EUCLIDIAN PUNCTUAL SPACE OF

FREE VECTORS

The notion of free vector space was introduced in the geometrical

space E3 with the help of the fundamental notions of Euclidean geometry
like point, line, plane, distance, as well as the axioms that are used for this
notions.
In the last paragraph from the precedent chapter were put in evidence
some properties without using the notion of distance. The scale of these
properties is increasing a lot if on the vector space of free vectors we define
the scalar product. So we define the notion of Euclidean punctual space of
free vectors 3.The scalar product define in its turn the notion of Euclidean
norm of a vector, the angle between two vectors and the notion of Euclidean
distance. From now on we will follow the construction path of the scalar
product like it developed in mathematics and than we will put in evidence
the equivalence of the notions introduced with the ones defined in general
case. We will use some notions defined in the geometrical affine space of
free vector structure and we will put in evidence the specific differences that
appear in the case of Euclidean structure.

§1. Orthogonal projections

Let be E3 the space of points of Euclidean geometry, defined with the

help of an axiomatic system, in which consider introduced the notion of
vector.
The length of a vector AB  V3 was defined by the real number
d(AB), that is the distance between the points A and B, which we will note in
with | AB |, the modulus of the vector AB or the geometrical length of the
vector AB .
A vector e with the property | e | = 1 is called versor or unit vector.
Any vector u  V3 collinear with e can be written like this u = | u
| e .
We defined in the last paragraph the projection on a line parallel with a
plane and the projection on a plane parallel with a line.

1
 If line d  E3 is perpendicular on plane   E3 then the projection
parallel with plane  of vector v  V3 n line d will be called the
orthogonal projection of vector v on plane  and will be noted with
pr d v , and the projection parallel with line d of vector v on plane will
be called the orthogonal projection of vector v on plane  and will be
noted with pr  v .
We can easily demonstrate that the projection of a vector on two
parallel lines provides us the same vector, which means that the projection
of a vector on a line depends only on the direction of the line. That’s why if
u is a vector not zero which defines the direction of line d, then we can talk
about the projection of v on u , which we will note with pr u v .
If e is the versor of u , that is u = | u |  e , then for  v  V3 ,
pr u v is a collinear vector with e , pr u v = | pr u v |  e .
The real number | pr u v | is called the algebraic size of the orthogonal
projection pr u v which we will note pru v , and which represents the
coordinate of vector v on the direction determinate by u .

1.1 Theorem. For u  V3 \ { 0 }  v , w  V3, and   R we

have:

pr u (v  w )  pr u v  pr u w
(1.1)
pr u (v )   pr u v

Demonstration. Let be a line having the same direction with u and the
vectors v  AB , w  BC , having the sum v  w  AB  BC  AC (fig.1)
If we note with A' B ' and B ' C ' the projections of vectors u and
w on line d results

pr u (v  w )  pr u AC  A' C '  A' B'  B' C '  pr u v  pr u w

Analogous (fig.2)

pr u (v )  pr u AC  A' C '   A' B '   pr u v

B
w
v
C  C
A v B
u A
(d) 2 (d)
A B C A B C
 fig.1 fig.2

The properties from theorem 1 of the orthogonal projection induce the

same properties for the algebrical size of this projection, that is

pru (v  w )  pru v  pru w

(1.2)
pru (v )   pru v

If we consider two semilines |OA and |OB in punctual space E3, then
we call angle of free vectors v  OA , w  OB , that are not zero, noted
with    (v ; w ) , the angle   [O, ] formed by the semilines |OA and |
OB.
The vectors u and w that are not zero are orthogonal if the angle

between them is . The angle between the vectors u and w does not
2
depend of the representatives ‘s choice OA and OB . We agree that the
null vector0 is orthogonal on any vector.
The notion of angle permits the clearing of the algerical size of the
projection of a vector function of the length of the vector and the angle
between the vector and the direction of the line on which we make the
projection (fig.3).

v
u
 d
0 A

fig.3

| pr u v || v | cos  (1.3 )

With these elements we can introduce the notion of scalar product on

the vector space of free vectors.

§2. The Scalar Product

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 Let V3 be real vector space of free vectors

2.1 Theorem. The function  :V3  V3  R, defined with

 u  v  cos  u , v  , u , v  V3 \ { 0 }
u v  
 0 for a  0 or / and b  0 (2.1)

defines a scalar product on vector space of free vectors.

Demonstration. We verify the four conditions that define a scalar product.

