Explain with neat sketch, Diffuser type centrifugal pump.
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5. State the differences between reciprocating pump and centrifugal pump.
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Marks Obtained -

Signature of Faculty -

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Date: __/__/__

PRACTICAL NO – 07
STUDY OF AIR COMPRESSORS
Aim: - To study about different types of air compressors.
Learning Objectives:-
 To understand the classification of air compressors.
 To understand the construction and working of reciprocating air compressor.
 To understand the construction and working of Rotary compressors.
 To understand about Multi stage reciprocating air compressors.

Theory:-
Introduction: - The machines what take in air or any other gas at low pressure and
compresses it to a high pressure are called compressors. They are power consuming machines
in which mechanical work is converted into pressure head of air or gas. They are also
considered as reversed heat engine. Generally the compressors are driven by electric motors,
I.C. engines or gas turbines. A compressor used for increasing the pressure of air is called an
Air Compressor.

Uses of compressed air: - The compressed air finds its use in different
industries. They are given as below-
 In refrigeration cycle

 Operating pneumatic tools like drills, hammers, riveting machines, etc.

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 Filling the air in automobile tires.

 Spray painting.

 Increasing inlet pressure of I.C. engines.

 Pumping of water.

 Gas turbine power plant.

 Conveying the materials like sand and concrete along a pipe line.

Reciprocating Compressors: - A single stage reciprocating air compressor is the

simplest type of air compressor. They are widely used for compressing air and it is
satisfactory for all ranges of pressure. It consists of the cylinder in which a piston
reciprocates. The piston is driven by crank through connecting rod. The crank is mounted in a
crankcase. The valves are generally pressure differential type. Thus they operate
automatically by the difference of pressure across the valve.

Figure 7.1 A Reciprocating Compressor.

Multi stage Reciprocating Compressors: - There are several disadvantages to

compress the air at a high pressure in a single cylinder. To eliminate the limitations of single
cylinder compressor, the air is compressed more than one cylinder in series.
Advantages of multi stage compressor.
1. Volumetric efficiency is increased due to the small pressure range, as the effect of
expansion of air in the clearance volume is less.
2. Less shaft power is required for a given pressure ratio due to the saving in work input.
3. Due to smaller working temperature, better lubricating effect is produced.

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4. Better mechanical balance and smoother torque-angle diagram is obtained.

5. In a multi stage compressor, the low pressure cylinder is lighter.
6. There is less leakage problems due to less pressure difference for each stage.
Centrifugal compressors: - A general arrangement of this compressor is similar to a
centrifugal pump. It consists of a rotating element called impeller and a volute casing.
Impeller rotates at a very high speed may be up to 30,000 RPM. The air enters into the
compressor through the suction eye of the impeller. Due to rotation of the impeller at a high
speed produces centrifugal force which causes the air to move out of the impeller at a high
velocity. Then the air with high velocity enters into the diffuser ring. The diffuser blades of
the diffuser ring are so shaped that these provide an increased area of passage to the air which
is passing outwards due to which the velocity of air leaving the impeller is reduced and its
pressure is increased. This type of compressor is a continuous flow machine suitable for large
flow rate at moderate pressure. The pressure ratios between 4 to 6 may be obtained in this
type of compressor.

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Review Questions:-
1. What is a compressor? How it differs from a pump?
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2. Give the uses of compressed air.
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3. Give the classification of compressor.
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4. State the difference between reciprocating compressor and rotary compressor.
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5. With a neat sketch, explain axial flow compressor.
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Marks Obtained -

Signature of Faculty -

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PRACTICAL NO – 08
STUDY OF COUPLINGS, CLUTCHES AND BRAKES
Aim: - To study about different types of couplings, clutches and brakes.
Learning Objectives:-
 To understand the construction and working of different types of couplings.
 To understand the construction and working of clutches.
 To understand the construction and working of different types of brakes.
 To understand the applications of couplings, clutches and brakes.

