TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSING -I

Prof. V. SIVALINGAM
 Fashion and Textiles Department
Course Content
Session 1
The gamut of chemical processing, Introduction to pre-treatment, dyeing, printing, and
finishing.
Session 2
How processes are connected and how a particular sequence is chosen for a specific look
of finish. Various consideration in making this choice.
Session 3
Cotton impurities, grey-room operations, singeing, desizing, scouring
Session 4
Bleaching with various chemicals and antichlor treatment.
Session 5
Mercerizing, souring, optical whitening, bio-polishing.
Session 6
Wool impurities, it’s scouring and bleaching.
Session 7
Silk impurities, its degumming and bleaching.
Session 8
Man-made fibers, their scouring, bleaching and heat setting.
Session 9
Basic machines and technology usually involved in above processes, qualitative tests.
Session 10
Color theory, dyes and pigments, dye classification as per application. Significance of
commercial dye names. Introduction to various dyeing terms - dye bath, temperature
control, rate of dyeing, M/L ratio, percentage shade, auxiliaries, fastness properties, wash
cycles.
Session 11
Dyeing machines for fiber/yarn/fabric/garment dyeing. Choice of dyes as per fiber, form,
color and fastness properties.
Session 12
Dyeing of cellulosic fibers (cotton, and rayon) with direct, reactive
Session 13
Dyeing of cellulosic fibers with vat and sulfur dyes
Session 14
Dyeing of cellulosic fibers with Napthol (Azoic), aniline black,
Session 15
Dyeing of cellulosic fibers with mineral khaki and pigments.
Session 16
Natural dyeing. Awareness about the environmental aspects.
GREY ROOM OPERATIONS

Fabric inspection involves following three processes

•Perching
•Burling
•Mending

Perching It is a visual inspection and it is carried out through the inspection table which
consists of a frosted glass with lights behind and above it.
The fabric imperfections like thick places, defects, yarn knots, stains and other flaws are
marked.

Burling It is the removal of yarn knots or other imperfection from the fabric.

Mending is the actual repair of imperfections.

The recent innovation by the use of laser beams.
The imperfections like stains, holes, hick places, loose ends and protruding threads of
warp and weft are detected.
The apparatus works by the on-line system and eliminates human error.

Sewing After the goods have been inspected, checked and classed in the grey room,
according to quality and stamped, they are sewn together, end to end, by sewing
machines especially constructed for this purpose

PREPARATORY OPERATIONS

The main objectives:

Removes all impurities from the fiber, both naturals and / or those added during
production that may interfere in subsequent dyeing and / or finishing process.
Improve the ability of the fibers to absorb water solutions of dyes and chemicals.

Impart the proper brightness or whiteness to fabrics according to need, especially when
brilliant or certain pastel shades are desired.

SINGING

In this process fuzzy and protruding fibres are removed by burning them off.

The main purposes are the fabrics that are required a clear and smooth surface for
printing

Usually performed on both sides of the fabric

In a singer, a fabric is passed over open flame at very high speed(200-400 mts/min)to
prevent scorching, then passed through water ( or de-sizing bath) to extinguish any
sparks.

Uneven singeing may lead unlevel dyeing. Therefore, the fabric is passed through singer
flat,in open width and under slight tension.

The gas burner should be properly controlled and maintained; otherwise streaky dyeing
may occur

DE-SIZING
“Removal of starch from fabric”

Types of Desizing

Rot Steeping
Acid Steeping

Oxidative Desizing

Enzymatic Desizing

Rot Steeping :

This is the oldest and cheapest method because no chemical is used in this treatment.

The fabric is soaked in warm water and at 35 – 40°C temperature and passed through a
padding mangle and squeezed.
It is allowed to stand for 24 hrs.
After that hot washed.
During the storage the bacterial growth takes place, which helps effective removal starch
materials.
Advantages:
Advantages:
Most economical and simplest process

Disadvantages:
Time consuming
Unevenness in desizing;
No control over the process.

Acid Steeping:

In this method, dilute hydro choleric acid or sulphuric acid or a mixture of both are used
to hydrolyze the starch from the sized fabric.

The fabric is steeped in 0.25% (10 g/l) of the acid, passed through padding mangle and
kept for 6 hrs.

The temperature rises to 50C.

The starch present in the fabric is liquefied and is easily removed by washing.

Since, acid can attack cellulose care have to be taken to avoid damage of cotton.

The fabric should be washed with hot water after desizing.

Advantage:
The time consumption is reduced compare with rot steeping

Disadvantage:
There is no control over the process.

Oxidative Desizing:

In this process starch is oxidized.

The commonly used oxidative desizing agents are Hydrogen per oxide, Sodium bromide,
Ammonium persulphate
Hydrogen peroxide of 1-2 volume concentration & caustic soda (7-15 gpl ) is prepared
in padder
The cloth is first impregnated at room temperature and steamed for 3 minutes.
During this process some degree of bleaching also takes place.

Advantages
In this process the time required for desizing is less and the process is continuous.
Water and energy consumption is less
Combination with other preparatory process such as scouring and bleaching is possible
Excellent & uniform removal of size
Disadvantages

There may be possibilities of penta-chloro phenol content in the de-sized fabric that may
be harmful.
Expensive process.

Enzymatic Desizing:
The most effective and widely used method
Enzymes are bio-catalyst of organic origin which are produced by living organisms
Chemically enzymes are proteins of high molecular weights.
Amylases are the enzymes used in disizing.
They are two categories namely ά-amylase and β- amylases
These enzymes can be derived from sources like animal (pancreatic) and vegetable (malt
and bacterial)

Enzymes & Condition for Desizing

S.No Amylase Enzyme Conc. gpl Temp C pH

1 Malt 5 - 20 50 -60 6.0 – 7.5

2 Pancreatic 1-3 50 -60 6.5 – 7.5
3 Bacterial 0.5 - 1 60 -70 5.5 – 7.5

Enzymatic Desizing

The fabric is passed slowly through a saturator where it is thoroughly impregnated with
the desizing bath and then stored for 8 -12 hrs usually in the rollers.
The impregnating bath is prepared with the required amount of the enzyme, a wetting
agent and a proper salt ( sodium polyphosphate or NaCl )

After batching, the fabric is thoroughly washed with hot water

High Temperature – Enzymatic Desizing

Enzyme application is performed at high temperature where desizing can be achieved in a

short time as in the continuous pad-steam process.
The fabric is padded with enzyme bath and then passed into wet steam chamber at 96°C
- 100°C.
The desizing can be completed in less than one minute

SCOURING

Scouring is the process of removal of natural oil substances like waxes, fats and
pectin's as well as added impurities like lubricating oil, dust, dirt and residual starch in
the cotton materials .
The reaction takes place during scouring :-
Oils, waxes and free fatty acids are emulsified by the soaps
Pectin's are converted into soluble salts
Proteins are degraded to simple soluble amino acids and mineral matter is dissolved
Dirt is removed and other added impurities are broken into soluble products

Kier Boiling:
A kier is a cylindrical vessel capable of holding 250 to 5000 kgs of fabric. It is provided
with temperature, pressure gauge and safety valve.
For kier boiling, a mixture of 5-10 g/l caustic soda solution, 1% sodium silicate, 1% soap
along with wetting agent.
The circulation of hot alkaline liquor through the fabric is carried out under pressure ( at
25-30 psi and 130-135 °C) for period of 6-12 hrs, depending on the type of fabric.
In atmospheric scouring process (open kiering) are at 95-98°Cfor 4-6 hrs
After that hot and cold washes are given to complete the process.