1. (u 1  u 2 )  v  u1  v  u 2  v u 1, u 2, v  V3

From the definition of the scalar product and the property (1.3) we have
u v =| u |  | pr u v | = | v |  | pr v u | ,  u , v  V3 \ { 0 } so
(u  u )  v =| v |  | pr (u  u ) | =
1 2 v 1 2

= | v | (| pr v u1 |  | pr v u2 |) = | v | | pr v u1 |  | v | | pr v u 2 |) = u1 · v + u1 · v .

2. ( u )· v = ( u · v ),  u , v  V3,    R.
( u )· v = | v | | pr v ( u ) |= | v | | pr v u |= ( u · v ),  u , v V3,
 R.

3. u · v = v · u ,  u , v  V3 .The comutativity result from the product’s

comutativity in the set of the real numbers.

4. u · u  0, u · u = 0  u = 0 ,  u  V3.
< u , u > = | u |2  0, | u |2 = 0  u = 0 .

For the case where at least one factor of the scalar product is the null
vector the properties results immediately.

2.2 Consequence. The vector space of free vectors V3, endowed with the
scalar product (2.1) is a real Euclidean vector space.

2.3 Consequence. The affine space A3 = ( E3, V3,  ) having like vector
associate the Euclidean space V3, becomes an Euclidean punctual space
which we will note with 3.
Remarks.

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 1° In the last paragraph there were showed the natural one-to-one
mapping between the spaces E3, V3 and R3. In this way, having fixed a
Cartesian mark R (O; e1 , e2 , e3 ) in the affine space A3, the function of
coordinates f: V3  R3, defined by f ( u ) = ( x1, x2, x3)  R3,  u  V3,
realize a one-to-one mapping between the two spaces. This one-to-one
mapping represents an isomorphism of vector spaces which permits the
transport of the canonical Euclidean structure defined on R3 on the vector
pace of free vectors V3.
We can easily verify the application :

< ,> :V3  V3  R, ( u , v )  < u , v > =: <f( u ), f( v )>R (2.2)

it’s a scalar product on V3, where < , >R is the scalar product defined on
R3.
With the help of this scalar product we can define in a natural way the
norm || u ||=  u , v  =  f(u ), f(v )  R .
If we consider two arbitrary points A, B  E3 and the position vectors
OA and OB characterized by the triple ( x1, x2, x3)  R3 , and ( y1, y2, y3)
 R3, then the vector AB  OB  OA will be characterized by the triple (y1 –
x1, y2 – x2, y3 – x3) and will have the norm given by
|| AB || =  AB, AB  =  f ( AB ), f ( AB )  R =
= ( y1  x1 )  ( y2  x2 )  ( y3  x3 )
2 2 2
=  ( A, B ) = | AB |.
This result shows that the norm || AB || defined by the scalar product
(2.2) coincides with the geometrical length | AB | , of the vector AB .
The angle between two vectors that aren’t zero OA and OB  V3
defined by the scalar product < , > coincides with the (geometric) angle
defined by the directions of the semilines |OA and |OB . Really,
 OA, OB  pr OA OB pr OA OB
cos   = = =
|| OA ||  || OB || || OB || | OB |
= cos  (OA, OB) .

In consequence, the scalar product (2.2), induce by the one-to-one

mapping f, on the vector space V3 of free vectors, coincides with the scalar
product (2.1).
2° Knowing the scalar product on the vector space of free vectors
permits the calculus of the vector’s length and the angle between two
vectors :

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 a b
|| a || = aa , cos   ,    (a , b ) (2.3)
|| a ||  || b |
3° Two vectors that are not zero are orthogonal  their scalar
product is zero.
Let be B = { e1 , e2 , e3 } a basis in the vector space V3.
If a  a1e1  a2e2  a3e3 and b  b1e1  b2e2  b3e3 , then we obtain:
a b  a1b1e1e1  (a1b2  a2b1 )e1e2  ( a1b3  a3b1 )e1e3 
(2.4)
 a2b2  e2 e2  ( a2b3  a3b2 )e2 e3  a3b3  e3e3
So, the scalar product of two vectors is perfect determined if we know the
scalar of the multiplication of the vectors of basis B.
A basis in V3 formed by vectors orthogonal two by two in named
orthonormal basis and the coordinates of a vector in an orthonormal basis
are called Euclidean coordinates.
In Euclidean geometry we demonstrate that into a point there exists
three perpendicular lines two by two from where results the existing of a
orthonormal Cartesian mark in the Euclidean punctual space 3.
If B = { i , j , k } is an orthonormal basis in V3 then
i i  j j  k k  1 , i j  i k  jk  0 , that is the scalar product of the
vectors of the basis B is given by the table
 i j k
i 1 0 0
j 0 1 0
k 0 0 1