Theory:-
Couplings: - The elements which join two shafts are known as couplings. The couplings
can form permanent connections between two shafts used for transmission of power from one
shaft to another. Commercial shafts are limited in length by manufacturing and shipping
requirements. Couplings are used to join sections of long transmission shafts. Couplings are
also used to connect a shaft of a driving machine to a shaft of a separately built machine so as
to give an effect of continuous shaft.

Classification of Couplings: -
The general classification of couplings is given as under -
The couplings are basically classified as Rigid couplings and Flexible couplings. The
rigid couplings are further classified as Sleeve or Muff coupling, Split Muff coupling and
Flange coupling. The flexible couplings are further classified as bushed pin type flange
coupling, Oldham coupling and Universal coupling.

Clutches: -
The clutch is a form of coupling which is used to transmit the power from driver shaft to an
input driven shaft of machine which may be required to start or stop frequently. A broad
classification of clutches is given as under –

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Jaw Clutch: - This type of clutches ensures a positive engagement without any slippage.
The jaw clutch consists of segmental projections on one side flange and corresponding
recesses on other side flange on the driven shaft. Clutches with involutes teeth in place of
jaws are used for the transmission of power in automobile and clutches.

Figure 8.1 A Jaw Clutch.

Disc Clutch: - The disc clutch is a type of friction clutch. There are two flanges A and B.
One (A) is keyed rigidly to the driving shaft and the other (B) fitted to the driven shaft by
feather key. The torque is transmitted by friction between the flanges with the friction disc.
The amount of torque transmitted depends upon the axial pressure, radius of the friction
surfaces and coefficient of friction. Single disc clutches are sued in automobiles.

Figure 8.2 A Disc Clutch.

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Brakes: - The brake is a device by means of which frictional resistance is applied to a

moving machine member in order to retard or stop the motion of a machine. The brakes
absorb the kinetic energy and also many a times potential energy (in case of elevators, hoists,
etc.) which appears as heat energy. This heat is to be dissipated in surrounding to prevent
excessive heating of brake lining. Brakes are used in automobiles, trains, vehicles, hoists,
elevators, presses and similar machines. The broad classification of brakes is shown below.

Internal Expanding Shoe Brake: - This type of brake is widely used in automobiles.
The brake may be operated mechanically or hydraulically. As shown in fig., the brake
consists of two shoes lined with some friction material pivoted at one end about a fixed
fulcrum. The shoes are housed inside the rotating drum. In hydraulically operated brake
during braking the fluid at high pressure enters into cylinder fitted with two pistons which
move outwards pushing free ends of the shoes similar to the action of a cam causing the
braking of the drum.

Figure 8.3 An Internal Expanding Shoe Brake.

Block Brake: The block brake consists of blocks which are pressed against the rim of
revolving brake wheel or drum. The blocks are made of a softer material than that of rim with
a friction material. The friction between the wheel and the blocks tends to prevent the rotation
of the wheel. This type of brake is commonly used on railway train wheels.

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Figure 8.4 A Block Brake.

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Review Questions:-
1. Define a coupling. Classify the various types of couplings giving applications of each.
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2. Describe with a neat sketch the working of Disc clutch.
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3. What is the function of brake? Give the classification of brakes.
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4. Write a brief note on Band brake. Draw a neat sketch of the same.
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5. State the difference between a clutch and a brake.
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Marks Obtained -
Signature of Faculty -

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Date: __/__/__

PRACTICAL NO – 09
STUDY OF MOTION AND POWER TRANSMISSION
ELEMENTS
Aim: - To study about different motion and power transmission elements.
Learning Objectives:-
 To understand the basics of motion and power transmission elements.
 To understand the methods of drive.
 To understand the different types of belts, ropes and chain drives.
 To understand the working of gear trains.

Theory:-
Introduction: - In order to get useful work through machines, it is necessary to have the
movements of various elements of machine. For example, in automobile the source of power
is internal combustion engine, the power from which is transmitted to rear axle through
clutch, gear box, propeller shaft and differential gear box. In machine tools as well as in
variety of machines the power and motion is transmitted from prime movers through
transmission elements like shafts, pulleys, belts, chains, gears, etc. Belts and ropes are
normally flexible in nature and they are used when the shafts are at comparatively larger
distance apart. Gears are used between shafts having relatively smaller centre distances.
Chains are used for relatively larger centre distance between shafts. Unlike belts and ropes,
chains and gears are positive drive elements which transmit power without slip.

