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Chicken Nutrition A Guide For Nutritionists and Poultry Professionals PDF
Chicken Nutrition A Guide For Nutritionists and Poultry Professionals PDF
Chicken Nutrition
Chicken Nutrition
A guide for nutritionists and poultry professionals
By Rick Kleyn
Preface
As a practising commercial poultry problems should be solved. Where To many people poultry nutrition appears
nutritionist I am often called upon relevant, aspects of production systems to be more complex than the nutrition of
to share my knowledge with others. that are relevant to nutritional decision- other species. Scott (1991) makes the
The latter includes groups of poultry making are discussed. point that more is known about poultry
producers, fellow practitioners and nutrition than any other species, which
university students. To this end I have Feed makes up about 70% of the is partly true because of the practical
been running a 3-day introductory course production cost of any poultry production incentive to produce the most highly
in poultry nutrition for over a decade, system. While many poultry producers efficient chicken feeds. It is, however,
which has been attended by hundreds of have an excellent understanding of also true because the chicken is one of
people from many countries. This book poultry pathology few understand what it the most suitable animals for studying
began as study material for that course. basic nutrition. There is, therefore, a large
is that the nutritionist is trying to achieve.
The fast pace of change in the poultry knowledge base for poultry nutrition
This is borne out by the comment of one
industry has necessitated continuous and, in many ways, this simplifies poultry
of our course delegates, who thought,
revision and this volume represents nutrition rather than complicates it.
‘amino acids were something that one
the culmination of years of work. Those
of us who work in the poultry industry put into the swimming pool’. He has It needs to be borne in mind that there
will know that production systems and assured me that he now knows better! It are far greater similarities between
management practices have an impact is vital that all poultry practitioners have species (including man) than there are
on the way in which chickens should at least a working knowledge of nutrition, differences between them. Not only do
be fed, how production results should even if it is only to keep feed suppliers on we share much of our genetic material
be interpreted and how any associated their toes. (DNA) with other animals but we also
share all of the critical biochemical The most important aspects of the diet No work of this nature can happen in
pathways that are involved with nutrition. as far as commercial nutritionists are isolation. I would like to acknowledge the
This means that birds of different species concerned are those that make up the help of past and present colleagues at
(genotype) may have very similar largest proportion of the costs. These SPESFEED, namely Brett Roosendaal,
nutrient requirements. For example, the are energy, protein and a few of the Helena Smuts, Christel Coetzee, Colleen
requirements of a 1 kg broiler are very macro-minerals. This book will, therefore, Engelbrecht and Bianca Losper who
similar to those of a 1 kg Peking duck. concentrate on these aspects of nutrition, have made significant contributions to
However, birds of a similar genotype rather than discussing the nutrition of the information contained in the book.
but that are phenotypically different; for trace mineral and vitamins. It should A special word of thanks goes to Steve
example, a 100 g broiler chicken will have be borne in mind that as the genetic Leeson who is always happy to share his
very different nutrient requirements to a potential of poultry increases some of the knowledge and has graciously allowed
broiler weighing 1.5 kg. vitamin and trace minerals may begin to me to use much of his material. Peter and
Natalie Chrystal have been contributors
limit production. Thus the importance of
An aspect that makes poultry nutrition and constructive critics of the book over
vitamin and mineral nutrition is likely to
different to human, or possibly even the years. I have worked with many
increase in the future.
ruminant nutrition, is that poultry flocks specialist veterinarians and would like to
represent a population of individuals, It needs to be remembered that nutrition thank them, especially Chris Henderson
each with a different production potential, is a scientific activity and should, and Herman Bosman, for the help and
feed intake and metabolic efficiency. therefore, follow a traditional scientific insight that they have given me. Anne
When feeding poultry the aim should be procedure or methodology. Science is Marangos was responsible for editing
to maximise the profitability of the flock a logical, objective process for testing my English and my thanks go to her for
as a whole. If this aim is not met the her thoroughness. Wes Ewing and his
ideas, and reaching a conclusion; the
high performing individuals may well be team at Context have been enthusiastic
scientific data need to be interpreted so
underfed and not able to perform to their and innovative throughout the publishing
that meaningful decisions can be made.
optimum potential. process. Andre Pretorius kindly took most
For this reason, a chapter on the scientific
of the photographs used in the book.
This book explores some of the process is included.
