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Sub: Principles and Theory of Geoinformatics authored by Dr. P.K. Garg

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Principles and Theory of
GEOINFORMATICS

P. K. GARG
Professor
Civil Engineering Department
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Roorkee–247667, (Uttarakhand), India

KHANNA BOOK PUBLISHING CO. (P) LTD.

Publisher of Engineering and Computer Books
4C/4344, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj, New Delhi-110002
Phone : 011-23244447-48  Mobile: +91-99109 09320
E-mail : contact@khannabooks.com
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 PREFACE
Geoinformatics is a multidisciplinary subject which involves the use of cartography,
geovisualization, GIS, remote sensing, photogrammetry, GPS, spatial statistics, geostatistics,
multivariate statistics and other advanced tools and techniques. The emerging need of
geospatial technology has created an unprecedented demand of trained manpower, world-
wide, who can contribute to these areas.
My vast teaching and research experience at IIT Roorkee motivated me to write this
book which concisely covers all the major topics of Geoinformatics; Photogrammetry, Remote
Sensing, GPS and GIS, so that students understand the complete theory of land data collection
& mapping, and subsequently the analysis from these maps. The book deals with the Earth
surface data collection using various approaches from ground-based (GPS) to space-based
(Remote Sensing). It also covers different technologies, approaches, processes, and methods
related to data collection and analysis for various applications on the Earth surface. For each
of the topics, the relevant theory & principles, and methods & analysis are presented in the
book, in simple language with clear illustrations.
The book covers the course contents required mainly for UG (Civil Engg) and PG
(Geoinformatics) as well as Computer Science, Information Technology, Geology, Geography,
Environmental Science, Earth Science, students and research scholars. Today, geoinformatics
has found applications in civil engg, natural resources management, disaster management,
environment, geology, soil, forestry, agriculture, water management, urban, infrastructure
development, 3D mapping, etc. The students will find the book useful as working principles
and theory have been explained with simple mathematics.
I am thankful to the Khanna Publishing House, New Delhi for bringing out timely
publication of the Book.
(Prof. P.K. GARG)
Professor, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee
and
Former Vice Chancellor,
Uttarakhand Technical University, Dehradun (UK)

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 CONTENTS
Contents Page
Preface v
List of Figures xv
List of Tables xix

CHAPTER 1: GEOINFORMATICS 1–13

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Major Disciplines of Geoinformatics 3
1.2.1 Photogrammetry 4
1.2.2 Remote Sensing 4
1.2.3 Global Positioning System (GPS) 4
1.2.4 Geographic Information System (GIS) 5
1.3 Applications of Geoinformatics 5
1.4 Status of Geoinformatics in India 6
Review Questions 12
References 12

CHAPTER 2: PHOTOGRAMMETRY 14–61

2.1 Introduction 14
2.2 Developments in Photogrammetry 15
2.2.1 Analog photogrammetry 16
2.2.2 Analytical photogrammetry 17
2.2.3 Digital photogrammetry 17
2.3 Types of Photographs 18
2.3.1 Aerial photographs 18
2.3.2 Terrestrial or Close-range photographs 20
2.4 Map Versus Aerial Photograph 20
2.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Photogrammetry 22
2.5.1 Advantagees 22
2.5.2 Disadvantages 23
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2.6 Acquisition of Aerial Photos 23

2.6.1 Aerial camera system 23
2.6.2 Flight planning 24
2.7 Geometric Properties of Aerial Photographs 27
2.8 Terms Associated with Vertical Aerial Photographs 28
2.9 Terms Associated with Tilted Aerial Photographs 29
2.10 Computation of Length of a Line 31
2.11 Determination of Scale of a Vertical Photograph 32
2.12 Types of Scale 34
2.12.1 Large scale photographs 34
2.12.2 Medium scale photographs 34
2.12.3 Small scale photographs 34
2.13 Relief Displacement of a Vertical Photograph 34
2.14 Stereoscopy 36
2.14.1 Vertical exaggeration 36
2.14.2 Stereoscopic model 37
2.14.3 Stereoscopes 38
2.14.4 Requirements of stereoscopic vision 39
2.15 Determination of Height from Vertical Aerial Photographs 40
2.15.1 Orienting a pair of photographs for stereo-viewing 40
2.15.2 Measurement of parallax by parallax bar 40
2.15.3 Derivation of relationship for height 42
2.16 The Scale of a Tilted Photograph 44
2.17 Ground Coordinates from a Tilted Photograph 45
2.18 Flying Height of a Tilted Photograph 46
2.19 Relief Displacement on a Tilted Photo 47
2.20 Tilt Displacement 48
2.21 Photogrammetric Systems 51
2.21.1 Data acquisition systems 51
2.21.2 Data reduction systems 52
2.21.3 Data presentation systems 54
2.22 Orthophotos 54
2.23 Applications of Photogrammetry 55
Review Questions 57
References 60

