Unit II Part 1

Design against Fluctuating Loads

Cyclic stresses, Fatigue and endurance limit, Stress
concentration factor, Stress concentration factor for
various machine parts, Notch sensitivity, Design for
finite and infinite life, Soderberg, Goodman &
Gerber criteria.
Static Loading
In static loading, the load is gradually increased on
the machine or structural element so that the external
loads are in equilibrium with the internal stresses at
any time and then the maximum loads and stresses
normally remain constant with time. The failure due
to static load is illustrated by the simple tension test.
The brittle materials fracture with negligible plastic
deformation, with cleavage type fracture. The
fractured surface is shining and normal to the
maximum normal stress. In ductile materials
considerable plastic deformation takes place before
fracture. The fractured surface is silky with a fibrous
structure. Frequently, the failure in ductile materials
is considered as the initiation of yielding. The static
loading is closely approximated in many machine
and structural members.
Cyclic stresses
In practice, conditions frequently arise where the
stresses vary with time. These stresses are called
cyclic, alternating or fluctuating stresses.
For example trusses of a railway bridge, aircraft
wings, components of reciprocating and rotating
machines, propeller, shafts, turbine blades, springs,
internal combustion engine parts, machine and
structural elements
subjected to vibrations.
For the purpose of design
analysis, simple models for
the stress-time
relationships are used.
The most popular model
for fluctuating stresses is
the sinusoidal variation
(B), with maximum stress σmax and minimum stress
σmin. The mean stress σm and the stress amplitude
σa are obtained as
σm = (σmax + σmin)/2 and
σa = (σmax - σmin)/2.
If σm = 0, it is completely reversed loading (A).
Then σa = S.
Fatigue Failure
It is the process of fracture under repeated
loading well below the ultimate stress σu or even
below the yield stress σy after a finite ( few or
millions) cycles of loading and unloading. This
failure stress decreases with the increased
number of cycles.
Fatigue failures are brittle fractures for both
ductile and brittle materials. They are unexpected
sudden failures without any warning and hence are
very disastrous.
The fatigue failure initiates with a crack in the
material, most probably, in the regions of
discontinuity e.g. holes, key ways, irregularities in
machining operations e.g. scratches, stamp marks, or
internal cracks due to defects e.g. blow holes. These
regions are subjected to stress concentration, the
cracks propagate due to fluctuating stresses and
eventually the cross-section of the member is so
reduced that it fractures suddenly.
The fatigue failure depends on a number of factors,
such as number of cycles, mean stress, stress
amplitude, stress concentration, residual stresses etc.
Thus, the design of components subjected to
fluctuating stresses is very complex.
Endurance Limit
The endurance or fatigue limit σe for a material is
defined as the maximum amplitude of completely
reversing stress S that a standard specimen can
sustain for an unlimited number of cycles (N →∞)
without fatigue failure. The endurance limit σe is
considered as a criterion of failure under
fluctuating stresses.

σu

S σe

O
N
S – N curve

In a laboratory the endurance limit is determined by

a rotating beam machine developed by Moore. A
highly polished standard test specimen of the
material suitably supported in self aligning bearings
is rotated by an electric motor. It is subjected to pure
bending. The maximum magnitude of the bending
stresses can be adjusted using suitable weights. The
number of cycles N required for fatigue failure is
recorded by a revolution counter.

The maximum bending stress S is decreased

gradually from ultimate stress σu and the
corresponding cycles to failure N are recorded and
plotted to yield an S-N curve.
Normally the test data is shown on a log-log graph
and is highly scattered. The best fitting curve is
drawn.
The S-N curve for ferrous materials like steel,
becomes asymptotic at 106 cycles and the stress S at
N = 106 is called the endurance limit of the
material..
For non-ferrous materials, the S-N curve keeps on
sloping gradually even after 106 cycles. These
materials do not have a limiting value of endurance
limit. In such cases the endurance strength is
expressed as a function of the number of stress
cycles.
In a true sense, the endurance strength is not a
property of the material like ultimate strength or
yield strength. It depends on the size and shape of
the component, its surface finish, notch sensitivity,
temperature etc.
Stress Concentration
Stress concentration is the localization of high
stresses due to irregularities or abrupt changes of
the cross-section. The stress concentration factor Kt
is defined as
maximum stress 𝜎max 𝜏ma𝑥
𝐾𝑡 = = =
nominal stress 𝜎nominal 𝜏nominal

Where, σmax, τmax are the actual maximum stresses at

the discontinuity and σnominal, τnominal are the nominal
stresses based on elementary stress formula using
minimum cross-section.