Lastly, I would like to pay tribute to all
underlying theory of poultry nutrition of my fellow practitioners who wittingly
The objective of this book is to teach
rather than providing a step-by-step or unwittingly have contributed to my
you the golden rules of poultry nutrition.
methodology for formulating poultry knowledge of poultry nutrition. If for any
These are:
diets. If the underlying principles reason, through oversight or ignorance,
are understood, it makes it easier to 1 There are no free lunches! an acknowledgement has been omitted
recognise what is seen in the field and it is regrettable. This will immediately be
to be equipped to solve any problems. 2 Never evaluate a feed in terms of rectified in any future editions of the book,
Teaching nutrition is always a little what it includes; rather judge a be they electronic or traditional, once
difficult. It is a little akin to a bicycle feed’s level of fitness by what has drawn to our attention
wheel. Each spoke needs to be dealt been left out of it. Rick Kleyn
with individually, and it is not until all of
the spokes are in place that the wheel of 3 What we do may not necessarily be
our understanding is complete. Despite correct but we must ensure that we
this shortcoming it is hoped that the book are wrong consistently.
will serve as a useful resource for people
involved in poultry production, feed 4 There is no black magic involved in
manufacture and to students who are nutrition (it is a science).
trying to grasp the intricacies of poultry
nutrition.
Foreword
This new publication by Rick Kleyn is spends time in most countries in Europe very interesting inside information on the
a welcome addition to those intimately and so his wealth of practical world- hands-on process of feed formulation
involved in poultry nutrition and feeding. wide knowledge is reflected in this book. which to my knowledge is missing in most
It has been some time since there has There are 18 main Chapters starting with other texts on poultry nutrition. Overall,
been a balanced overview of modern all the main nutrient classes and then a very readable and informative text on
concepts of basic nutrition together with application of this information in separate all aspects of poultry feeding and feed
practical application for on-farm feeding Chapters on broiler, broiler breeder and program development. The text will be of
management. For some time Rick Kleyn layer nutrition. The unique attribute of the use not only to commercial nutritionists
but also to students involved in all
has undertaken a training seminar in book is found in the following 7 chapters
aspects of poultry production, and most
poultry nutrition for professionals in that detail such current important topics
other professionals in the various poultry
Southern Africa and beyond. This book as ingredient evaluation, enzyme use,
industries.
represents material for this course nutrition and health and quality assurance
that has evolved over 15 years of as well as an interesting unique critique Dr Steve Leeson
development. Rick Kleyn is a consulting of the “scientific process”. Being a
Guelph, Ontario, Canada
nutritionist, most active in Africa but also practicing nutritionist the author provides
Sections
The science of nutrition can be defined as manufactured by chemical processes and which chickens utilise nutrients and energy
‘the process of providing a population of these synthetic nutrients are playing an at the cellular level probably does not exist.
animals with a diet that allows for effective ever-increasing role in nutrition. Nutrients
function of the metabolic pathways are components of the diet that have Michael Pollan (2008) believes that we
required for growth, maintenance, work, specific functions within the body and have entered the age of ‘nutritionism’.
immunity and reproduction’. Nutrition contribute to tissue maintenance, growth He defines it in the following way:
encompasses the procurement, ingestion, and health of the animal. Essential Nutritionism is not the same as nutrition.
digestion and absorption of the chemical nutrients are those components required As the -ism suggests, it is not a scientific
elements that serve as food. In addition, it by the animal that cannot be synthesised subject but an ideology. Ideologies are
includes the transport of these elements in sufficient quantities to meet the animal’s ways of organising large swathes of life
to all regions within the animal organism requirement. It is, therefore, essential and experiences under a set of shared
in the physical and chemical forms that they be supplied in the diet. Non- but unexamined assumptions. A reigning
most suitable for assimilation and use essential nutrients on the other hand can ideology is a little like the weather – all
by the cells. The primary concern of any be synthesised by the body in sufficient pervasive and virtually impossible to
nutritionist is to ensure that the diets being quantities . Fine Along with energy, all escape.
offered to an animal contain sufficient animals have requirements for each of
quantities of each nutrient in order for it to the 6 classes of nutrient, namely, water, A classic example of nutritionism was
function, produce and reproduce normally. carbohydrate, fat (lipid), protein, vitamins the widespread belief that cholesterol in
Nutrition is a quantitative science, requiring and minerals. eggs caused an increase in heart disease
not only an accurate description of the – now something known to be untrue.
molecular details of digestion, metabolism Increasingly, there is talk of what are being Another example would be the belief that
and excretion but also an accurate called nutricines. These are defined as the protein level of a diet or ingredient
estimation of their rates. Most importantly, molecules that are not traditional nutrients is its most important attribute, or that its
nutrition is an economic science in that yet have important biochemical functions. fat content is its least desirable attribute.
whatever is done in nutritional terms may Examples would be organic acids and Sadly, marketing departments often do
have a direct bearing on the profit and loss enzymes. In the past, we would have not understand the difference between
of the poultry operation. called these non-nutritional additives. nutrition and nutritionism.