`
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CHAPTER 3: REMOTE SENSING 62–177

3.1 Remote Sensing 62
3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Remote Sensing 63
3.2.1 Advantagees 63
3.2.2 Disadvantages 64
3.3 A Typical Remote Sensing System 64
3.4 Electro-magnetic Spectrum 66
3.5 Black Body Radiations 69
3.5.1 Planck’s law 69
3.5.2 Wien’s displacement law 70
3.5.3 Stefan-Boltzmann law 71
3.6 Interaction of EMR with Atmosphere 71
3.6.1 Reflection 72
3.6.2 Scattering 72
3.6.3 Absorption 75
3.6.4 Transmission 75
3.7 Atmospheric Windows 76
3.8 Spectral Signature 77
3.8.1 Water 78
3.8.2 Soils 78
3.8.3 Rocks 79
3.8.4 Vegetation 80
3.9 Using the Spectro-radiometer 80
3.10 Types of Orbits 82
3.10.1 Geo-synchronous orbits 83
3.10.2 Sun-synchronous orbits 83
3.11 Image Characteristics 84
3.11.1 Swath 84
3.11.2 Path-row number 85
3.11.3 Pixel 85
3.11.4 Digital number 85
3.11.5 Spectral band 86
3.11.6 Image histogram 86
3.12 Types of Resolutions 86
3.12.1 Spatial resolution 87
3.12.2 Spectral resolution 88
3.12.3 Radiometric resolution 89
3.12.4 Temporal resolution 91
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3.13 Types of Remote Sensing images 91

3.13.1 Panchromatic images 92
3.13.2 Multi-spectral images 92
3.13.3 Hyper-spectral images 93
3.13.4 Colour composite images 94
3.14 Multi-concept in Remote Sensing 95
3.14.1 Multi-stage 95
3.14.2 Multi-resolution 96
3.14.3 Multi-spectral 96
3.14.4 Multi-detector 96
3.14.5 Multi-temporal 96
3.14.6 Multi-uses 96
3.15 Types of Sensors 96
3.15.1 Based on source of energy 97
3.15.2 Based on range of electro-magnetic spectrum 98
3.15.3 Based on imaging systems 105
3.16 Types of Remote Sensing Platforms 107
3.16.1 Based on height and area coverage 107
3.16.2 Based on spatial resolutions 108
3.17 Landsats 111
3.17.1 Return beam videcon camera 112
3.17.2 Multispectral scanner 112
3.17.3 Thematic mapper 113
3.17.4 Enhanced thematic mapper plus 114
3.18 SPOT 114
3.18.1 Along track multispectral scanner/Push broom scanner 117
3.18.2 Side viewing scanner 117
3.19 Indian Remote Sensing Satellites 117
3.19.1 Linear imaging self scanner 121
3.19.2 Wide field sensor/Advanced wide field sensor 122
3.20 IKONOS 123
3.21 QuickBird 123
3.22 OrbView 123
3.23 GeoEye
124
3.24 WorldView 124
3.25 Hyperspectral Imaging Systems 127
3.26 Interpretation of Remotely Sensed Data 128
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3.27 Visual Interpretation of Remotely Sensed Data 129