Methods of drive: - Following are the two methods for drives:

1. Individual drive: In this method of drive, a separator motor is installed to drive
every individual machine. The motor may drive the machine shaft through belt, chain
or gear. When frequent control and regulation of machines is required, the individual
drive is more suitable.

2. Group drive: In this method of drive, the groups of machines are run by one motor
through common shaft- called main shaft

Classification of Mechanical Drives:-

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SHAFT or SHAFTING
A shaft or shafting is one of the most essential elements for power transmission. The shaft is
supported and runs in bearings. The part of shaft lying within the bearing is known as journal.
Pulleys, gears or friction wheels are mounted on the shaft for transmission of motion and
power from one shaft to another shaft. An axle may be a stationary shaft on which pulley and
other members rotate. A spindle is a machine shaft that drives and suppol1s either a tool or a
work piece on machine tools during machining operations.

Figure 9.1 Arrangement of Shaft.

 BELT DRIVE
A belt is a flexible element running over two or more pulleys. In the belt drive, one of
the pulleys mounted on the driving shaft is known as driver while the other one is known
as driven pulley which is mounted on the other shaft to which the power is to be
transmitted. Transmission of power is due to friction between pulleys and the belt.

The power from one pulley to another may be transmitted by any of the following two
types of belt drive. The open belt drive as shown in fig 9.2 (a) is used to transmit power
between two parallel shafts and rotating in the same direction. The cross belt drive as
shown in fig 9.2 (b) is used to transmit power when the shafts are parallel but rotates in
opposite directions.

Figure 9.2 Types of Belt Drive.

 ROPE DRIVE

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For transmission of power in cases where centre distance between river and driven
shaft in moderately large, rope drive is used. The centre distance may be 9 m minimum to
30 m and even more. Ropes are made from cotton, hemp. Steel wire ropes are used for
power transmission where extra strength is needed. The rope drives are used in cranes,
elevators, in variety of material handling equipments etc.
 CHAIN DRIVE
A chain drive consist of an endless chain running over two sprockets – drive and
driven. It provides positive drive. The alignment of the shaft must be more accurate than
belt drives. The chain drive is used for low and medium speed services.

Figure 9.3 A Chain Drive

 GEAR DRIVE
Gearing is used in preference to belt, chain drive or friction drive where moderate or
large amount of power is to be transmitted at a constant velocity ratio. It is possible to
transmit power between shafts that are parallel, intersecting or neither parallel nor
intersecting by the use of various types of toothed gears. Common types of gears used in
practice are Spur gear, Helical gear, Spiral gear, Bevel gear, Worm gear and Rack and
Pinion.

Figure 9.4 A Spur Gear Figure 9.5 A Worm Gear

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Figure 9.6 A Rack and Pinion Gear

 GEAR TRAINS.
Any combination of gear wheels by means of which motion and power is transmitted
from one shaft to another shaft is called a gear train. Spur, bevel, helical or spiral or any
combination of these may be used for making gear trains.

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Review Questions:-
1. Explain the function of the following elements –
(a)Shaft(b)Spindle(c)Axle(d)Bearing
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2. State the comparison between Individual drive and Group drive.
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3. State different types of pulleys. Explain any one.
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4. Write a brief note on Sliding contact bearings.
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5. Explain different types of belts.
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Marks Obtained -

Signature of Faculty -

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Date: __/__/__

PRACTICAL NO – 10
STUDY OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Aim: - To study about different engineering materials.
Learning Objectives:-
 To understand the classification of engineering materials.
 To understand the properties of engineering materials.
 To understand the ferrous and non-ferrous materials.
 To understand different non – metallic materials.

Theory:-
Introduction: - The knowledge of materials and their properties is of great significance
for all the engineers of different disciplines. A proper understanding of the structure and
properties of materials is essential for a proper design of the product and for selecting the best
method for its processing. The needs of human beings have also grown with civilization.