σ 2a w w σ
a
r
2b
σmax=σ(1+2a/b), a/w→0 σmax=σ(1+2a/r), a/w→0

The theoretical stress concentration factors can be

determined mathematically using theory of elasticity
and finite element methods. They can also be
determined experimentally using photo-elasticity.
Stress Concentration Factors for Various
Machine Parts
The charts for stress concentration factors for
various common geometric shapes and conditions of
loading were prepared by Peterson shown below.
Methods of Reducing Stress Concentration
It is not always possible to avoid the discontinuities
or abrupt changes of the cross-section. However, it is
possible to reduce the stress concentration severity
by selecting proper geometric shape. This can be
visualized by flow analogy. The severity of stress
concentration can be reduced by using the principle
of minimization of the material. The following
methods are normally used.
(1) Use of multiple notches
(2) Removal of undesired material
(3) Drilling additional holes.
Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor
The actual reduction in endurance strength of a
material is less than the one indicated by the
theoretical stress concentration factor Kt. It is found
that there is a greater reduction in endurance strength
of fine-grained materials, as compared to coarse-
grained materials. Some materials are more sensitive
to stress concentration than the others.
Hence, a more relevant factor called the fatigue
stress concentration factor is introduced for fatigue
failure.
The fatigue stress concentration factor Kf is
defined as:
𝐾𝑓 =
Endurance limit of the notch−free specimen
Endurance limit of the notched specimen
, 1 ≤ Kf ≤ Kt.

The factor Kf reduces the fatigue strength of a

material. For brittle materials Kf = Kt. In the absence
of any data use Kf = Kt. For ductile ferrous materials
Kf ≤ 3 for threads, oil holes, fillets, key ways etc.
Notch Sensitivity
Notch sensitivity is the sensitivity of the material to
the damaging effects of the stress raising notches in
fatigue loading. It depends on the stress gradient in
the region of stress concentration and the hardness of
the material. The notch sensitivity q is defined as
Increase of actual stress over nominal stress
𝑞=
Increase of theoretical stress over nominal stress
𝐾𝑓 𝜎−𝜎 𝐾𝑓 −1
i.e., 𝑞 = = .
𝐾𝑡 𝜎−𝜎 𝐾𝑡 −1

where, the nominal stress σ is obtained using

elementary formula. The equation can be rearranged.
Kf = 1 + q(Kt – 1).
For q = 0, the material is insensitive to notches and
for q = 1, Kf = Kt , the material has full sensitivity to
notches. In case of doubt, for a safe design the
designer must take q = 1.
The notch sensitivity factors for various materials
for reversed bending, axial and reversed torsional
stresses are shown.
Approximate Estimation of Endurance Limit
A number of tests are required to obtain the S-N
curve and each test takes considerable time. Hence,
it is not easy to get the fatigue data for all materials.
In the absence of availability of such data, the
following approximate expressions are used for
endurance strength for bending.
For steels, σe = 0.5σu
For cast steels, σe = 0.4σu
For cast iron, σe = 0.35σu
For non-ferrous metals and alloys, σe = 0.3σu
The endurance strength of a component under axial
loading is taken as
(σe )a = 0.8σe
The endurance strength of a component subjected to
reversed shear stresses can be obtained from the
endurance test in pure bending by using appropriate
theories of failure.
τe = 0.5σe according to maximum shear stress theory.
τe = 0.577σe according to distortion-energy theory.
For the rotating beam specimen, there are standard
specifications and working conditions which are
different from that of actual mechanical component.
Hence, the endurance strength of a component σe*
would be different from the endurance strength σe of
a standard rotating beam specimen. Various
modifying factors are used to account for these.
Using some of the important factors the fatigue
strength of the component can be obtained as
𝐾𝑠𝑓 𝐾𝑠𝑧 𝐾𝑟𝑒 𝐾𝑡𝑒
𝜎𝑒∗ = 𝜎𝑒
𝐾𝑓
The fatigue stress concentration Kf
The fatigue stress concentration Kf has been already
discussed. It reduces the endurance strength of the
component.
Surface finish factor Ksf
For a highly polished
surface like the rotating
beam specimen Ksf = 1. As the surface finish gets
poor the endurance strength decreases.
Size factor Ksz
The size factor Ksz decreases with the size of the
cross-section of the component. As the size
increases, the surface area increases, giving a larger
number of surface defects. The endurance strength
reduces with increasing size of the component. The
values of Ksz are taken as follows:
Size d in mm Size factor Ksz
d ≤ 7.5 1
7.5 < d ≤ 50 0.85
d > 50 0.75
where, d is the diameter of a circular section or the
depth of a non-circular section.
Reliability factor Kre
The reliability factor Kre depends on the reliability
that is considered in the design of the component.
The reliability of the rotating beam fatigue test is
taken as 50%. Then the reliability factors based on a
standard deviation of 8% would be as follows:
Reliability R Factor Kre
50% 1
90% 0.897
99% 0.814
99.9% 0.753
Temperature factor Kte
High temperature decreases the endurance strength
in many materials. An approximate temperature
factor Kte is selected as follows;
Kte = 1, T ≤ 3500C
Kte = 0.5, 3500C < T ≤ 5000C.
Factor of safety fs
The criterion of failure when a component is
subjected to fatigue loading is the endurance
strength of the component. Hence, the factor of
safety fs is defined as
 Endurance strength
𝑓𝑠 =
Design or working stress

