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Compilation of Notes UTS
Compilation of Notes UTS
PHILOSOPHY – study of all things through their highest causes in the light of reason alone.
SCIENCE – study of all things through their causes in the light of reason alone.
Theology – study of all things through their highest causes in the light of revelation alone.
Socrates
• 470 – 399 BC
• Greek Philosopher
• Teacher of Plato
• Execution by drinking the drinking of “hemlock”
• Never wrote anything, but Plato mentioned him in his books
• “Know thyself”
• “An unexamined life is not worth living”
• Socrates’ metaphysical framework
• For Socrates, reality is dualistic, comprised of two dichotomous realms.
• One realm is changeable, transient, and imperfect, whereas the other realm is
unchanging, eternal, immortal-ideal realm.
• The physical world in which we live—comprised of all that we can see, hear, taste, smell,
and feel—belongs to the former realm. All aspects of our physical world are continually
changing, transforming, disappearing.
• The immortal soul
• An indissoluble entity that is immortal and will survive death
• An entity that is very different in kind from your physical body
• An entity that strives to achieve communion with some ultimate reality
• The soul uses the body as “an instrument of perception,” and that the soul “rules” the
body in the same way that the divine rules the mortals.
• We should notbe concerned about death because the soul is incapable of being
dispersed into nonexistence.
PLATO
• 438 – 348
• Greece
• Founder of Academy
• Teacher of Aristotle
• “Excellence is not a gift, but a skill that takes practice. We do act rightly because we are excellent,
in fact we achieve excellence by acting rightly”
• “Human behaviour flows from three main sources: desire, emotion and knowledge.”
• Three-part soul/self constituted by:
• Reason—our divine essence that enables us to think deeply, make wise choices, and
achieve a true understanding of eternal truths.
• Physical Appetite—our basic biological needs such as hunger, thirst, and sexual desire.
• Spirit or Passion—our basic emotions such as love, anger, ambition, aggressiveness, empathy.
Plato illustrates his view of the soul/self in Phaedrus with a vivid metaphor: the soul is likened to a winged
chariot drawn by two powerful horses: a white horse, representing Spirit, and a black horse, embodying
Appetite. The charioteer is Reason, whose task is to guide the chariot to the eternal realm by controlling
the two independent-minded horses. Those charioteers who are successful in setting a true course and
ensuring that the two steeds work together in harmonious unity achieve true wisdom and banquet with
the gods. However, those charioteers who are unable to control their horses and keep their chariot on
track are destined to experience personal, intellectual, and spiritual failure.
Plato’s View of the Soul and Body, and His Attitude Toward Women
Plato, and anyone else who conceives of the soul as something unobservable, cannot of course speak as if
we could point to the soul, or hold it up for direct observation. At one point, Plato says no mere mortal
can really understand the nature of the soul, but one perhaps could tell what it resembles. So it is not
surprising to find Plato using many metaphors and analogies to describe what the soul is like, in order to
describe relations between parts of the soul.
There is no pursuit of the administrators of a state that belongs to woman because she is a woman or to a
man because he is a man. But the natural capacities are distributed alike among both creatures, and
women naturally share in all pursuits and men in all.
ST. AUGUSTINE
• 1596-1650
• French Philosopher
• Father of western philosophy
• Father of modern philosophy
• Methodic doubt
• “Cogito ergo sum”
• “If you are a real seeker after truth, it is necessary that at least once in your life you doubt, as far
as possible aal things”
• Descartes ends up with Plato’s metaphysic, a dualistic view of reality, bifurcated
• into
• • a spiritual, nonmaterial, immortal realm that includes conscious, thinking beings,
• and
• • a physical, material, finite realm that includes human bodies and the rest of the
• physical universe.
I can distinguish in myself no parts, but I very clearly discern that I am somewhat absolutely one and
entire; and although the whole mind seems to be united to the whole body, yet, when a foot, an arm, or
any other part is cut off, I am conscious that nothing has been taken from my mind; nor can the faculties
of willing, perceiving, conceiving, etc., properly be called its parts, for it is the same mind that is exercised
[all entire] in willing, in perceiving, and in conceiving, etc. But quite the opposite holds in corporeal or
extended things; for I cannot imagine any one of them [how small soever it may be], which I cannot easily
sunder
in thought, and which, therefore, I do not know to be divisible. This would be sufficient to teach me that
the mind or soul of man is entirely different from the body, if I had not already been apprised of it on
other grounds.
JOHN LOCKE
• 1632—1704
• Among the most famous philosophers and political theorists of the 17th century
• Founder of a school of thought known as British Empiricism
• “Man-He is aware of himself, of his past and future, which is death, of his smallness and
powerlessness; he is aware of others as friends, enemies, or as strangers. Man transcends all
other life because he is for the first time, life aware of itself.
• Locke’s claim that your conscious self is not permanently attached to any particular body or
substance.
• Locke believes that it is our memory that serves to link our self at this moment with our
• self in previous circumstances.
• Have you ever suspected that your personal identity lived a
• previous life? If so, how would Locke evaluate your belief?
DAVID HUME
• 1711–1776
• Edinburgh, Scotland
• There Is No “Self”
• “I can never catch myself at any time without a perception, and never can observe any thing but
the perception.”
• “bundle or collection of different perceptions, which succeed each other with an inconceivable
rapidity, and are in a perpetual flux and movement.”
IMMANUEL KANT
• 1724–1804
• Brilliant German philosopher
• “One who makes himself a worm cannot complain afterwards if people step on him.”