Classification of Engineering Materials: - The engineering materials can be

classified as
1. Metals and their alloys such as iron, steel, aluminium, copper, nickel, etc.
2. Non - metals such as ceramics, glass, plastics, runner, etc.
The metals can be further classified as
(1) Ferrous metals and
(2) Non - ferrous metals.

Properties of Materials: - The material property is defined as a qualitative or

quantitative measure of response of material to externally imposed conditions like forces and
temperatures. Some of the important properties are listed in table as under.

Sr Types of
Name of Properties
No. Properties
Dimensions, density, structure, porosity,
1. Physical
etc.

Strength, stiffness, hardness, brittleness,

2. Mechanical
ductility, elasticity, etc.

3. Chemical Composition, corrosion resistance.

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Heat capacity, specific heat, thermal

4. Thermal
conductivity, melting point, etc.

5. Electrical Conductivity, resistivity, etc.

6. Magnetic Permeability, hysteresis, etc.

7. Optical Reflectivity, absorptivity, etc.

8. Technological Cast ability, weld ability, etc.

Ferrous Materials: - The ferrous metals and alloys are widely used because they provide
a wide range of properties that are not found in other family of materials. The important
ferrous metals commonly used in engineering practice are 1. Wrought iron 2. Steels 3. Alloy
steels and 4. Cast iron.

 Wrought iron – It is a highly refined iron with a small amount of slag formed out
into fibers. The chemical analysis of the metal shows as much as 99 percent of iron.
The slag fibers in wrought iron improve its strength, fatigue resistance and corrosion
resistance. The wrought iron is tough, malleable and ductile. Bolts and nuts, chains,
crane hooks, railways couplings, pipe and fittings, sheets and boiler tubes are the main
forms in which wrought iron is used.

 Steels – It is an alloy of carbon and iron with carbon content usually ranging from
0.08 to 1.5 percent. These steels are called plain carbon steels or simply carbon steels.
Steels generally contain small amounts of sulphur, phosphorous, silicon and
manganese in addition to carbon. The hardness and strength of steel increases with
increase of carbon content.

 Cast iron – The cast iron is primarily an alloy of iron and carbon. The carbon
contents in cast iron vary from 2% to 4.3%. In addition to carbon, cast iron contains
small amounts of silicon, manganese, phosphorous and sulphur. Cast iron is the most
important and widely used metal. It is very brittle, less ductile material. The various
types of cast iron in use are as follows: - 1. Grey cast iron 2. White cast iron
3. Malleable cast iron.

Non – Metallic Materials:- Various non metallic materials are sued in engineering
applications due to their low cost, low density, resistance to heat and electricity and
flexibility. These include timber, abrasive material, silica, ceramics, glass, graphite, etc. these
are either natural materials like rubber, wood, ceramics, asbestos or synthetic materials like
plastics, polymers, etc.

 Abrasive materials – An abrasive is a hard material used to wear away a softer

material. Abrasives are used for operation such as grinding, cutting, scratching,
rubbing and polishing. Abrasive materials are sued in the form of powder, emery
paper, emery cloth, solid discs, wheels or bars of various shapes and sizes. Silicon
carbide, aluminium oxide, diamond, etc. are the various abrasive materials.

 Composite materials – A composite material is defined as a combination of

more than one material which is used in combination to rectify the weakness in one

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material by strength in another. This combination of two or more materials offers

properties distinctly different from those of the individual material use to make the
composite. Composites may be man – made or natural. Wood material obtained from
trees is also a composite which is formed naturally. Wood consists of strong and
flexible cellulose fibers surrounded by a stiff material called lignin.

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Review Questions:-
1. Explain different mechanical properties of materials in brief.
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2. Define the following – (a) Thermal conductivity (b) Electrical conductivity
(c) Cast ability (d) Weld ability (e) Machine ability.
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3. Write a note on Alloy Steel.
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4. State the applications of Grey cast iron, White cast iron and malleable cast iron.
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5. State the applications of the following non – metallic materials –
a. Timber b. Abrasives c. Silica d. Ceramics
e. Graphite f. Polymers
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Marks Obtained -
Signature of Faculty -

ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (110006)