Design for Finite/ Infinite Life- Reversed Stresses

The design problems for completely reversed
stresses can be divided into two groups.
(1) Design for infinite life.
(2) Design for finite life.
(1) Design for infinite life.
Here the endurance limit is the criterion of failure.
The following equations can be used to design the
components for infinite life.
σa = σe*/fs or τa = τe*/fs
where σa and τa are the design or working stress
amplitudes and σe* and τe* are the corrected
endurance limits in the respective reversed loadings.
(2) Design for finite life
Here the endurance strength for the required life is
the criterion of failure. The endurance strength for
the standard fatigue test is estimated from the S-N
diagram of the material. The S-N diagram for steels
can be approximated as follows:
The endurance strength at 103 cycles is 0.9 σu and at
106 cycles is σe*. These point are located on a log-
log graph A[3, log100.9σu] and B[6, log10σe*] for the
S-N diagram. The straight line AB represents the S-
N diagram for the finite life problems. The
endurance strength σf = S for any number of cycles
N can be obtained from the antilog of the y
coordinate of the point P[log10N, log10S] on line AB.

log10 0.9σu A

log10σf P
log10S

log10σe* B

3 4 5 6 7 8

log10N

S-N curve for finite life for steel

Miner’s Rule- Cumulative Damage in Fatigue
Sometimes, the mechanical component is subjected
to different stress amplitudes for different work
cycles. Let Ni cycles be the fatigue life of the
component at the stress amplitude σai. During the ith
work cycle of stress level σai for ni cycles, it is
assumed that the damage incurred is ni/Ni. Further,
the damage at different stress levels is assumed to be
additive. The fatigue fracture would occur when the
the total damage equals one. This is known as
Miner’s rule.
Σni/Ni = n1/N1+ n2/N2+…….+ nm/Nm= 1.
Effect of mean stress
Test data from various fatigue tests show that tensile
mean stress σm > 0, reduces fatigue life, whereas,
compressive mean stress σm < 0 has either no effect
or a beneficial effect. Since the entire family of S-N
curves for various levels of σm is difficult to obtain
experimentally, some empirical criteia are suggested
to predict results for σm > 0 from results for σm = 0.
A plot of stress amplitude σa versus mean stress σm
are shown. Curves can be drawn that represent
constant fatigue life (including infinite life). Points
A(0, σe*) and B(σu, 0) must be clearly on the curves.

fs = 1
K A
σe *
Gerber
Goodman
E C
σa
Sodergerg

450
D B
O σy σu
σm

Gerber Criterion
The Gerber criterion is a parabola ACB passing
through the points A, B as shown.
2
𝜎𝑚
𝜎𝑎 = 𝜎𝑒∗ [1 − ].
𝜎𝑢2

Available fatigue data supports the Gerber criterion.