J-Box – Continuous Scouring:

In continuous machines, scouring can be carried out through a series of J-Boxes for
progressive desizing and scouring.
The desized and washed fabric is padded with strong alkali solution (5-10 gm/lit NaOH
or mixture of NaOH & sodium carbonate), emulsifying agent and wetting agent.
After padding the saturated cloth, it enters in to J-Box where it remains for 40-60 mins in
plaited form at a temperature of about 100°C.
The cloth before entering J-Box is rapidly preheated by means of steam in U- shaped
heating tube.
The internal surface of the entire J-Box is very smooth to avoid any friction an the
moving cloth.
BLEACHING

To remove the natural coloring matters and make the fabric in required whiteness with
minimum damage to fibers, and within the shortest possible time.

Types of Bleaches

Full-Bleach
It is done generally when highest degree of whiteness is required and going to be used as
a white fabric for apparels or to be printed with white background.
This is achieved by bleaching with hypochlorite followed by hydrogen peroxide bleach.

Half-Bleach
It is done for fabrics meant for dyeing and printing where more absorbency is required
than the whiteness and fabrics going to be used during finishing.
This is generally done using by bleaching with hypochlorite or hydrogen peroxide of
adequate concentration.
Oxidizing Bleaching agents:

Sodium hypo chlorite, Sodium chlorite, sodium perborate, sodium percorbonate

Hydrogen peroxide. “Universal bleaching agent” Almost all cotton, silk, wool ;
polyester/cotton blends are bleached with hydrogen peroxide.

Sodium hypochlorite Bleaching:

The yarn or cloth after scouring is thoroughly washed before bleaching and is squeezed
or hydro extracted to remove excess of water as otherwise it would dilute the bleach
liquor or “chemicking”

In typical batch treatments of cotton fabrics with sodium hypochlorite in kiers, the
bleaching bath is prepared as follows:
Sodium hypochlorite1-3 gm/lit of available chlorine
Ph of the bath 11 – 11.5
Temperature
Room temperature (30 – 40 c)
Time ; 45 min – 2 hrs

Since the bleaching is done in alkaline medium (pH 10-11) the alkali, which is present in
the material has to neutralized with dilute mineral acid. It is referred as “souring”

Advantages
Powerful and economical method of processing.
Free from the defects of bleaching powder

Disadvantages
Excessive chlorine may cause pollution
All protein impurities must be completely removed before bleaching otherwise the fabric
may turns yellowish
Residual chlorine must be removed.

To remove the residual chlorine, the fabric is to be washed with sodium – thio -
sulphate (chlorine destroyer) or hydrogen peroxide (weak solution) the chlorine will
wash away.
This treatment is called “antichlor”

Hydrogen Peroxide Bleaching Process:

Bleaching bath is prepared as:

•Hydrogen peroxide (35%) - 4-8% o.w.f;
•Sodium hydroxide - 0.5-1% o.w.f;
•Sodium silicate -2-4% o.w.f;
•Wetting agent or detergent - when needed

Bleaching is carried out near or above boiling temperature, under pressure, for 1 hour or
more.
After bleaching, the fabric is thoroughly rinsed with slight amount of basic solution to
avoid formulation of insoluble silicates.

Advantages of bleaching with hydrogen peroxide :

Hydrogen per oxide is a universal and is used extensively for the bleaching of cotton
materials.
It can be employed for bleaching fibers like wool, silk, polyester and other man- made
fibers also, under a wide range of application conditions.
It requires less manipulation of fabric and hence less labor.
labor.
The loss in weight of fabric in bleaching is less than that with hypochlorite bleaching.
Per oxide bleached are more absorbent than hypochlorite bleached fabrics.
No possibilities of yellowing of fabric.

Continuous Bleaching Process:

In this process desizing, scouring and bleaching are combined together. These are very
attractive options since savings in time, energy, labor,
labor, etc., are possible.
However, combined operations are not always sufficient for preparation of certain cotton
fabrics for dyeing and finishing.

In this method, the fabric is padded with the enzyme bath and then passed into a wet
steam chamber at 960C- 1000C where the desizing takes place in less than a minute.

The fabric after desizing is impregnated a solution of 4-6% NaOH, 1-3 g/l wetting agent,
and 1-3 g/l emulsifier at the period of 2-3 minutes.

The fabric after impregnation is taken out and piled into J-box at 980C and allowed to
remain there for two hours during which period the alkali reacts with the impurities.

Continuous Bleaching Process: J- B0X

The fabric is then rinsed and impregnated with 1% hydrogen peroxide at pH 10.5-
using1% sodium silicate as a stabilizer and wetting agent.
The cloth after impregnation is again heated to 90-95ºC and stored for an hour in J- box.
It is then rinsed thoroughly.

Continuous Bleaching Process: VAPORLOC MACHINE

Pressure bleaching, which is also a rapid system, where fabric is first scoured in an
alkaline bath with 80gpl NaOH and an anionic detergents,
Then steamed for 40 seconds at 1300C in a vaporloc chamber and subsequently taken for
bleaching range where the impregnation is done with 20gpl H2O2 (35%).
10 gpl sodium silicate, 1gpl NaOH, 10gpl organic stabilizer, and a wetting agent then
steamed for 2minutes at 100-1030C.
The fabric is washed in a continuous washing range.
In this process the total time required is less then 5 minutes.

BIO POLISHING

•Surface modification of cellulosic fabrics to improve their cleaner surface, cooler feel,
brighter luminosity of color, softer feel, more resistance to pill using cellulase enzyme is
called bio-polishing
•Can be applied to woven and knit cellulosic fabrics like cotton,linen,rayon and their
blends.
•The elimination of micro fibrils of the cotton fibers is obtained by the controlled
hydrolysis of cellulose.
•Bio-polishing may be carried out at any time during wet processing, it is most
conveniently performed after bleaching

OPTICAL BRIGHTENERS- fluorescent whiteners (FWA)

(FWA)

The purpose is to obtain extraordinary brilliant whiteness to cotton materials. Optical

brighteners acts as fluorescent dyes and they are colorless
They absorb light near to ultraviolet region (below 400nm) and re-emit the light in the
violet blue visible region.
Near white bleached cloth, possesses a yellowness caused by absorption in the blue
region.
When FWA is applied, the blue florescence complements the yellowness and adds a
bluish hue to the fabrics, which the eye appreciates as brilliant white.