Some authors refer to nutrients such as
The monogastric digestive system essential fatty acids as nutricines, but this Nutrition is not complicated. In its
operates in the stomach and small is not strictly correct. simplest terms the feed we offer our birds
intestine, which is well adapted to dealing contains only a few elements. These are:
with lipids, sugars, starches and proteins In its broadest sense, nutrition is
(see Chapter 7). The highly efficient caecal governed by the laws of physics, the
most important of which is the First
•• Water.
and large intestinal digestive system
operates through the help of a substantial Law of Thermodynamics, which states •• Energy to fuel all life processes.
bacterial population, which will deal with
nutrients in plant tissues high in non-
that matter and energy are always
conserved. They cannot be created or •• Nutrients (protein, fat, vitamins and
mineral), which are the building
starch polysaccharides. Birds can readily lost. Stated differently, everything the
blocks of all tissue.
discriminate the different nutritive values of animal consumes is accounted for: it is
a wide variety of feedstuffs, which enables
self-choice feeding and the automatic
either undigested (lost via the faeces) or
it is absorbed and used by the body, with •• Non-nutritive additives (medication,
enzymes and colourants).
balancing of the daily diet. byproducts being excreted in the urine,
faeces and through respiration or lost as Similarly, the bird’s needs are simple.
The Oxford dictionary defines a nutrient heat. It has already been mentioned They eat their food for:
as ‘any substance, which provides for, that all fauna share much of the same
or contributes towards, nourishment’.
These substances are mostly of organic
DNA and, more importantly, the complex
biochemical pathways that constitute
•• Maintenance – staying alive, largely
determined by body size.
origin (plants and animals) but may metabolism. These are unlikely to change
also be minerals. Increasingly, nutrients
(vitamins and amino acids) are being
through genetic selection, so the likelihood
that we will be able to change the way in
•• Growth, which includes the skeleton,
lean tissue, fat tissue and feathers.
Body Fact
The Krebs cycle yields
adenosine triphosphate
metabolites (ATP) which represents
‘free’ energy in the
animal.
Importantly, nutrients and metabolites The starting points of metabolism are the and is carried to various body tissues
are regarded as being present in several substances produced by the digestion of where it may be used as an energy source,
pools in the body , although no nutrient food. For all practical purposes, we may as a source of co-enzymes in fatty acid
exists in a single homogenous pool (Figure regard the end products of carbohydrate synthesis or for glycogen synthesis.
1.3). At the simplest level, there are three digestion in the monogastric animal
as glucose, with very small amounts Digestion of proteins results in the
pools, although more complex systems
of galactose and fructose. These are production of amino acids that are
do exists. The functional pool is directly
absorbed into the portal blood and carried absorbed by the intestinal villi into the
involved in one or more bodily functions,
to the liver. In ruminant animals the major portal blood. The amino acids are then
while the storage pool provides a buffer
part of the dietary carbohydrate is broken carried to the liver where they join the
of material that can be made available amino-acid pool. They may then be used
down in the rumen to acetic, propionic and
for the functional pool. A precursor pool butyric acids (volatile fatty acids). Glucose for protein synthesis. They may also
provides a substrate from which the joins the liver glucose pool from where pass into the systemic blood and join
nutrient or metabolite can be synthesised. it is converted partly into glycogen and the amino acids that are produced as a
Importantly, the essential nutrients do not stored, or into a glycerophosphate used for result of tissue catabolism, to provide the
have a precursor pool (Macdonald et al., triglyceride synthesis. The remainder of the raw material for synthesis of proteins and
2011). glucose enters the systemic blood supply other biologically important nitrogenous
Triglycerides
Glucose Glycerol
Essential Amino Acid
Ketone
Figure 1.4 Sources and fates of major body metabolites (redrawn from MacDonald et al., 2011)
Carbohydrates in Fact
Many carbohydrates are
either poorly utilised,
feed ingredients or not utilised at all by
monogastric animals.