3.27.1 Tone 131
3.27.2 Texture 132
3.27.3 Pattern 132
3.27.4 Shape 132
3.27.5 Size 132
3.27.6 Shadow 133
3.27.7 Site/Association 133
3.28 Digital Interpretation of Remotely Sensed Data 133
3.29 Image Pre-processing 134
3.29.1 Geometric correction 134
3.29.2 Radiometric correction 136
3.30 Image restoration 137
3.31 Image enhancement 138
3.31.1 Contrast enhancement 139
3.32 Image transformation 142
3.32.1 Image fusion 143
3.32.2 Vegetation indices 144
3.32.3 Tasseled cap transformation 145
3.32.4 Principal component analysis 147
3.33 Digital Interpretation of Remotely Sensed Data 149
3.33.1 Supervised classification 149
3.33.2 Unsupervised classification 153
3.33.3 Other classification techniques 155
3.34 Accuracy Assessment 160
3.35 Applications of Remotely Sensing 165
3.35.1 Geology 165
3.35.2 Hydrology and water resources 165
3.35.3 Land use and land cover 166
3.35.4 Natural hazards study 166
3.35.5 Site investigations and regional planning 167
3.35.6 Soil mapping 167
3.35.7 Transportation network mapping 167
3.35.8 Terrain mapping and analysis 168
3.35.9 Urban development 168
3.35.10 3-D city models 168
Review Questions 168
References 172
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CHAPTER 4: GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS 178–215

4.1 Introduction 178
4.2 History of GPS 178
4.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of GPS 180
4.3.1 Advantagees 181
4.3.2 Disadvantages 181
4.4 Coordinate Systems 181
4.5 Map Projection 183
4.5.1 Choosing a map projection 184
4.6 Datums
185
4.7 Various Segments of GPS 187
4.7.1 Space segment 188
4.7.2 Control segment 189
4.7.3 User segment 190
4.8 Working Principle of GPS 190
4.8.1 Trilateration 192
4.9 GPS Satellite Signals 193
4.9.1 Dilution of precision 194
4.9.2 Accuracy 195
4.9.3 Errors 196
4.10 Types of GPS Receivers 198
4.10.1 Code phase receivers 198
4.10.2 Carrier phase receivers 198
4.10.3 Geodetic receivers 199
4.10.4 Other classification of receivers 200
4.11 GPS Surveying Techniques 201
4.11.1 Static surveying 201
4.11.2 Rapid static surveying 203
4.11.3 Kinematic surveying 204
4.11.4 Stop and go kinematic surveying 204
4.11.5 Real time kinematic surveying 205
4.11.6 Differential GPS surveying 207
4.12 Applications of GPS 208
4.12.1 Civilian applications 209
4.12.2 Military applications 210
4.13 Future Uses of GPS Technology 210
Review Questions 212
References 213
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CHAPTER 5: GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS 216–269

5.1 Introduction 216
5.2 Developments in GIS 217
5.3 Definitions of a GIS 221
5.4 Terminology Used in GIS 221
5.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of a GIS 223
5.5.1 Advantagees 223
5.5.2 Disadvantages 224
5.6 Components of a GIS 224
5.7 Basic Tasks of a GIS 226
5.8 Answers a GIS Can Do 228
5.9 Representation of Geographical Data 229
5.9.1 Points 229
5.9.2 Lines 229
5.9.3 Polygons 229
5.10 Converting the Geospatial Data 230
5.10.1 Scanning 230
5.10.2 Digitization 231
5.11 Data Models 233
5.11.1 Raster data 233
5.11.2 Vector data 234
5.11.3 Raster versus Vector 235
5.12 Topology and its Components 236
5.13 Geodatabase 239
5.13.1 Join 240
5.13.2 Relate 240
5.13.2 Relational database 240
5.14 Sources of GIS Data 241
5.14.1 Topographic maps 241
5.14.2 Thematic maps 243
5.14.3 Automated surveying 243
5.14.4 Photogrammetry 244
5.15.5 Remote sensing 245
5.14.6 Global positioning system 246
5.14.7 Light detection and ranging 247
5.14.8 Unmanned aerial vehicle/Drone 247
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5.15 Interpolation of Data 249

5.15.1 Inverse distance weighted 249
5.15.2 Kriging 249
5.15.3 Natural neighbour 249
5.15.4 Spline 250
5.15.5 Trend 250
5.16 Various Operations in GIS 250
5.16.1 Measurement 251
5.16.2 Query 251
5.16.3 Raster operations in GIS 252
5.16.4 Vector operations in GIS 254
5.17 Free (Open) Source GIS Software 255
5.17.1 GIS data 255
5.17.2 Software 254
5.18 Applications of GIS 257
5.18.1 Civil engineering projects 258
5.18.2 Site selection 259
5.18.3 Urban planning 260
5.18.4 Terrain mapping and analysis 260
5.18.5 Water resources 260
5.18.6 Solid waste management 261
5.18.7 Natural resources management 261
5.18.8 Traffic and transportation engineering 261
5.18.9 Disaster management and mitigation 262
5.19 Future Uses of GIS Technology 262
Review Questions 263
References 265
 ABBREVIATIONS