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 The scalar product of two vectors a  a1i  a2 j  a3k and
b  b1i  b2 j  b3 k will have the canonical expression
a b  a1b1  a2b2  a3b3 (2.5)
The orthogonal projection of the vector a on the direction of the
vector i is given by
ai
pr i a  i  ( a i )i  a1i , analogous pr j a  a2 j and pr k a  a3 k .
ii
In this way the Euclidean coordinates of vector a represents the sizes f
the orthogonal projections of a on the three axes of the orthonormal
Cartesian mark . The analytic expression of the vector’s norm and the angle
between two vectors will be given by
|| a ||= a12  a22  a32 (2.6)
a1b1  a2b2  a3b3
cos(a , b ) = ,   [0, ] (2.7)
a1  a22  a32  b12  b22  b32
2

In private the vectors a and b are orthogonal if and only if

a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 = 0 (2.8)

§3. The vector product

Let be the vectors a and b  V3. For a  0 and b  0 we note

with   [0, ] the angle between a and b .

3.1 Definition. We call vector product the binary internal operation

“”:V3  V3  V3 , which to the ordinate pair ( a , b ) associates the
vector c noted with a  b , characterized by

1° || a  b || = || a ||  || b ||  sin 
2° c = a  b is orthogonal on a and b
3° The sense of the vector c = a  b is given by the law
of the right hand when we rotate a over b under a pointed angle(the law
of the right auger)(fig.4)

7
 a b

b


a
fig.4

If we noted with e the versor of the orthogonal direction on a and

b then
a  b = || a ||  || b ||  sin   e .

3.2Propozitie. The vector product has the following properties:

1. a  b = - b  a (anticomutativity)
2. a  ( b + c ) = a  b + a  c (distributivity)
3. ( a )  b = a  ( b ) =   a  b (homogeneity)
4. for a , b  0 , a  b  0  b  a
5. for b   a , the norm || a  b || represents the area of the
parallelogram constructed n the representants in a point of the
vectors a and b .

Demonstration.
1.From the definition of the vector product results that the vectors a
 b and b  a have the same norm, the same direction, but different
senses.
2.Let’s consider the representants OA , OB and OC of the vectors
a and b and respective c in point O E3 and the plane  through O
perpendicular on the direction of the vector a .(fig.5)
D A
C

B C

D
O 
B
B
C
D
 

8
 fig.5
If we note with OB '  pr  OB , OC '  pr  OC we obtain
a  b = || a ||  || b ||  sin   e1 = || a ||  || OB' ||  e1 = OA  OB' = OB ' '
analogous a  c = OA  OC ' = OC ' '
If OB + OC = OD and the parallelogram OB’D’C’ is the
projection of the parallelogram OBCD on the plane , then
OD '  OB 'OC ' = pr  OD .
The vector OB ' ' is obtained rotating with an angle of /2 the vector
OB ' in the plane , and multiplying the vector obtained with || a ||.
Analogous we obtain OC ' ' from OC ' . By rotateing the parallelogram
OB’D’C’ with an angle of /2 and multiplying with || a || we obtain a
parallelogram, too (like the first one) from where results that OD ' '  OD '
and || OD ' ' || = || OD ' ||  || OA ||.
So
a  (b  c )  OA  OD  OA  OD '  OD' '  OB' '  OC ' '
 OA  OB'  OA  OB'  a  b  a  b

Similarly we can demonstrate the distributivity of the vector product to

respect to the first factor, that is

(a  b )  c )  a  c  b  c

3. For  > 0, the vector  a has the direction and sense of a and (
a ) b and ( a  b ) have the same direction and sense. In plus,
| (a )  b |  | a |  | b |  sin   |  | | a | | b | sin  
 |  | | a  b |  |  (a  b ) |

For  < 0, the vector  a has the direction and sense of - a and ( a
) b and ( a  b ) have the same direction and sense. In plus,

| (a )  b |  | a |  | b |  sin(   )  |  | | a | | b | sin(   ) 

 |  | | a  b |  |  (a  b ) |

Analogous we can demonstrate that a  ( b ) =  ( a  b ).

For  = 0, from 3 results that a  0 = 0 .

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 4. If a , b  0 , from a  b = 0 results that || a  b || = 0  sin =
0, that is the vectors a and b are collinear, b =  a .
From the definition of the vector product we have that || a  a || = 0,
from where we obtain a  a = 0 .
If b =  a then a  b = a ( a ) =  ( a  a ) = 0.
5. For a and b that are not collinear we construct the parallelogram
OACB (fig.6)
C
B
h
 A
0
fig.6

|| a  b || || OA  OB ||  || OA ||  || OB ||  sin   || OA ||  h
that is the area of the parallelogram determined by a and b .