Notes: Classes are monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. NSP = non-starch polysaccharides.
Sol. is an estimation of the solubility in the monogastric digestive system.
acids also occur naturally (Figure 3.10). therefore, considered as essential fatty fatty acids from the intestinal tract. Since
Dietary lipids supply energy, essential acids for animals. A classification of fats is fatty acids are not excreted in the urine,
fatty acids and pigments. Animals are shown in Figure 3.11. their metabolizable energy values are
able to synthesise saturated fatty acids directly related to their absorption. When
but are unable to synthesise linoleic and The energy value of fats and oils depends fats are included in diets for growing
a-linolenic acid. These two fatty acids are, mainly upon the absorption rate of the animals, the efficiency of utilisation of
2.0
55%, which is a result of poor protein
digestibility, low biological value of the
1.6
starter
proteins being consumed and overfeeding
of non-essential amino acids.
grower
SID ls intake, g/d
1.2 finisher
Amino acids and crude protein
% Lysine = 0.057% CP
% tryptophan = 0.012% CP
Figure 4.5 The barrel analogy for amino acid balance % Methionine = 0.025% CP
of Se (selenium salinate) are very poorly occur in crops at levels that they may Table 6.8 Minimum and maximum
available. In addition to this, the material have adverse effects on animals. Natural tolerable levels of minerals in poultry diets
is highly toxic. Organic forms of Se would water supplies may contain excessive (ppm) (NRC, 1980)
appear to be more digestible and are levels of S, Na, Mg and Fe and there may
increasingly being included in animal diets. even be some industrial contaminants in
Maximum
A Se deficiency causes a condition in the water. This, coupled with the problem Minimum
Mineral
chicks known as exudative diathesis. This of cross-contamination in the premix plant requirement tolerable
level
is normally seen at ± 6 to 12 weeks of age, and feed mills, can give rise to higher than
and symptoms are oedema, in the form of expected levels of minerals occurring in Cobalt - 10
weeping of the skin in the inner surface of the feed. When the diet is contaminated
the thighs and wings. Birds tend to bruise Copper 8 300
with the heavy metals, widespread feed
extremely easily. It is of interest to note that refusal will be the result. Iodine 0.35 300
broilers fed diets containing low levels of
Se have higher drip loss when slaughtered. Vets are very aware of this problem and Iron 80 1000
The pancreas also becomes fibrotic, which analyse feed to check the mineral levels
results in reduced production of lipase, in the diet. Where problems often arise Magnesium - 3000
trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen. is in the interpretation of the results.
This pancreatic involvement also results Manganese 60 2000
Many people understand the published
in reduced egg production and feed minimum levels of minerals to mean the Selenium 0.15 2
conversion in adult birds. High levels of Se ‘expected’ level in the diet. This is not the
also reduce hatchability in adult birds. case. Rather, these are the levels that Zinc 1000
need to be exceeded in order prevent
Cobalt deficiency symptoms. Animals are capable to organic ligands by coordinated bounds
of selectively absorbing minerals and, can dissociate within the animal’s
Cobalt (Co) is sometimes included in
normally, the higher the levels contained metabolism whereas the covalent bonds
premixes. However, it is a presumed to
in the diet, the higher the levels in the of inorganic salt cannot. Where the
be a human carcinogen when inhaled.
Co is a precursor to vitamin B12, and faeces. The 1980 NRC publication entitled ligands are small molecules, such as
when adequate levels of vitamin B12 are Mineral Tolerance of Domestic Animals amino acids, digestibility is higher than
provided in the diet, Co supplementation the term maximum tolerable level is for peptides or proteins, these minerals
is not required. defined as the dietary level that, when fed are better utilised by animals. After
for a limited period, will not impair animal absorption, organic minerals may present
Mineral toxicosis performance and should not produce physiological effects, which improve
unsafe residues in human food derived specific metabolic responses such as the
The storage capacity of the various from the animal. Greater sensitivity to immune response. Many studies have
microminerals varies considerably. high mineral levels can be expected in demonstrated the benefits of metal-
Until storage sites are saturated with young, pregnant, lactating malnourished amino chelates on animal metabolism but
microminerals, plasma levels do not or diseased animals. It is in keeping with the detection of positive effects on live
increase proportionally with uptake. Once good nutritional practice to maintain performance is less consistent (Vieira,
storage is saturated, the concentrations of mineral intake at required levels, which are 2008).