Application of Optical Brighteners:

The application of optical brighteners are depends on the types of fibres.

Classified as direct, disperse and cationic types.
types.
The direct brightening agents are mainly used for the brightening of cotton, linen, viscose
and nylon materials.
The acid florescent brightening agents serve mainly for the brightening of silk and wool
fabrics.
The disperse florescent brightening agents are used primarily for polyester, acetate and
acrylic materials.

MERCERIZATION

Definition:
The treatment of cotton fabrics or yarns with a cold concentrated solution of Sodium
hydroxide solution for one minute or less is called mercerization.
Cotton fibers swell, untwist and their bean shaped cross section changes into round
form.

Mercerization improves the following properties :

Internal reorientation of cellulose structure modified
Strength is increased to 15-25%; It also improves elasticity and dimensional stability
Luster and feel further enhanced; It also improves absorbency of water, dyes and other
finishing chemicals.
Increases the uniformity of dyeing and improvising the color yield by increasing the dye
affinity, resulting enhanced color fastness & saving in cost of dyestuffs

Mercerization Process :
Fabric is padded with about 20-25% NaOH solution containing a wetting agent.
Passed over several cans to allow a doweling time of approximately one minute.
During this time NaOH will penetrate the fibers and react with them.
At this stage the tension is applied lengthwise.
The fabric is then placed on a tenter frame and is pulled to its desired dimensions
(Tension is applied in both the warp and filling direction).
While on the tenter frame, the fabric is washed by spraying water until the concentration
of Sodium Hydroxide is reduced to less percent.
Then the fabric is washed by passing through several washers, one of which contains a
diluted sulphuric acid or acetic acid.

PREPARATION OF WOOL:

Impurities present in wool are animal fat, suint (dried perspiration) dirt and mineral
matter.
•Animal fat is a wax which can be removed by the formation of emulsion with alkali.
•Suint is soluble in water
•The dirt and sand in the wool are removed during scouring by mechanical agitation

CLEANING OF WOOL

Wool Scouring:

The technique consists of passing wool fibres through a series of four long narrow bowls
containing soap or non-ionic synthetic detergents and sodium carbonate at a temperature
of 40-550 C.
 Detergent Soda ash pH Temperature

1-bowl 0.25% 0.25% 9-10 48-520C

2-bowl 0.2% ---- 10 46-500C

3-bowl 0.1% --- ---- 43-460C

4-bowl Fresh water wash alone 40-450C

•Raw wool scouring machine contains four bowls. Each bowl consists of a long trough
provided with a false bottom.
•Soap and alkali are added to the first bowl
•Detergent is added to the 2nd & 3rd bowls and only water in the 4th bowl.

Carbonizing:
Cellulose material such as leaves, grass, seeds, and vegetable fibers are removed.
The fabric (some time’s loose fibers) is treated with a dil. Solution. Of H 2SO4, then
dried, and cured.
Cellulose materials decompose to form a very fine black powder, which can be easily
dusted out.

Wool bleaching:
Two methods of bleaching are commonly used,
•The oxidation method using hydrogen peroxide
•The reduction method employing sulphur dioxide, sodium bisulphate or sodium
hydrosulphite.
•Sometimes the wool is bleached with peroxide followed by bleaching with sulphur
dioxide.
•A method of peroxide bleaching under acidic conditions as follows;
►The bath is made up of 4 volume of H2O2 containing 0.25% formic acid and adjusted
to pH 3 to 3.5 at room temperature.
►The scoured material is impregnated with the peroxide solution on a padding mangle,
and allowed to stand overnight, it is then washed.

PREPARATION OF SILK

Silk is a protein fibre made up of fibre forming protein called fibroin.

This fibre forming protein is coated heavily with a gum protein called sericin, which
gives it a harsh and stiff feel and hides the rich luster and whiteness of the silk filament.
A typical silk filament is composed of
Fibroin- 75-80%
 Sericin- 20-25%

This sericin gum has to be removed as the first preparatory process of silk before dyeing.

CLEANING OF SILK

Degumming with Synthetic Detergents:

•Synthetic detergents are now being increasingly used in place of soap.

•Their main advantage is that they permit continues processing of piece goods and the
time of treatment is shorter 40 minutes.
►In this method, the material is treated with 2.5 to 5 g/l detergent (Sandopan SRS liq. of
Sandoz) at pH 11.2 to 11.5 for 30 to 60 monutes at boil
►then rinsed thoroughly first with hot water and then with cold water.

The disadvantage of this method is that soft feel is not always obtained.

Degumming with Enzymes:

Treatment with some protien enzimes like trypsin or papain may dissolve the sericin
gum. The treatment is time consuming and involves three step process.
This treatment is longer than that with synthetic detergents

I Step
The material is first treated with 0.5 g/l soda ash ; 0.5 g/l Glauber’s salt ; 3 g/l penetrating
agent like Imerol XN liq. (Sandoz); at boil for about 1 hour.

II Step
It is then treated with 1-5 gpl sericin dissolving enzyme(trypsin or papain),1gpl soda ash,
2gpl glauber’s salt at 450C.

III Step
The above material is treated in the 3rd bath with 0.5gpl soda ash, 2gpl sodium silicate,
2gpl penetrating agent and 0.5gpl glauber’s salt at boil for one hour.

Bleaching of Silk:

The process is consists of boiling the material with 1-2 volumes of hydrogen peroxide
concentration (0.3-0.6%) and 2gpl sodium silicate for 2hrs, which is followed by a hot
wash.
As an alternate method, the amount of silicate can be reduced using a small portion of
ammonia to bring the pH to 10. Here the mixture of 0.8gpl ammonia and 1.5gpl sodium
silicate, the temperature is kept at 70-750C & time 5-6 hrs.
The silk is then soaped at 80-850C, and washed hot and cold water
PRE TREATMENT FOR POLYESTER

Fabrics made for 100% polyester containing size material, spin finishes, coning oil and
tinting colors as major impurities, and do not have any natural impurities.

De – Sizing:

► Polyester fabric consists of only water-soluble size materials such as polyvinyl alcohol
etc.
►Which can be removed by a treatment with a mild alkali such as polyvinyl carbonate
(up to 4 gpl detergent a 70-80̊ C for one hour.
►The fabric is then washed hot and cold.