If B ( i , j , k ) is an orthonormal basis in V 3 then using the

definition of the vector space and its properties, we obtain the table

 i j k
i 0 k -
j (3.1)
j -k 0 i
k j -i 0

Thus, the vector product of two vectors a and b ,

a  a1i  a2 j  a3 k and b  b1i  b2 j  b3 k , will have the canonical
expression

a  b  ( a2b3  a3b2 )i  ( a3b1  a1b3 ) j  ( a1b2  a2b1 ) k (3.2)

The canonical expression (3.2) can be obtained by developing

by the first line the formal determinant.

10
 i j k
a  b  a1 a2 a3 (3.2)
b1 b2 b3

Two vectors are collinear ( a  b = 0 ) if and only if

a1 a2 a3
  (3.3)
b1 b2 b3

3.3 Propozitie. For any two vectors a and b is satisfy the Lagrange’s
identity  :

( a b )2 + ( a  b )2 = || a ||2  || b ||2 (3.4)

Demonstration. From the definition of the scalar product we have

, and ( a  b )2 = a  b
2 2 2
cos 2  sin 2 
2 2
( a b )2 = a  b  a  b

Summing these two vectors we obtain the equality (3.4).

§4. The double vector product

4.1 Definition. Let be the vectors a , b , c  V3. We call double vector

product of vectors a , b , c the vector

v  a  (b  c ) (4.1)

From the definition of the vector product results that the vector v is
coplanar with the vectors b and c (the vectors from the brackets).If we
construct the vector ( a  b )  c = w , this will be a coplanar vector with
a and b from where results that
v  a  (b  c )  (a  b )  c  w

We can demonstrate easy, using the analytic expressions of the vectors

a , b , c , the developing formula of the double vector product

a  (b  c )  (a  c )b  (a  b )c (4.2)
or under the shape of the symbolic determinant

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 b c
a  (b  c ) 
ab ac
(4.3)

§5. The mixed product

5.1 Definition. Let be the vectors a , b , c  V3. We call mixed

product of vectors a , b , c the real number ( a , b , c ) given by

(a , b , c ) = : a (b  c ) (5.1)

5.2 Theorem. The mixed product has the following properties:

1) ( a1  a2 , b , c ) = ( a1 , b , c ) + ( a2 , b , c )
2) ( a , b , c ) =  ( a , b , c )
3) ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) =  ( a , a , a ) ,   S3,  =  1.
(1) ( 2) (3)

4) ( a , b , c ) = 0  a , b , c are linear dependent (coplanar)

5) |( a , b , c )| = Vol .a ,b ,c , for  a , b , c  V 3 \ {0}

The properties 1) and 2), additivity and homogeneity, results from the
definition of the mixed product and it spreads for any factor.
The property 3) can be equivalent expressed through the properties:

3) ( a , b , c ) = ( b , a , c ) = ( c , a , b )

which express the unvariation of the mixed product at the circular

permutation, that is  = + 1
(  S3 - even permutation ) and
3) ( a , b , c ) = - ( b , a , c ) ,

and the other suitable relations for the uneven permutations which express
the anticomutativity property for any two enclosed factors.
The equivalence 4) immediately results for almost a factor equal with
the null vector, and for a , b , c  V 3\ {0}, the cancellation of the mixed
product is equivalent with the vector’s orthogonality a and b  c , that is
the coplanarity of the vectors a , b and c .

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 If we note with Vol .a ,b ,c the volume of the parallelepiped formed by
the vector’s representants a , b , c into a point O  E3 (fig.7 ) and note
with  = < ( b , c ) , with  = < ( a , b  c ), we obtain

(a , b , c ) || a ||  || b  c ||  cos   (|| a ||  cos  )  || b  c ||

  h  A (b ,c )   Vol .a ,b ,c

A
b c
a
 h
c C


O b B
fig.7

If B = ( i , j , k ) is a orthonormal basis in vector space of free

vectors V 3, and a = a1i + a2 j + a3 k , b  b1i  b2 j  b3 k and
c  c1i  c2 j  c3 k are analytic expressions of vectors a , b and
respective c , then the mixed product has the canonical expression given by

a1 a2 a3
( a ,b , c )  b1 b2 b3 (5.2)
c1 c2 c3

Counting the properties of the determinants and the analytic canonical

expression of
the mixed product con be easily checked the properties 1-5.
We say that a basis B = { a , b , c }  V 3 is positive (negative)
orientated if the mixed product ( a , b , c ) is positive (negative).