circulating microminerals increases rapidly generally well below maximum tolerable
until toxic symptoms occur. Toxicity is levels. Table 6.8 gives some indication as There are a number of categories of
defined as the stage at which production to what these figures should be. organic trace minerals, with the metal
declines and the extent and severity of amino acid complexes probably being
symptoms observed are a function of Organic trace minerals the most common. They result from
previous micromineral nutritional intake as combining a specific soluble metal salt
well as the duration of excessive intake. The so-called organic minerals (this is a (such as zinc, copper, and manganese)
The mineral levels of the feed ingredients misnomer because all minerals are by with an amino acid. A specific amino acid
can vary due to soil factors and the definition inorganic) comprise minerals may also be used. Metal proteinates
quantity and availability of the minerals bound to organic compounds such as result from the chelation of a soluble
in the soil. Mg and Se, for example, may protein or carbohydrates. Metals bound salt with amino acids and/or partially
Key pointers
01 04 07
The large insoluble molecules that Development of a functional gizzard Animals are only able to absorb
make up food need to be degraded is important as this serves as a molecules through the mucosa of
into simple molecular compounds pacemaker for the GIT. the intestine – and not via the skin
before they can cross the mucosa as many cosmetic companies would
of the intestine and enter general 05 have us believe.
circulation. Absorption involves the transport of
food molecules across the mucosa of 08
02 the intestine and into the circulatory Digestion is under both voluntary and
Animals ingest simple molecules and system. involuntary control.
not specific ingredients.
06 09
03 Most absorption takes place in the Unlike mammals, reflux forms an
Digestion involves a combination of small intestine, while the caeca (large important part of avian nutrition,
mechanical, chemical and microbial intestine) only plays a plays a small allowing for the more efficient
activities that contribute to the role. digestion and absorption.
degradation of feed ingredients.
Table 10.14 Response of male broilers to feeding cracked maize from 7 days of age when starter cost $209/ton and maize $117/
tonne) (Leeson et al., 2003)
Treatment 49 day weight Total feed FCR Carcass Breast Protein Feed cost
(g) (g/bird) weight (g) (% of intake (c/kg
carcass) (g/kg) bodyweight)
gizzard helps to reduce the oocyst low quality pellets, good pellets to which
Table 10.15 Proportion of intake of excretion and increases the bird’s 20 % and 30% of the formulated maize
starter and maize immune mechanism. was added back to the grower and
Age Starter Maize finisher diets post pelleting, and a mash
(%) (%) •• The carcass yield is reduced
with choice feeding because the
produced with a roller mill. Even though
digestive tract increases in size and, the stocking density was only 14 birds/m2,
0–7 days 100 0
therefore, forms a larger portion of there were significant differences between
7–21 days 87.3 12.7 the total live mass. treatments (Table 10.16). Interestingly,
the results achieved with the mixture of
21–35 days 65.7 34.3
•• Feed conversion becomes less rolled maize and pellets were the same as
efficient but feeding costs can be those achieved with good pellets alone.
35–49 days 57.1 42.9
reduced to compensate. If the pelleting costs of around €5 per
ton are considered, this may represent an
Feeding whole maize
•• Birds exposed to high temperatures opportunity for producers to not only save
(33°C) day and moderate (20°C) money but also to reduce the energy costs
Dozier et al. (2010) looked at the benefits
night temperatures dramatically of pelleting.
and costs associated with feeding
reduce their feed intake during the
different forms of feed to broilers. All diets Withdrawal/post finisher diets
hot time of the day, particularly
were identical in terms of formulation
the protein component of the diet.
This increases when it gets cooler. and nutrient content. A standard starter It has been usual practice to remove
This enables choice fed birds to crumble was fed for 2 weeks, at which the vitamin/mineral pack as well as the
grow faster and convert feed more point one of four experimental diets was medication during the last 5 days of
efficiently. offered. These were good quality pellets, growth (Table 10.17). Many studies have
Rickets Fact
Rickets occurs in
young birds and is
characterised by soft
bones and beak.
Measuring Fact
Feed problems may be
dramatic but typically
Lack of performance can be explained A gross error in the feed (10 times the the problem as too little (see Chapter
by: the bird itself, the environment ionophore level, for example) will cause 12).