Scouring :

100% polyester fabric can be scoured using 1-5gpl sodium carbonate and 1-5 gpl
detergent at a temperature 60-700C for 60-90min using a jet dyeing machine or any other
dyeing machine.

Bleaching :

For full white fabrics, Polyester can be treated with 1-5 gpl sodium chlorite, 1-2 gpl
sodium nitrate and 1-2 gpl formic acid (85%) (pH 4.5) at boil for 60-90 minutes.
The goods are washed hot and cold.

HEAT – SETTING OF SYNTHETIC FABRICS

Heat setting or thermosetting is a heat treatment applied to fabrics made of thermoplastic

fibers such as polyester or nylon to impart dimensional stability.
Heat – setting temperatures are well above the glass transition temperature (Tºg) of the
fiber,
H
eat is applied by means of hot air, heated cans, or steam.
The treated fabric acquires dimensional stability, i.e. a memory to the shape it was during
the heat setting.
setting.
It will resist shrinkage and creasing, and will have the ability to maintain pleats present in
the garment during the heat – setting treatment.
In a typical heat – setting of polyester, the fabric is placed on a stenter frame set to the
desired final width
and introduced into a hot – air oven at a constant temperature chosen in the range of 190 -
215ºC for 30 to 90 seconds.
Heat – setting affects the dye ability of the fiber. Usually it decreases its dye-ability, and
therefore when performed before dyeing it is extremely important to apply the heat –
setting uniformly.
Uneven temperature in the oven may cause difference in the fabric from the selvedge-to-
selvedge and/ or from selvedge to center, which will show later as uneven dyeing.

SELECTION OF PROCESS SEQUENCE

The fabric preparation depend on type of fibres and fibre blend composition, yarns, fabric
quality parameters, size type, colour fastness properties requirement and endues.
endues.
1.Cotton knitted fabrics are subjected to a modified routine in which singeing and
desizing stages are some times omitted.
2.
2.Where as for woven fabrics desizing can not be omitted.
3.
3.Synthetic fibers are produced under controlled conditions and contain only added
impurities, there cleaning is comparatively easy.
4.
4. Preparation of fabric also depends on the end requirement.

PROCESS SEQUENCE FOR COTTON FABRIC TO KIER

Method A:
For white / printing: (Poplin, Cambric, Rubia, Mulls etc..)
Grey → scour in kier → Rinse in kier → Wash → → Wash → Open boil kier using
H2O2 → Rinse in kier → wash → Dry.

PROCESS SEQUENCE FOR COTTON FABRIC TO KIER

Method B:
For dyeing: (Poplin, Cambric, Rubia, Mulls etc.) Grey mercerized

Desize → Wash → scour in under pressure → Wash → Open boil in kier using H 2O2 →
Rinse in kier → Wash → Dry.

PROCESS SEQUENCE FOR COTTON FABRIC ON J – BOX

Method A :
For white / Printing :
Grey mercerize → Desize in J – Box → Wash → Caustic saturator → steam in J – Box
→ Wash → bleach saturator → Store in J- Box → Peroxide saturator → Steam in J –
box → Wash → Dry.

PROCESS SEQUENCE FOR KNITTED COTTON GOODS

For white goods :
Hypochlorite bleach → Reduction or peroxide bleach + Fluorescent Whitening Agent
(FWA)

PROCESS SEQUENCE FOR WOOLLEN FABRIC

Greasy wool → Scouring → Carding → Combing → Combed Tops → (Top Dyeing)
→ Recombing → Drawing and Spinning ( yarn Dyeing ) → Weaving /knitting →
Fabric Dyeing → Finishing

PROCESS SEQUENCE FOR SILK FABRIC

Grey Inspection → Degumming → Bleaching → Dyeing → Stentering → Felt
calendaring → Curing → Decatising ( to impact fluffy & soft feel)

PROCESS SEQUENCE FOR POLYESTER FABRIC

Heat setting → Scouring → Bleaching → Weight reduction → Dyeing → Drying on
Stenter (heat setting).

PROCESS SEQUENCE FOR POLYESTER / COTTON BLENDS

For Dyeing :
Desizing → Scouring → Mercerizing → Heat setting → Bleaching → Dyeing → Anti
pilling → Stentering or Sanforizing.

PROCESS SEQUENCE FOR POLYESTER / WOOL BLENDS

General :
Grey Inspection → Removal of stains → Scouring → Pre – setting ( setting of wool
component by crabbing ) → Drying → Heat – setting → Dyeing → Brushing and
cropping → Singeing → Steam or Damp → Decatising or Pressing.

CLASSIFICATION OF DYES

There are several different ways by which coloring materials are classified; the
following are the most useful ones for the dyer:
dyer:

1. Classification according to solubility

•Soluble dyes (anionic or cationic)
•Disperse dyes (non ionic, very slightly water soluble)
•Pigments (insoluble)

2. Classification according to method of application

•Acid dyes (protein fibers, polyamides, etc.)
•Basic dyes (acrylics, basic dyeablepolyester, etc.)
•Pre metalized acid dyes (protein fibers,
•Chrome or modrant dyes (protein fibers,
•Direct dyes (cellulosic, and some others)
•Azoic dyes (cellulosic)
•Vat dyes (cellulosic)
•Reactive dyes (cellulosic, and some others)
•Disperse dyes (polyester, acetates, polyamides, acrylics, and other hydrophobic fibers)

3. Classification according to chemical constitution

•Azo dyes and pigments (mono \Azo, diazo, etc.)
•Carbonyl dyes and pigments (anthraquinone and indigo derivatives)
•Cyanine dyes
•DI and triphenylmethane dyes
•Phthalocyanine dyes and pigments

IMPORTANT PROCESS PARAMETERS OF DYEING

Dye bath:
For the reproducibility, all the amount of dyes and dyeing assistants and the liquor ratio
used should be measured and recorded accurately, in order to be followed precisely in
future runs.
All dyeing assistants in any dye bath should be used only if necessary.
Using excessive amounts (larger than recommended) of any additive should be avoided.

The concentrated Dye solution:

To insure uniformity throughout the dyeing bath, a small solution or dispersion of the dye
(s) is made first.
Extreme care must be practiced in the preparation of these concentrated solutions or
dispersions.
Un-dissolved or un-dispersed dye particles, may cause un-level dyeing or form specks on
the goods.
Therefore, the dye solution is filtered through a coarse filter before entering the system.
Also, when preparing concentrated solutions, dyes and dyeing assistants should not be
mixed together in their concentrated form unless specifically required.

Material to liquor (M: L) ratio:

This ratio indicates how much liquor is to be taken for dyeing a given weight of the
material .
The total quantity of water to be taken for dyeing depend upon the weight of the material
to be dyed and is expressed in terms of M: L ratio .
Thus a Material : Liquor ratio of 1: 20 means that the weight of the liquor to be taken
should be 20 times the weight of the material to be dyed .