The expression to account for factor of safety fs
would be
𝜎𝑒∗ 2 𝑓𝑠 2
𝜎𝑚
𝜎𝑎 = [1 − ].
𝑓𝑠 𝜎𝑢2

Goodman Criterion
The Goodman criterion is a straight line AB through
points A, B.
𝜎𝑚
𝜎𝑎 = 𝜎𝑒∗ [1 − ].
𝜎𝑢

If factor of safety fs is taken into account,

𝜎𝑒∗ 𝜎𝑚𝑓𝑠
𝜎𝑎 = [1 − ].
𝑓𝑠 𝜎𝑢

The goodman criterion is very convenient and

reliable for fatigue design.
Soderberg Criterion
Sodergerg proposed the failure criterion based on
endurance strength and yield stress instead of
ultimate strength. It is a straight line AD through the
point A and D(σy, 0).
𝜎𝑚
𝜎𝑎 = 𝜎𝑒∗ [1 − ].
𝜎𝑦

If factor of safety fs is taken into account,

 𝜎𝑒∗ 𝜎𝑚𝑓𝑠
𝜎𝑎 = [1 − ].
𝑓𝑠 𝜎𝑦

The Soderberg criterion is very conservative.

Modified Goodman Criterion
For just gross yield, σa + σm = σy which a straight
line DE through D(σy, 0) at 450 to σm axis.The safe
operational range to avoid yielding and fatigue
failure is below KAED. This is called modified
Goodman criterion.
Fatigue failure in torsion
The endurance strength in torsion τe and the ultimate
strength in shear τu determine the Goodman criteion
A΄B΄. However, the interesting thing about torsion is
that upto a certain point there is no effect on the
endurance strength, i.e. τa = τe*. And for static
failure τa + τm = τy. Thus the region K΄A΄E΄D΄ is the
safe region for design.
 fs = 1

K’ A’ E’
τ e*
τa

450
D’ B’
O τy τu
τm

Fatigue Design under Combined Stresses

A machine component may be subjected to two
dimensional stressses e.g. a shaft subjected to
combined bending and torssion etc. Each of the
stresses may have a mean and alternating part. Such
problems can be solved using a suitable theory of
failure.
For a two dimensional stresses in the xy plane, the
equivalent stress using distortion energy theory is

𝜎 = √𝜎𝑥2 + 𝜎𝑦2 − 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 + 3𝜏𝑥𝑦

2
.

For a shaft subjected to torion, bending and axial

forces, the stress component σy = 0.
𝜎 = √𝜎𝑥2 + 3𝜏𝑥𝑦
2
.

The mean and alternating components σm, σa of the

equivalent stress σ can be obtained and used in the
modified Goodman diagram for design.
1
For maximum shear stress theory,𝜏max √ 𝜎2𝑥 + 4𝜏2𝑥𝑦 =
2

which can be split into mean and alternating parts.

Tutorial Assignment 2

Q.1 (a) What is fatigue failure of material? Explain its mechanism. (b) What are repeated and
fluctuating stresses? Draw their stress-time curves. (c) What is notch sensitivity? Define notch
sensitivity factor. (d) What are the various methods of reducing stress concentration? (e) Discuss
important factors which effect the endurance strength of a mechanical component. (f) What are
Soderberg and Goodman lines?

Q.2 A forged steel bar 50 mm in diameter is subjected to a reversed bending stress of 300 MPa.
The bar is made of 40C8. Calculate its fatigue life with 90% reliability.

Q.3 Determine the thickness of a 115 mm wide uniform plate for safe continuous operation, if
the plate is to be subjected to a tensile load having a maximum value 0f 225 kN and a minimum
value of 75 kN. For the plate material , Endurance limit = 225 MPa and Yield stress = 300 MPa.
The factor of safety based on yielding may be taken as 1.5.

Q.4 A spherical pressure vessel with 400 mm inner diameter is welded from steel plates. The
vessel is subjected to internal pressure from 0 to 50 bar. Assuming the ultimate tensile strength
as 440 MPa, yield strength as 240 MPa and factor of safety of 3, calculate the plate thickness.