§6.Problems

13
 1. Demonstrate that in any triangle: a) medians; b) highs; c)
bisections; d) mediations, are concurrent.

2. Being given two cords AMB and CMD perpendicular between

them in a circle with the center O, demonstrate that:
MA  MB  MC  MD  2 MO

3. H is the orthocenter of the triangle ABC if and only if takes place

the equalities: HA  HB  HB  HC  HC  HA .

4. In a thethraedru ABCD, the opposite edges are perpendicular two

by two if and only if : AB  AC  AB  AD  AC  AD .

5. The lines that join the middles of the opposite edges of a

thethraedru are concurrent.

6. Demonstrate that, if the vectors a  2m  n and b  m  n are

collinear, then the vectors m and n are collinear.

7. Let be a  m  2n , b  m  3n , where || m || = 5 , || n || = 3 ,

( m' , n' ) = . Calculate :
2
a) the length of the parallelogram’s diagonals constructed on a and
b  ;
b) the angle between the diagonals;
c) the area of the parallelogram determined by a and b .

8.  Let be a and b  two perpendicular vectors, with || a || = 3, || b || =

4.
Calculate || (3a  b )  (a  2b ) ||.

9. Let be m , n , p vectors that are not coplanar. Study the liniar

independence
of the vectors

a  2m  3n  p

b  m  n  2 p
 c m n


10. Demonstrate the Jacobi’s identity:

14
 a  (b  c )  c  ( a  b )  b  ( c  a )  0

11. Demonstrate the relation (a  b , b  c , c  a )  (a , b , c ) 2 . If

a  b , b  c , c  a are coplanar, then they are also collinear.

12. Prove the Lagrange’s identity:

(a  b ) 2 + || a  b ||2 = a 2  b 2 .
13. Let be a , b , c that are not coplanar. Show that exists vectors
a ' , b ' , c ' with the properties:

a'  a = 1, a'  b = 0, a '  c = 0

b'  a = 0, b'  b = 1, b'  c = 0
c'  a = 0, c'  b = 0, c'  c = 1

14. If a ' , b' , c' are the mutual of the vectors a , b , c , we’re asking:

a) to express the mixed product ( a ' , b' , c ' ) function to the

mixed product
( a , b , c ). In which conditions a ' , b' , c ' are collinear?
b) demonstrate that the volume of the thethraedru constructed on
the vectors a '  ( a  b ) , b'  (b  c ) , c'  (c  a ) is equal
with the volume of the thethraedru constructed on a , b , c .
c) deduce the equality a '  (a  b )  c'  (c  b ) .

15. Let be v  2i  j  k . Determine  and  such that v is

perpendicular on the vectors a  i  4 j  2k and
b  3i  3 j  k . Calculate the angle between v and a  b .

16. The vectors v1  aj  bk , v2   ai  ck , v3  bj  cj are

given. Calculate: ( v1 , v2 , v3 ), v1  ( v2  v3 ) and v1 + v2 +
v3 .

17. Determine  such that the vectors v1 = i  2 j  3k , v2 =

2i  j  2k , v2 = = i  j  k are coplanar and find the relation of
linear dependence.

18. Calculate the area and the height from A in the triangle ABC
given by A (0, 1, 0), B ( 2, 0, 1), C ( -1, 0, -4).

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 19. Calculate the volume of the thethraedru ABCD an the height
from A, where
A ( 3, 2, -1), B ( 4, 3, -1), C ( 5, 3, -1), D ( 4, 2, 1).

20. Consider the points A (a, 0, 0), B (0, b, 0), C ( 0, 0, c). Show that
the area of the triangle ABC is at least equal with a4 + b4 + c4. In
which conditions the equality takes place?

21. Are given the vectors p , q , r that are not coplanar and u =
p - 2q +
+3 r , v =  p - q + r , w = 3 p + q - r .
a) determine   R such that V( u , v , w ) = 5V( p , q , r ).
b) in the case when  = 2 and the vectors form a regulate
thethraedru with the side 1, determine the angle between a and
the plane determined by v and w .
22. Solve the equation x  ( x  a )  b ( a , b - given).

23. If ( a , b , c )  0, solve the system:

x a  0

x b  0
 x c 1


24. Consider the system

x  ( y  a )  b
 where a  b  0
y  (x  b )  a

a) show that the system has solutions if and only if || || = || || and

a b
solve it in this case
b) if a  b , then x  y .Is the reciprocal true?

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