Percentage of shade:
It is based on the weight of the material taken for dyeing.
Thus when a 2% shade is to be produced on the cloth, then 2gm of dye is taken for every
100gm of cloth for dyeing .
The dyeing so produced gives a 2% shade .
It does not mean that the cloth contains 2gm of dye per 100gm of cloth after dyeing.
dyeing.
Wash cycles:
This treatment removes un-bonded dyes and dyeing assistants from the fibers ,
I
ts procedure varies from a mild rinse with warm water to the use of a detergent solution
at or near the boil.
With certain groups of dyes, a slight change of shade occurs at this stage for yielding the
true color.
Bleeding of dye from a new cloth in the first laundering could be the result of poor
rinsing in this final stage of dyeing process.
process.

COLOURING MATERIALS

Colour is one of the most important characteristics of apparel and home furnishing
products.
It is a significant factor in the aesthetic value and marketability of textile products.
Currently dyes and pigments are used to impart color to the textile materials. In
order to perform the coloring materials should have the following features.

S.NO PIGMENTS DYES

1 Intense color Intense color

2 Insoluble in water & Common Must have solubility in water during dyeing
solvents stage

3 Are not made to have Must have substantively to the fiber during
substantively to fibers dyeing stage.

4 Molecular size varies from small Molecular size must be small enough to allow
to large size the molecules to penetrate the fibers.

5 Stable to further treatments in Stable to further treatment in production and

Production &normal use normal use.
6 Durability depends upon binders Depends on chemical bond linkages.
used

IMPORTANT FEATURES OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF DYES

VAT DYES:

Vat dyes are insoluble organic compounds and it has substantive to cellulose.
Widely used for cellulose fibers can be used for protein and nylon fibers.
Produce good color range but limited selection of orange, blue and bright green.
green.
Large amount of dyes are required for deep shade.
Excellent fastness to washing.
Very good fastness to crocking, perspiration, chlorine bleaching, oxidizing and high
temperature treatments
Expensive process: High initial cost of dye and method of application

AZOIC / NAPHTHOL DYES:

Dyes are derived from aryl amides organic compounds;

Insoluble in water; Primarily used for cellulose fibers; some times also used for polyester
and triacetate to produce black shades;
Produces full range of red colors and Orange brilliant yellow along with maroons, scarlet
deep black and burgundies;
burgundies;
Azoic dyes lack green and bright blue colors.
colors.
Good color fastness to washing and dry cleaning;
Poor-good fastness to light;
Dark colors have poor fastness to crocking
Dyeing process is complexity and time consuming
DIRECT DYES:

Derived from formulation of Benzedrine salts;

Water soluble and Least expensive;
Easy to apply, can be applied directly without pretreatment, fixing agents are not
required;
Used only for cellulose fibers;
Wide range of colors and shades and not may bright colors;
Among bright colors, only bright greens, but more expensive than other color.
Good color fastness to perspiration/dry cleaning;
Light fastness varies widely from poor to very good;
Some direct dyes are metalized with copper to increase their light fastness; In other
cases, copper salts are applied as an after treatment for improving light/wash fastness.
Poor fastness to washing and crocking;
Used as back ground color for discharge printing
SULFUR DYES:

Derived from the formulation of compounds containing sulfur;

Water insoluble – applied in exhaust dyeing;
Water soluble – applied in continuous dyeing;
Widely used for celluloses;
Relatively easy way to dye cellulose’s with good-to-excellent washes and lights fastness
at a low cost;
Produces a complete rang of colors in “dull shade”;
Poor light fastness in pastel shades;
Mainly used for dyeing cellulose’s in black, brown, navy blue or olive, in medium to dark
shades;
Some yellows and blues are available but there is only one red and green dye.
dye.
Good fastness to light, washing, dry cleaning and perspiration;
Poor fastness to chlorine bleach;
Sulfur dyed materials higher than normal room temperature/presence of moisture tends
to oxidize form sulfur acids, then cause tendering to cellulose fabric.
fabric.

REACTIVE DYES:

Water soluble anionic dyes;

Procion-H type will react with cellulose in presence of sodium carbonate at the
temperature range of 75-90’C;
Procion-C type react at room temperature in presence of sodium carbonate;
carbonate;
Ramazol (Vinyl sulphone reactive dye) will react in presence of base under goes and
elimination reaction to form vinyl-sulphone group, which then combines with cellulose
and time consuming process;
Primarily used for cotton and other cellulose fiber at an alkaline pH of 9-12; Wool, silk
and polyamide fibers in weak acidic dye baths.
Available in complete range of colors including very bright colors;
Very good fastness to washing; Good-very good fastness to light; Good fastness to dry
cleaning, perspiration, crocking;
Poor fastness to chlorine bleaching;
Easy to obtain uniform level dyeing;
High flexibility in the choice of method of application;
Cost of using reactive dyeing is high, because cost of dye, loss of dyes during
application and extensive washing;
Excessive time required for the dyeing process.

DISPERSE DYES:

Non-ionic aromatic compounds with relatively low molecular weight, and has an
extremely low solubility in water;
Available in the form of powders, granular, liquid or paste; Sublimation takes place at
high temperature;
Dyeing is carried out high temperature/pressure;
Can be used for heat transfer printing;
Effective in polyester, Acetate, Tri Acetate; Can be used for nylon/acrylic and other
synthetic fibers.
Produces good color range except dark blue and black;
Good-excellent fastness to perspiration, crocking and dry cleaning;
Fair-Good fastness to light and washing;
When used on acetate poor fastness to light and subject to gas fading

BASIC DYES:

Dyes are derived from salts of tri phenyl methane derivatives;

Water-soluble and contains cationic group;
Mainly used for acrylic/mod acrylics;
Can be effective for wool and silk but poor fastness properties; Also being used for
nylon, polyester and cotton.
Produces complete range of bright colors;
Good color fastness to light, washing perspiration and crocking for acrylic and mod
acrylic;
Very poor fastness to washing and light on cotton, wool and silk.

ACID DYES:

Dyes of organic acids that are attract and attached the color to the fiber;
Available in the form of salts; Water-soluble and are applied in acid medium;
Mainly used for wool and silk; Acrylic, nylon and spandex.
Produces complete color range except bright red and greenish blue;
Bright colors tend to bleed;
Good colorfastness to light, dry cleaning and crocking;
Some colors have poor fastness to washing.