Q.5 A cantilever beam made of cold drawn steel 40C8 (σu = 600 MPa and σy = 380 MPa) is
shown in the figure. The force P acting at the free end varies from -50 N to 150 N. The expected
reliability is 90% and factor of safety is 2. The notch sensitivity factor at the fillet is 0.9.
Determine the diameter d of the beam at the fillet section.
 P
50mm 75mm

d
1.5d
0.1d

Q.6 A transmission shaft is subjected to a fluctuating torque that varies from -120 Nm to 500
Nm. Let the stress concentration factor be 1.5 and factor of safety be 2. Determine the required
diameter of the shaft. Shaft material is C45 steel.

Q.7 A shaft is subjected to bending moment varying from -200 Nm to 500 Nm and a varying
torque from 50 Nm to 175 Nm. If material of the shaft is 30C8, stress concentration factor is
1.85, notch sensitivity is 0.95, reliability is 99.9% and factor of safety is 1.5, find the diameter of
the shaft.

Q.2 A rolled-steel bar 50 mm in diameter is subjected to a

reversed bending stress of 300 MPa. The bar is made of
40C8. Calculate its fatigue life with 90% reliability.
For the given material forged steel bar of 40C8,
Ultimate stress σu = 580 N/mm2, yield stress σy = 300 N/mm2
(Table I.6/p461.)
Endurance limit of standard rotating beam specimen σe = 0.5σu =
0.5×580 = 290 N/mm2.
Surface finish factor Ksf = 0.6
Size factor Ksz = 0.85 as 7.5 < d ≤ 50.
Reliability factor for 90% reliability Kre = 0.897.
Assume fatigue stress concentration factor Kf = 1.
Modified endurance limit σe* = (Ksf Ksz Kre /Kf) σe =
(0.6×0.85×0.897/1)×290 = 132.7 N/mm2.

log10 0.9σu A

log10σf P
log10S

log10σe* B

3 4 5 6 7 8

log10N

S-N curve for finite life for steel

log10(.9σu) = 2.718, log10(σe*) = log10(132.7) = 2.123.

log10(σf) = log10(300) = 2.477.
2.123−2.718 2.123−2.477
Hence, = → log10 𝑁 = (6 −3×.354/.5950)
6−3 6−log10 𝑁

→ N = 16443 cycles.
Q.3 Determine the thickness of a 115 mm wide uniform plate
for safe continuous operation, if the plate is to be subjected to a
tensile load having a maximum value 0f 225 kN and a
minimum value of 75 kN. For the plate material , Endurance
limit = 225 MPa and Yield stress = 300 MPa. The factor of
safety based on yielding may be taken as 1.5.
σa = 75000/115t MPa, σa = 150000/115t MPa where t is in mm.
σe = 225 MPa.
Surface finish factor Ksf = 0.6 (Fig.2.33/p46), assuming hot
rolled with σu = 600 MPa.
Size factor Ksz = 0.85 as 7.5 < t ≤ 50.
Reliability factor for 99.9% reliability Kre = 0.753.
Assume fatigue stress concentration factor Kf = 1.
Modified endurance limit σe* = (Ksf Ksz Kre /Kf) σe =
(0.6×0.85×0.753/1)×225 = 86.407 MPa.
As only the yield strength and endurance limit is given,
Soderberg criterion is used with the factor of safety fs =1.5 with
respect to yield strength.
𝜎𝑚 75000 150000/115𝑡
𝜎𝑎 = 𝜎𝑒∗ [1 − ]→ = 86.407[1 − ]
𝜎𝑦 /𝑓𝑠 115𝑡 300/1.5
→ t = 14.1 ≈ 15 mm.
Q.4 A spherical pressure vessel with 400 mm inner diameter is
welded from steel plates. The vessel is subjected to internal
pressure from 0 to 50 bar. Assuming the ultimate tensile strength
as 440 MPa, yield strength as 240 MPa and factor of safety of 3,
calculate the plate thickness.
The shell is subjected to equal biaxial normal stresses σ1, σ2 = σ
= PD/4t.
The maximum normal stress theory of failue can be used.
mean stress σm = 2.5×400/4t = 250/t MPa, altenating stress σa =
2.5×400/4t = 250/t MPa.
i.e. σa/ σm =1.
Using the maximum normal stress theory, the maximum shear
stress theory or the maximum distortion energy theory, the
failure stress
σf = σe* for alternating stress and σf = σy for static loading.
σe = 0.5 σu = 440/2 = 220 MPa.
Surface finish factor Ksf = 0.82 ( cold drawn , σu = 440 MPa ).
Size factor Ksz = 0.85 ( expecting 7.5 < t ≤ 50 ).
Reliability factor for 90% reliability Kre = 0.897.
Assume fatigue stress concentration factor Kf = 1.
Modified endurance limit σe* = (Ksf Ksz Kre /Kf) σe =
(0.82×0.85×0.897/1)×220 = 137.5 MPa.
Using modified Goodman criteria,
 K A
σe*/fs Goodman

