LESSON 1: GENETICS
N-bases are either
1.1 PEDIGREE ANALYSIS
GENETICS is a branch of Biology concerned with the study of
genes, genetic variation, and heredity in an organism.
GREGOR JOHANN MENDEL (1822-1884)
 Known as the Father of Genetics
 Formulated Mendel’s Law of Inheritance by carrying
out experiment with garden peas.
Mendel studies seven characteristics in the garden peas
1. Flower color (Purple or White)
2. Flower position (Axial or Terminal)
3. Seed color (Yellow or Green)
4. Seed Shape (Round or Wrinkled)
5. Pod Shape (Inflated or Constricted)
6. Pod Color (Green or Yellow)
7. Stem length (Tall or Dwarf)
YY – Homozygous Dominant
yy – Homozygous Recessive
Yy – Heterozygous
MENDEL’S LAW OF INHERITANCE
1. Law of Segregation
Allele from each gene segregate from each other so
that each gamete carries one per gene
2. Law of Independent Assortment
Gene for different features segregate independently
and do not impact each other.
3. Law of Dominance
Dominant alleles mask/cover the recessive alleles
PUNNETT SQUARE is a square diagram that is used to
predict the genotypes of a particular cross or breeding
experiment.
Genotype: Genetic make up
Phenotype: Physical appearance
PEDIGREE ANALYSIS is a diagram showing the ancestral
relationships and transmission of genetic traits over several
generations in the family.
PROBAND is a person serving as the starting point for genetic
study of a family.
1.2 SEX LINKAGE AND RECOMBINATION
SEX-LINKED TRAITS- The gene(pair) that determines a
character is located on the sex chromosomes
X-LINKED TRAIT- The sex-linked trait is where the
gene or allele for the trait is found on the X
chromosome
Y-LINKED TRAIT- A sex-linked trait where the gene
or allele for the trait is found on the Y chromosome
Examples: Color blindness, Hemophilia, Fabry disease, Hunter
syndrome
SEX-INFLUENCE TRAIT is trait controlled by a pair of alleles
found on autosomal chromosomes but its phenotypic
expression is influenced by the presence of certain hormones
(estrogen, progesterone, testosterone)
Examples: Baldness, rheumatoid arthritis
SEX-LIMITED TRAITS is a trait in a diploid organism whose
expression is limited to just one biological sex.
Example: Functional mammary gland
1.3 MODIFICATION TO MENDEL’S CLASSIC RATIO
CO-DOMINANCE: When two contrasting alleles are present in
the same locus or trait (heterozygote genotype), then the
phenotype expressed is a “blend” of the two extreme
phenotypes. The two genes interact and the offspring shows
the effects of both alleles.
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE - When two contrasting alleles
are present in the same locus or trait (heterozygote genotype),
then both alleles are expressed in the same phenotype
MULTIPLE ALLELES - When there are more than two types of
alleles for a given locus or trait, this will result in more than two
kinds of phenotypes that may be expressed for that trait.
1.4 CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
1. The building blocks of any nucleic acid are the nucleotides.
2. A nucleotide is composed of a phosphate group (with
negative charges), a sugar portion and an N-base.
3. The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose while the sugar in RNA is
ribose.
4. DNA and RNA are polynucleotides.
purines or pyrimidines. Purine bases are Adenine (A) and
Guanine (G). Pyrimidines are Cytosine (C), Thymine (T, in
DNA only) and Uracil (U, found only in RNA)
5. Specific base pairings occur in DNA. A pairs with T; G pairs
with C
6. DNA is double stranded while RNA is single stranded with
Uracil instead of Thymine.
7. Main Functions:
DNA: repository of genetic information; sequence of
bases encodes the blueprint for life processes
RNA: information in the form of base sequence is
transformed (transcribed) into mRNA, tRNA and
rRNA. DNA is the template copied into RNA by base
pairing. G with C; A with U.
Protein: functional products of genes; executes
cellular functions
Sample pairing:
5’ ATGCATAGATTAGGATATCCCAGATAG 3’
3’ TACGTATCTAATCCTATAGGGTCTATC 5’
1.5 RECOMBINANT DNA
The central dogma of molecular biology is an explanation of
the flow of genetic information within a biological system. It is
often stated as "DNA makes RNA and RNA makes protein
DNA (gene) RNA (transcript) Protein (trait)
 Different organisms have different traits based on
their genes (DNA sequences).
For example, frogs have antimicrobial peptides on
their skin. Some jellyfish have proteins that allow them
to glow in the dark. Mutations in hemoglobin genes
lead to anemia.
 Based on the central dogma, if transcription and
translation of genes lead to some traits, then the
insertion of certain genes in a given organism may
provide it with new traits. This is the basis for the
development of genetically modified organisms
(GMOs).
POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR) is a method widely
used in molecular biology to make many copies of a
specific DNA segment.
LESSON 2: EVOLUTION AND ORIGIN OF BIODIVERSITY
2.1 HISTORY OF LIFE ON EARTH
The Geological Time Scale (GTS)
 FOUR ERAS - Precambrian; Paleozoic; Mesozoic;
Cenozoic
 PERIODS UNDER THE PALEOZOIC ERA -
Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian,
Carboniferous, Permian
 PERIODS UNDER THE MESOZOIC ERA - Triassic,
Jurassic, Cretaceous
 PERIODS UNDER THE CENOZOIC ERA - Tertiary
and Quaternary
CAMBRIAN EXPLOSION is the belief that there was a
sudden, apparent explosion of diversity in life forms about 545
million years ago.
FOSSIL is any preserved remains, impression, or trace of any
once-living thing from a past geological age.
Examples include bones, shells, exoskeletons, stone imprints
of animals or microbes, objects preserved in amber,
hair, petrified wood, oil, coal, and DNA remnants.
THE SIX WAYS OF FOSSILIZATION
1. Unaltered preservation - Small organism or part trapped in
amber, hardened plant sap
2. Permineralization/ Petrification - The organic contents of
bone and wood are replaced with
silica, calcite or pyrite, forming a rock-like fossil
3. Replacement - hard parts are dissolved and replaced by
other minerals, like calcite, silica,
pyrite, or iron
4. Carbonization or Coalification - The other elements are
removed and only the carbon
remained
5. Recrystalization - Hard parts are converted to more stable
minerals or small crystals turn into
larger crystals
6. Authigenic preservation - Molds and casts are formed
after most of the organism have been
destroyed or dissolved
METHODS USED TO CREATE FOSSILS
A. Imprint
B. B. 3-D Object (Cast)
2.2 MECHANISMS THAT PRODUCE CHANGE IN
POPULATIONS
HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE states that allele and
genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant from
generation to generation in the absence of other evolutionary
influences.
GENETIC MECHANISMS
A. MUTATION is the permanent alteration of
the nucleotide sequence of the genome of
an organism, virus, or extrachromosomal DNA or
other genetic elements.
B. SELECTION is the process by which certain traits
become more prevalent in a species than other traits.
C. GENE FLOW OR MIGRATION is the transfer of
genetic variation from one population to another.
D. GENETIC DRIFT is the change in the frequency of an
existing gene variant (allele) in a population due to
random sampling of organisms.
2.3 EVOLUTION AND ORIGIN OF BIODIVERSITY
SPECIES are groups of interbreeding natural populations that
are reproductively isolated from other such groups.
REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATING MECHANISMS
A. Pre-zygotic isolation mechanisms prevent fertilization and
zygote formation.
 geographic or ecological or habitat isolation –
potential mates occupy different areas or habitats
thus, they never come in contact
 temporal or seasonal isolation – different groups
may not be reproductively mature at the same
season, or month or year
 behavioral isolation – patterns of courtship are
different
 mechanical isolation – differences in reproductive
organs prevent successful interbreeding
 gametic isolation – incompatibilities between egg
and sperm prevent fertilization
2.5 EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
 Evidence from Fossils
 Evidence from Structures
HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES are structures with
the same set of bones that presumably evolved from
a common ancestor.
ANALOGOUS STRUCTURES are structures that
perform the same function but have very different
embryological development or set of structures like
bones.
VESTIGIAL STRUCTURES are structures or
attributes that have lost most of its ancestral function
in more recent species.
 Evidence from embryology
 Evidence from molecular biology
 Evidence from Biogeography
LESSON 3: SYSTEMATICS BASED ON EVOLUTIONARY
RELATONSHIPS
Lines of evidence to infer evolutionary relationships:
1. Fossil evidence
2. Homologies- Similar characters due to relatedness are
known as homologies. Homologies can be revealed by
comparing the anatomies of different living things, looking at
cellular similarities and differences, studying embryological
development, and studying vestigial structures within individual
organisms.
3. Biogeography- the geographic distribution of species in time
and space as influenced by many
factors, including Continental Drift and log distance dispersal.
4. Molecular clocks help track evolutionary time- The base
sequences of some regions of DNA
change at a rate consistent enough to allow dating of episodes
in past evolution.