Chrome / mordant / metallic dyes:

Metallic salt of cobalt’s, aluminum or copper are added to dye molecules for fixing dyes;
Water soluble and are applied with acid medium;
Time consuming dyeing process;
Dyes are applied in fiber, yarn or fabric form;
Effective on wool & silk where maximum wet fastness is required;
Acrylic, nylon, polyester and spandex considered secondary importance
Excellent fastness to perspiration/washing;
Good fastness to light and dry cleaning;
Very good fastness to crocking

The selection of dyes depends on:

Suitability of dye to various uses of fabric;

Fiber Content and fabric structure;
Required color fastness; Penetration and absorption of dyes;
Cost of dye stuff; Methods of application

OBJECTIVES OF DYEING:

1. Color the Textile substrates [fibers, yarns, fabrics garments] uniformly and producing
uniform leveling.

2. Achieve acceptable durability of color to further treatments in production and normal

end use.

3. Reproducing the required shade from batch to batch

4. Using reasonably priced dyes and dyeing procedure

5. Operating according to ecological requirements and carrying out in the shortest

possible time

METHODS OF DYEING

“Solution dyeing” -“Dope Dyeing” –Mass Coloration”:

Method of coloring that is actually part of the manufacturing process of man made fibers;
The coloring agents are mixed to polymer solution of man-made fiber before it is
extruded through a spinneret.

Important features: -

Solution dyed colors are fade proof under all conditions;

Color fastness to light is out standing mainly used for Draperies, out door carpets,
Automotive fabrics other applications where long sun light exposure is needed.
To produce darker shades in blue, black, brown and green, widely used in fashion
apparel fabrics because, range of colors is very limited.
limited.

Very expensive
Perfect color re production consistency from dye lot to lot can be achieved.
Solution-dyed fabrics of acetate do not gas fade.

DYEING MACHINES / EQUIPMENTS

OBJECTIVES OF DYEING MACHINES

To provide maximum contact between the dye liquor and the fibers within reasonable
amount of time, without causing damage to the substrates.
STOCK DYEING:

Circulating the dye liquor continuously through loose fibers.

Important features:
Expensive method of dyeing;
Production is less10-15% waste of dyed fibers during yarn spinning;
Excellent penetration of dye in to fiber;
Fashion risk - final color of the fabric has to be desired earliest stage in its manufacture;
Reason for use: Heather-like effect’ for woolen yarns or to produce “Melange yarns”

YARN DYEING:

Dyeing is carried out in yarn stage;

Cheaper than stock dyeing;
Excellent color penetrations of dye into fiber than piece dyeing;

Reason for use:

To produce stripes, plaids and checks and other multi colored designs.

SKEIN DYEING:

Immersing large loosely wound hanks (skeins) of yarn into dye vats;
Suitable for knits and carpets where a fuller bulk is more desirable;
Cotton, woolen, silk and bulk acrylic yarns.

PACKAGE DYEING:

More suitable for woven and knitted fabrics;

Can be performed larger scale;
Gives uniform results;
Yarn package is stationary and dye liquor is circulated from inside to outside of the
package;
Package tension is critical factor to get uniform dyeing;
Can be used for t loose fibers, slivers, warp yarns and fabric with proper modification

BEAM DYEING:

Larger version of package dyeing;

Yarns or full width of woven or knitted fabric is wound on to perforated cylindrical
beams and enclosed in to a container.
Dye liquor is circulated under pressure through perforation, same as package dyeing;
Warp yarns are dyed a solid colour prior to weaving / warp knitting;
Provides for good color absorption; Better color fastness than piece dyed methods.
PIECE DYEING:

Dyeing is carried out in fabric stage, generally to produce single solid color in the
substrate

WINCH DYEING/BECK DYEING:

Conventional dyeing machine;

It consists a tub containing the dye liquor, and an elliptical winch or reel which is located
horizontally above the dye bath.
Fabric with ends stitched together to make continuous rope form is passed through the
dye bath and submerged repeatedly.
Fabric is held in a slack or loose condition during dyeing.
Mainly used for knits and lightweight fabrics;
Filament yarn fabrics should not be dyed;
Very light weight fabrics should also be avoided;
Dyeing is carried out at high liquor ratios. (1:20 to 1:50); Low substantively dyes
(Reactive dyes) are not advisable;
Difficult to maintain uniform temp throughout the dye bath.

JIG DYEING MACHINE:

Fabric is dyed in its open or full width.

The machine consists of a small tub and two drawing rollers located above the dye bath.
First the fabric is wound around one of the rollers; during dyeing the fabric is passed
through the dye bath and rewind on to the second roller.
When all the fabric is passed through the dye bath the direction of movement is reversed,
this would be repeated until the dyeing is completed. During dyeing tension is imparted
in length of the fabric:
Suitable for delicate fabrics & light wt. Fabric;
Low liquors ratios (1:2 to 1:6) the consumption of chemicals and energy is low;
In new jigs are equipped with devices that allow a reduction in tension applied in
lengthwise;
Knitted and stretch woven fabrics can not be used;
Possibility of shade variation center to selvedge.

JET DYEING MACHINE:

Jet dyeing is a very efficient contact between the dye liquor and fabric is obtained by both
are tin constant movement. This result improved level of dyeing shorter dyeing time.
Fabric is circulated through the dye bath in rope form.
The movement of the fabric occurs by circulating the dye-liquor through a venturi jet.
Jet dyeing M/C’s are pressurized and dyeing can takes place at high temperature 135-
150’ C.
Jets are builds to be used at low liquor ratios between 10:1 and 5:1 and lower.
Advantages: -
Less water, energy and chemicals;
Shorter dyeing cycle time;
Efficient and high production;
Can be dyed delicate woven / Knits, textured and lightweight fabrics.

GARMENT DYEING:

Dyeing of completed garments of non-tailored categories, such as sweaters swat shirts,

hosiery and panty hoses.

Tailored items like suits or dresses cannot be dyed as garments because the difference in
shrinkage of the various components distort and misshape the article.

Garment dyeing is done by, placing suitable no. Of garments (usually 24 sweaters or
equivalent) into large nylon net bag. Loosely packed 10-50 bags are then placed in large
dye bath and kept agitated by a motor driven paddle. "Paddle dyer”

Important features: Less fashion risk, material need not be dyed until shortly before the
actual sale of the merchandise;

All fabric used in one garment must come from the same lot of fabric.

Fabric must be tested for shrinkage before cutting of garments, and must be given
required tolerance to allow for shrinkage so that size will be accurate.

Thread must be selected carefully and tested to be sure it will accept the dye in the same
way as the fabric.
Labels, buttons and zippers must be compatible with the garment fabric in terms of
reaction to the dye and shrinkage.

CROSS DYEING:

Yarn, fabric or even garment made with two or more generic fiber types “Blends” having
different dyeing qualities is dyed a single dye bath containing different classes of dyes.

If different fibers are blended in the same yarn a Heather-like effect is obtained. Different
fiber content yarns used in fabric construction can obtain plaids, stripes and checks.

UNION DYEING:

UNION DYEING is achieving single solid color on blended fabrics.