(management), and health and/or an immediate drop in feed intake and
nutrition. Although each class of bird growth, and an increase in mortality. The •• Phosphorus: too little phosphorus
has unique parameters that need to latter are usually easy to diagnose and in the diet causes a dramatic
be assessed, in terms of nutrition the remedy but the loss of production is more drop in feed intake. A surplus of
important matter is the measurement of of a problem. From the response data calcium may complicate the issue.
feed quality and consistency. for both protein and energy carried in Ensure that the correct Ca:P ratio is
Chapter 10, it can be seen that relatively achieved (Chapter 10).
If a claim for damages arises there are large differences in feed specifications
two clearly defined conditions that must cause relatively small differences in •• Protein: if protein levels are too low
be met: first, it must be shown that the (only grain fed for, example), there
performance – so it not always possible
feed supplied to the farm was in some will be an increase in nervousness,
to know if any production drops seen are
way defective, and that a potential feed peck outs, poor albumin quality and
because of the feed, or some other factor.
problem was the most likely cause for loss low protein level from feed analysis.
Some factors which will cause immediate
of performance and, secondly, it is the In broilers there may be ruffled and
production problems are:
farmer’s task to quantify the losses incurred broken feathers: primary feathers on
the wings stick out in a characteristic
in a transparent and verifiable way.
•• Salt: if high levels of salt are
manner, which is why they are
included in the diet there will be
Feed impact on performance an increase in water consumption sometimes termed helicopter chicks.
and the litter will become wet and
A number of feed-related factors have a
slimy. The secondary effects of high •• Fat: persistently low fat levels (not
direct impact on bird performance, some in the short term) result in low body
salt intake can cause mortality and
of which can be controlled if sensible weight gains, a drop in egg size and
reach alarming proportions in a
measures are taken: low fat in feed analysis. Rancid fat,
short space of time. When the feed
on the other hand, causes immediate
Feed disorders is corrected, the mortality usually
and dramatic feed refusal – one of
stops but growth and production
the few things that has this effect.
There are very few feed (nutritional) do not return to their normal levels.
disorders that will cause an acute loss in
production and/or an increase in mortality:
When salt levels are too low, other
symptoms develop: the flock
•• Additives: almost all of the feed
additives used in the feed mill will
generally, a deficiency is characterised becomes nervous (agitation and a cause irretrievable damage if fed at
by a general and gradual tail off in distressed vocalisation), scratching high levels. Usually, high levels of
performance. If feed (or water) is absent as if looking for something, pecking feed additives cause feed refusal,
entirely, the performance will drop sharply is increased, and feathers are found and birds show similar signs to
and immediately: this is most noticeable in the digestive tract and the house. those observed with a sodium or
in laying hens. Surprisingly, production protein deficiency as feed intake
can return to normal levels fairly quickly. •• Limestone: if the limestone drops. Nicarbazin causes shell-less
Always look for patterns when considering (calcium) is left out of a layer or eggs, loss of pigment of brown
feed problems: did the problem coincide broiler diet there is a dramatic eggs, lowered hatch of fertile eggs,
with a feed delivery and are other house/ increase in small, soft shelled eggs and a positive assay of feed for
farms similarly affected? Any form and after a few days, production nicarbazin. Monensin causes
of nutrient deficiency will result in a drops sharply. There may also be reduced feed consumption, the birds
production slump because a deficiency increased mortality from calcium lack co-ordination and show signs of
of any nutrient cannot be tolerated for depletion (cage layer fatigue). paralysis and a positive feed assay
any length of time. The production curve By hand feeding oyster shell or for monensin.
shown in Figure 18.1 illustrates typical limestone grit, the problem can be
deviations seen in laying flocks. rectified reasonably quickly. In broiler
rickets, soft keel bones and rubbery
•• Feed Ingredients: substandard
fishmeal or other protein sources
As far as broiler feed problems are beaks may be seen: in this instance can cause a fairly dramatic drop
concerned the situation is more complex. too much calcium is as likely to be in growth and or production but
Appendix
Yes No Comments
Visual appearance
Off colour
Insect manifestation
Foreign materials
Texture deviation
Flow characteristics
Lumps
Grind
Grade of maize
Taste
Rancid
Mouldy
Burnt
Off taste
Smell
Rancid
Mouldy
Burnt
Off smell
Feel
Wet
Temperature build up
Bulk density
Index
Index
Index
Index
Index
Index
Index
Chicken Nutrition
A guide for nutritionists and poultry professionals
By Rick Kleyn
www.contextbookshop.com