B. Post-zygotic isolation mechanisms allow fertilization but

nonviable or weak or sterile hybrids
are formed.
 hybrid inviability – fertilized egg fails to develop past
the early embryonic stages
 hybrid sterility – hybrids are sterile because gonads
develop abnormally or there is abnormal segregation
of chromosomes during meiosis
 hybrid breakdown - F1 hybrids are normal, vigorous
and viable, but F2 contains many weak or sterile
individuals
TAXONOMY is the science of defining and naming groups of
biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics.
CARL LINNAEUS considered as Father of Taxonomy and
formalized binomial nomenclature
BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE is a formal system of
naming species of living things by giving each a name
composed of two parts, both of which use Latin grammatical
forms, although they can be based on words from other
languages.

2.4 DEVELOPMENT OF EVOLUTIONARY THOUGHT Hierarchy of Biological Classification

Carolus Linnaeus – order in the diversity of life; hierarchy of

taxonomic categories
Thomas Malthus – ‘Essay on the Principle of Population’
Georges Cuvier – fossils, paleontology and the theory of
Catastrophism
James Hutton – theory of Gradualism
Charles Lyell – principles of geology
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck- proponent of theory of evolutionary
change
 Principle of use and disuse
 Inheritance of acquired characteristics
Charles Darwin published his theory of evolution with
compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species
A DICHOTOMOUS KEY is a tool that helps identify unknown
organisms to some taxonomic level (e.g., species, genus,
family, etc.). The key is constructed in such a way that a series
of choices is made that leads the user to the correct identity of
a sample organism. "Dichotomous" means, "divided into two
parts." Therefore, a dichotomous key always offer two choices
for each step, each of which describes key characteristics of a
particular organism or group of organisms.

CLADISTICS studies relationships between taxa using shared

derived characters. The basic assumption behind cladistics is
that members of a group share a common recent ancestor and
are thus more "closely related" to one another than they are to
other groups of organisms. Related groups of organisms are
recognized because they share a set of derived characters.
These derived characters were inherited from a recent
ancestor.

A cladogram is a diagram used in cladistics to show relations

among organisms.
A phylogeny (or a tree of life) is a theory about how organisms
are related to one another through evolutionary time