A fabric composed of rayon and acetate can be dyed a solid color of green by using a
direct dye for the rayon and “disperse dye” of the same color for the acetate.
acetate.
Continuous dyeing machineries are used for large fabric lots.

This process includes compartments of pre treatment, padder dyeing, after treatment,
washing and rinsing.

Pass the open width fabric in dye liquor and squeeze

Fixing
(Dryer/Curing oven/Steamer)

Washing

After Treatment

CONTINUOUS DYEING:

The long-chain method is continuous dyeing of yarns. It usually involves indigo or sulfur
dye.
The yarn is immersed in the dye vat, squeezed to remove excess dye and exposed to air to
oxidize and develop the colour and fix the dye inside the fiber.
Consecutive dips and exposing progressively darken the shade until the desired colour is
reached.

Advantages:
Large quantities with good overall fastness can be achieved relatively low cost.
Dyeing speeds of 100 yards or more per minute

THE APPLICATION OF DIRECT DYES FOR CELLULOSIC MATERIALS

APPLICATION OF DIRECT DYES

A typical exhaust dyeing ; the direct dyes are dissolved carefully, filtered and then added
to the dye- bath.
The cellulosic substrate is placed in the dye- bath at 49°C and dyeing is continued at this
temperature for 15- 20 minutes.
Then common salt or glauber salt in the solid form is added portion- wise, over a period
of 45-60 minutes. While the temperature is slowly raised to the maximum temperature of
dyeing.

APPLICATION OF DIRECT DYES

Additions are made by starting with a small amount of salt followed by larger ones. For
example, the salt to be added is divided into four portions: 1/8, 1/8, 1/4, and1/2 of the
total amount.

The total amount of salt used is usually in the range of 5-25%, depending on the depth of
shade, liquor ratio, and the type of direct dyes used.

If the shade is satisfactory, the dyed material is then rinsed with cold water. At this stage
an after – treatment may follow to improve the wash – fastness of the dyes.

AFTER- TREATMENT Direct dyes

In a typical after- treatment the bath is prepared with the proper amount of the cationic
fixing agent (e.g. 1-2% o.w.f. of the fixing agent for material dyeing with 1% of a direct
dye), and a small amount of acetic acid (pH of bath: 5-6).

The dyed material is placed in the bath, and treated at 49°-54°C for 15-20 minutes.
Then the treated material is rinsed with cold water and dried.
Then the treated material is rinsed with cold water and dried.

The light-fastness of some direct dyes can be improved by an after-treatment with copper
sulfate.
Small improvements of both light and wash-fastness in after-treatment are mixtures of
copper sulfate and a cationic fixing agent.
Because of harmful ecological effects, many transition metal compounds, including
copper compounds, are subject to effluent discharge regulations.

STRIPPING OF DIRECT DYES

A complete stripping in this case will consist of two steps:

The dyed material is treated at the boil with a sequestering agent such as EDTA (e.g. 1-
2g. / liter)
After which the material is treated in a second bath with a reducing or an oxidizing agent.

THE APPLICATION OF REACTIVE DYES

Applications of reactive dyes by batch dyeing consist of three stages:

1.Exhaust dyeing
2.Fixation, and
3.After- scouring

The following is a typical procedure for exhaust dyeing at a high temperature:

The dye bath temperature is set at 50°C and the pre-dissolved reactive dyes are added.
Then the substrate is placed into the dye-bath and the temperature is raised at 1°C per min
to 80°C (about 30 min).
During this time the salt (e.g. 100% o.w.f., depending on liquor ratio and depth of shade)
is added portion-wise.
•

Dyeing continues at 80°C for an additional 15 min., after which sodium carbonate is,
added over 15 min.

The dyeing machine is run at 80°C for 45-75 min., during which time fixation is
completed.

The dyed material is given two more rinses, first with warm water followed by cold
water, and then dried.

Continuous dyeing with reactive dyes:

In this method, the dyes and the base are applied separately.

The fabric is padded first with the dye solution containing the proper dyeing assistants,
without the base.

Included in the padding bath is an antimigrant to help prevent the dye solution moving
from wet parts to dry parts on the impregnated fabric, during the following drying step.

After careful drying, the fabric is padded a second time with a solution containing the
base and a large amount of salt.
The presence of an electrolyte will prevent the dye from contaminating the chemical pad.

Then, without drying, the fabric is introduced into a streamer (saturated steam at 215°-
220°F) for 30-60 sec.

The fabric is then thoroughly after-scoured by passing it through a range of several wash
boxes, and dried or treated further with finishing agents

THE APPLICATION OF VAT DYES FOR CELLULOSICS

The conventional exhaust method of vat dyes consists the following major steps:

Reduction (vatting)
Dyeing
Oxidation
Soap at boil

Reduction (Vatting):

►At this stage, the vat dye is converted into its soluble form.
form.
►The dye is first mixed with the proper amount of sodium hydroxide.
►Then the reducing agent is added, and the temperature is raised to the recommended
temperature, time, and the amounts of reducing agent and base needed for specific dyes
are shown in Table.

The reducing agents most commonly used are

sodium hydro-sulphite (Na2S2O4) and thio-urea-dioxide.

Hrdrosulphite will oxidize on exposure to air in presence of moisture or in solution.

It is also very unstable at high temperatures, and therefore should be dissolved in cold
water just before adding it to the dye-bath.

Thiourea-dioxide is much more expensive than sodium hydrosulphite; however, a much

smaller quantity is needed to reduce the same amount of a vat dye.

Thiourea-dioxide is also significantly easy to handle and more stable than sodium
hydrosulphite, and is not affected by moisture.

The use of soft water throughout the dyeing process is must with vat dyes, since the
soluble leuco salts will form insoluble salts with calcium or magnesium ions as well with
transition metals.
Therefore, in addition to using soft water, it is common to add sequestering agents such
as EDTA to the dye bath.

Certain vat dyes may undergo over-reduction if reduction procedure is not followed
carefully.
The factors leading to over-reduction are
Use of large amount of reduction agents
Insufficient amount of NAOH in dye-bath
Dyeing at higher temperature than recommended
Therefore, in application procedure it is recommended to add NAOH first, before the
reducing agent.

Vat Dyeing Procedure:

The scoured material is inserted in the dye-bath and the temperature is gradually raised to
the dyeing temperature (27°C to 60°C) depending on the type of dyes used.

Dyeing continues for the proper amount of time and salt may be added to assist in
exhaustion.

Since atmospheric oxygen reacts with the reducing agent as well as with the reduced vat
dyes, additional amounts of the reducing agent and the base are added during the dyeing
stage.

The dye-bath is checked occasionally to insure that the pH of the bath is sufficiently basic
(phenolphthalein paper should turn red), and that a sufficient amount of the reducing
agent is present in the dye-bath (yellow vat testing should turn blue).