2D Two Dimensional
3D Three Dimensional
ACS Atmospheric Correction Sensor
AFB Air Force Base
ALISS Advanced Linear Imaging Scanning Sensor
ANN Artificial Neural Networks
AS Anti-Spoofing mode
ASTER Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer
AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer
AVIRIS Airborne Visible/infrared Imaging Spectrometer
AWiFS Advanced Wide Field Sensor
B&W Black and White
C/A code Course/Acquisition-code
CAVIS Clouds, Aerosols, Vapors, Ice, and Snow
CCD Charge Coupled Device
DBMS Database Management System
DEM Digital Elevation Model
DGPS Differential GPS
DN Digital Number
DoD Department of Defence
DOP Dilution of Precision
DPW Digital Photogrammetric Workstation
DSS Decision Support Systems
ERTS Earth Resources Technology Satellite
EDM Electronic Distance Measurement
EMR Electro-magnetic Radiations
EMS Electro-magnetic Spectrum

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EO Earth Observations
ETM Enhanced Thematic Mapper
ETM+ Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus
FCC False Colour Composite
FCM Fuzzy c-means
FIR Far Infrared
FOW Field of View
GCP Ground Control Points
GDOP Geometric Dilution of Precision
GIS Geographical Information System
GMS Geostationary Meteorological Satellite
GOES Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite
GPS Global Positioning System
HIS Intensity, Hue (color), Saturation
HE Histogram Equalization
HRG High Resolution Geometrical
HRV High Resolution Visible
HR-VIR Visible & Infrared High-Resolution
ICT Information and Communication Technology
IDW Inverse Distance Weighted
IERS International Earth Rotation Service
IFOV Instantaneous Field of View
ILWIS Integrated Land and Water Information Management
IoT Internet of Things
IR Infrared
IRNSS Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System
IRS Indian Remote Sensing Satellites
ISODATA Iterative Self-Organizing Data Analysis Technique
IT Information Technology
GLONASS Global Navigation Satellite System
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System
GRASS Geographic Resources Analysis Support System
LANDSAT Land Satellites
LBS Location-based Services
LiDAR Light Detection and Ranging
LISS Linear Imaging Self Scanning Sensor
MLE Maximum Likelihood Estimates
 (xxii)

MMU Minimum Mapping Unit

NATMO National Atlas Thematic Mapping Organisation
NavIC Navigation with Indian Constellation
NAVSTAR Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging
NGIS National GIS
NIR Near Infrared
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NRSC National Remote Sensing Centre
OBSSR On-Board Solid State Recorder
OCM Ocean Colour Monitor
OLI Operational Land Imager
PAN Panchromatic
PCM Possibilistic c-means
PP Principal Point
QGIS Quantum GIS
RADAR RAdio Detection And Ranging
RBV Return Beam Videcon
RDBMS Relational Database Management System
RGB Red, Green, Blue
rms Root Mean Square
ROSA Radio Occultation Sounder for Atmosphere
MIR Middle Infrared
MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
MSL Mean Sea Level
MSS Multispectral Scanner
NDVI Normalised Difference Vegetation Index
OTF-AR On-The-Fly–Ambiguity Resolution
PCA Principal Component Analysis
P-Code Precision-code
PPS Precision Positioning Signals
PRN Pseudorandom Noise
QZSS Quasi-Zenith Satellite System
RFID Radio frequency identification
RINEX Receiver Independent Exchange Format
RTK Real-Time Kinematic
SA Selective Availability
SAGA System for Automated Geo-scientific Analyse
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SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar

SCAT Ku-band Pencil Beam Scatterometer
SOI Survey of India
SPOT Système Pour l’Observation de la Terre
SPS Standard Positioning Signals
SRTM Shuttle Radar Topography Mission
SST Sea Surface Temperature
SVM Support Vector Machine
SWIR Short Wave Infrared
TCT Tasselled Cap Transformations
TIN Triangular Irregular Networks
TIR Thermal Infrared
TM Thematic Mapper
UAS Unarmed Aerial Systems
UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
UTM Universal Transverse Mercator
UV Ultraviolet
VI Vegetation Indices
WAAS Wide Area Augmentation System
WGS-84 World Geodetic System-1984
WiFS Wide Field Sensor