• “we perceive and experience an organized world of objects, relationships, and ideas, all existing
within a fairly stable framework of space and time.”
SOCIOLOGY
AUGUSTE COMTE
• - is a french philosopher (1798-1857)
• - first used the term 'sociology' in 1838 to refer to scientific study of society.
• - He believed that all societies develop and progress through the following steps: religious,
metaphysical, and scientific.
PAUL CHURCHLAND
MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY
ANTHROPOLOGY
Catherine Raeff (2010) believed that culture can influence how you view: relationship, personality traits,
achievement, and expressing emotions.
PHSYCHOLOGY
-Study of human behavior
Sigmund Freud
Austrian neurologist
“One if the most influential modern scientist to put forth a theory about how people develop a sense of
self.”
“Unexpressed emotions will never die. They are buried alive and will come forth later in uglier way.”
“In matter of sexuality we are at present, everyone of us, ill or well, nothing but hypocrites.”
Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for
treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. Freud was born to
Galician Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg, in the Austrian Empire.
Year : 1856-1939
Born: 6 May 1856, Příbor, Czechia
Died: 23 September 1939, Hampstead, London, United Kingdom
Full name: Sigismund Schlomo Freud
Freud’s concept of the identity , ego, and superego has gained prominence in popular culture, despite a
lack of support and considerable skepticism from many researchers.
3 Elements of Personality
ID - refers o the biological component of the personality responsible for basic human drivers and urges.
EGO - Is the mediator between the needs of the individual and the social world.
SUPEREGO - Moral Arm of the personality. This represents the traditional rules, values, norms and ideals
of society.
(The 3 elements work together to create complex human behaviors)
5 MATURATION PROCESS
Psychosexual Stages
Oral - Birth to 1 year erogenous zone: Mouth
- It is the stage where eating is the major source of satisfaction
Anal - 1 to 3 year erogenous zone : bowel and bladder control
- The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is on eliminating and retaining feces.
Phallic - 3 to 6 years erogenous zone: genitals
- This stage develop unconscious sexual desires. Oedipus Complex (boy) Electra Complex (Girl)
Latency - 6 to puberty Libido Inactive
- The development of ego and superego contributes period of calm.
- Intellectual Pursuits and and Social Interactions this develop the social and communication skills and self
confidence.
Genital - Puberty to Death Maturing Sexual Interests
- The final stage of psychosexual development begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges are once
again awakened.
“Ego Integrity” refers to a person achieving his or her life’s purpose or having come to terms with his or
her life.
“despair” if a person views his life as a “failure” or his or her “life experience” as generally unsatisfactory,
he or she may be prone to feelings.
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) started as the Social Learning Theory (SLT) in the 1960s by Albert Bandura. It
developed into the SCT in 1986 and posits that learning occurs in a social context with a dynamic and
reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior. The unique feature of SCT is the emphasis
on social influence and its emphasis on external and internal social reinforcement. SCT considers the
unique way in which individuals acquire and maintain behavior, while also considering the social
environment in which individuals perform the behavior. The theory takes into account a person's past
experiences, which factor into whether behavioral action will occur. These past experiences influences
reinforcements, expectations, and expectancies, all of which shape whether a person will engage in a
specific behavior and the reasons why a person engages in that behavior.
Many theories of behavior used in health promotion do not consider maintenance of behavior, but rather
focus on initiating behavior. This is unfortunate as maintenance of behavior, and not just initiation of
behavior, is the true goal in public health. The goal of SCT is to explain how people regulate their behavior
through control and reinforcement to achieve goal-directed behavior that can be maintained over time.
The first five constructs were developed as part of the SLT; the construct of self-efficacy was added when
the theory evolved into SCT.
1. Reciprocal Determinism - This is the central concept of SCT. This refers to the dynamic and
reciprocal interaction of person (individual with a set of learned experiences), environment
(external social context), and behavior (responses to stimuli to achieve goals).
2. Behavioral Capability - This refers to a person's actual ability to perform a behavior through
essential knowledge and skills. In order to successfully perform a behavior, a person must know
what to do and how to do it. People learn from the consequences of their behavior, which also
affects the environment in which they live.
3. Observational Learning - This asserts that people can witness and observe a behavior conducted
by others, and then reproduce those actions. This is often exhibited through "modeling" of
behaviors. If individuals see successful demonstration of a behavior, they can also complete the
behavior successfully.
4. Reinforcements - This refers to the internal or external responses to a person's behavior that
affect the likelihood of continuing or discontinuing the behavior. Reinforcements can be self-
initiated or in the environment, and reinforcements can be positive or negative. This is the
construct of SCT that most closely ties to the reciprocal relationship between behavior and
environment.
5. Expectations - This refers to the anticipated consequences of a person's behavior. Outcome
expectations can be health-related or not health-related. People anticipate the consequences of
their actions before engaging in the behavior, and these anticipated consequences can influence
successful completion of the behavior. Expectations derive largely from previous
experience. While expectancies also derive from previous experience, expectancies focus on the
value that is placed on the outcome and are subjective to the individual.
6. Self-efficacy - This refers to the level of a person's confidence in his or her ability to successfully
perform a behavior. Self-efficacy is unique to SCT although other theories have added this
construct at later dates, such as the Theory of Planned Behavior. Self-efficacy is influenced by a
person's specific capabilities and other individual factors, as well as by environmental factors
(barriers and facilitators).