Oxidation:

Before oxidation, the material is rinsed to remove residues of sodium hydroxide and
reducing agent.
Common oxidizing agents used today are hydrogen peroxide and sodium perborate.
When using hydrogen peroxide, high concentrations of alkali must be avoided to prevent
damages to fibers.

Soap at the boil:

This step consists of treating the dyed material with soap at or near the boil for 10-20
min.
Soap at the boil increases the wash fastness of the dyes and yields their final shade.
The dyeing procedure is then completed by rinsing with hot and cold water.

Application conditions for Various Types of Vat Dyes

(Approximate values for dyeing medium shades at liquor ratio of 1:10)

TYPE IN IW IK

C.I. method 1 C.I. method 2 C.I. method 3

Reduction Temp 60°C 49-54°C 38-49°C

Dyeing Temp 60°C 44°-49°C 21°-26°C

NaOH 6-9 g/l 3-5 g/l 2.5-4 g/l

Hydrosulphite 6-9 g/l 4-6 g/l 3-4.5 g/l

Salt none 7.5-15 g/l 10-20 g/l

IN – normal procedure
IW – warm temperature
IK – cold temperature

SOLUBLE VAT DYES:

They are vat dyes already in the reduced soluble from, and have the unique feature that
they will not oxidize by merely exposing them to the air.

These dyes offers only limited number of shades and this class of dye cannot give deep
shades.

They are even more expensive than vat dyes.

The important feature of this dye is can be used for cotton, linen, rayon, cotton blends,
(including embroidery yarns and sewing threads) polyester blends, wool and silk blends
through single bath in pale to medium shade.

It produces good fastness to light and washing.

Application of Sulfur dyes for cellulosics:

A typical bath dyeing is carried out as follows:

The dye-bath is prepared by diluting the Soluble Sulfur Dye with the proper amount of
water.

A small amount of sodium polysulfide (e.g. 1-2 % o.w.f.) and a similar amount of a
sequestering agent are added, and the fibers are introduced into the dye-bath at 50°C.
50°C.

Sodium chloride (20-30%) o.w.f.) is added portion –wise (e.g. 1/8, 1/8, 1/4, and 1/2 of
the total amount) over a period of 20 min., while the temperature is gradually raised to
the maximum dyeing temperature, usually in the range of 60°-82°C.

Dyeing continues at this temperature for about 30 min.

The fibers are then rinsed well with warm and hot water, oxidized, rinsed, soaped at
82°C, rinsed with a mild alkali solution, and dried.

Application of Azoic Dyes (Naphthol Dyes) to cellulosic fibers

Naphtholation:

Paste the Naphthol with Turkey red oil or sulfonated oil, and a small amount of water.
Raise the temperature to 85°
85°C.

Add the required amount of alkali in the form of a concentrated solution.

Continue to heat for a few min., while stirring. And raise temperature to the boil if
needed until a clear solution is obtained.

Application of Azoic Dyes (Naphthol Dyes) to cellulosic fibers:

Intermediate step

The purpose of this step is to remove, from the fiber’s surface, as much of the naphtholate
solution as possible in order to avoid crocking problems.

This is done by centrifuging, squeezing, vacuum extraction, or other means of

hydroextration

Application of Azoic Dyes (Naphthol Dyes) to cellulosic fibers:

Coupling :
For the coupling to take place at a desirable rate, without affecting the stability of the
naphtholate or the diazonium salt, a specific pH must be maintained for each combination
used; usually it is in the range of pH 5-7.

Many times a mixture of acetic acid and sodium acetate is added to the diazonium salt
solution to act as a buffer and maintain a pH of about 5.

The naphtholated substrate is immersed in the diazonium salt solution at room

temperature for 15-20 min., during which time the coupling reaction is completed.

After-treatment:

At this stage the dyed substrate undergoes a vigorous rinsing in order to:

1.Remove unreacted starting materials,

2.Remove
2.Remove dye attached to fibers’ surface, and
3.Aggregate
3.Aggregate the dye molecules to improve wash-fastness and yield the final shade.

Application of Sulphur Dyes to cellulosic fibers:

A typical bath dyeing is carried out as follows:

The dye-bath is prepared by diluting the Soluble Sulfur Dye with the proper amount of
water.
A small amount of sodium polysulfide (e.g. 1-2 % o.w.f.) and a similar amount of a
sequestering agent are added, and the fibers are introduced into the dye-bath at 50°C.

Sodium chloride (20-30%) o.w.f.) is added portion –wise (e.g. 1/8, 1/8, 1/4, and 1/2 of
the total amount) over a period of 20 min., while the temperature is gradually raised to
the maximum dyeing temperature, usually in the range of 60-82°C.
Dyeing continues at this temperature for about 30 min.
The fibers are then rinsed well with warm and hot water, oxidized, rinsed, soaped at
82°C, rinsed with a mild alkali solution, and dried.

MINERAL KHAKI

Mineral khaki is produced from mineral salts; hence the name ‘mineral’ khaki.

A large quantity of khaki cloth is produced for military uniforms.

The khaki shade is produced on cotton fabric by deposition of oxides of iron and
chromium on it.
The shade is built up by impregnating the fabric with soluble salts of iron and chromium.

Ferrous sulphate and chromium sulphate are used as soluble salts.

The cloth is padded with a mixture of ferrous sulphate and chromium sulphate, dried in a
hot flue and then passed through a boiling solution of caustic soda and soda ash followed
by air oxidation.

When the hydroxide of iron and chromium are precipitated on the fabric which are
converted into oxides of iron and chromium by atmospheric oxygen.

Iron oxide is reddish brown and chromium oxide is green.

There fore, depending upon the percentage of iron and chromium oxide present, the
shade varies from a red brown to a green olive.

ANILINE BLACK

Aniline black is an intense black colour, fast to light, washing and other agencies,

The fastness being comparable with that of the fastest vat blacks.

It is used widely for dyeing cotton in the form of yarn or cloth.

It is less expensive to dye Aniline black then vat black.

Methods of dyeing Aniline Black

There are three distinct methods of dyeing aniline black

I. Single-bath aniline black

II. Aged aniline black and

III. Steamed aniline black

Steamed Aniline Black

This method is the best as it gives very fast blacks with less liability of tendering the
cotton or producing green shade.
The method is, however, more largely employed in calico printing than in dyeing.
aniline The padding liquor contains
»hydrochloride, 75parts
An oxidizing agent, sodium chlorate 35parts
An oxygen carrier, potassium ferrocyanide 40parts
diluted with water to 1000parts
The fabric is padded in the dyeing liquor, dried and steamed for 3 to 5min at a higher
temperature and then treated with 2 gms per liter potassium dichromate for 15 to 30min
at 50°C
They are then washed and soaped.