E
σa

450 450
D B
O σy/fs σu/fs
σm

𝜎𝑒∗ 𝜎𝑚𝑓𝑠
𝜎𝑎 = 𝑓𝑠 [1 − ], → σa = 137.5/3[1- 3σa /440] → σa = 34.9
𝜎𝑢
MPa.
σa + σm = σy/fs → σa = σy/6 → σa = 40 MPa.
Choosing the smaller value for σa = 34.9 MPa,
250/t. = 34.9 → t = 7.16 mm.
Q.5 A cantilever beam made of cold drawn steel 40C8 (σu = 600
MPa and σy = 380 MPa) is shown in the figure. The force P
acting at the free end varies from -50 N to 150 N. The expected
reliability is 90% and factor of safety is 2. The notch sensitivity
factor at the fillet is 0.9. Determine the diameter d of the beam at
the fillet section.

P
50mm 100mm

d
1.5d
0.1d

Endurance strength σe = 0.5 σu = 600/2 = 300 MPa.

Surface finish factor Ksf = 0.77 ( cold drawn , σu = 600 MPa ).
Size factor Ksz = 0.85 ( expecting 7.5 < t ≤ 50 ).
Reliability factor for 90% reliability Kre = 0.897.
Stress concentration factor Kt= 1.44 (r/d = 0.2, D/d = 1.5, round
bar in bending)
Fatigue stress concentration factor Kf = 1 +q(Kt - 1) =
1=.09(1.44 - 1) = 1.396.
Modified endurance limit σe* = (Ksf Ksz Kre /Kf) σe =
(0.77×0.85×0.897/1.396)×3000
= 126.1 MPa.
The maximum stresses are at the fillet section (check it)
The alternating and mean bending moment at the fillet section
are
Ma = (Mmax - Mmin)/2 = (15000 + 5000)/2 = 10000 Nm
Mm= (Mmax + Mmin)/2 = (15000 - 5000)/2 = 5000 Nm
tanθ = Ma/Mm = 10000/5000 = 2.
The permissible stresses are obtained from the modified
Goodman diagram using the equations
𝜎𝑒∗ 𝜎𝑚𝑓𝑠
𝜎𝑎 = 𝑓𝑠 [1 − ] and σa /σm = tanθ = 2. → σa = 57.06 MPa., σm
𝜎𝑢
= 30 MPa,
σa + σm = σy/fs and σa /σm = tanθ = 2. → σa = 126.6 MPa., σm =
63.3 MPa,
Choosing the smaller value for σa = 60 MPa,
32Ma/πd3 = 60 → d = 12 mm.
Q.6 A transmission shaft is subjected to a fluctuating torque that
varies from -100 Nm to 400 Nm. Neglect stress concentration
and let factor of safety be 2. Determine the required diameter of
the shaft. Shaft material is C45 steel.
C45 steel: σu = 618 MPa and σy = 353MPa
Endurance strength σe = 0.5 σu = 618/2 = 309 MPa.
Surface finish factor Ksf = 0.86 ( cold drawn , σu = 618 MPa ).
Size factor Ksz = 0.85 ( expecting 7.5 < t ≤ 50 ).
Reliability factor for 90% reliability Kre = 0.897.
Fatigue stress concentration factor Kf = 1 .
Modified endurance limit σe* = (Ksf Ksz Kre /Kf) σe =
(0.86×0.85×0.897)×309 = 202.6 MPa.
Using distortion energy theory,
Modified endurance limit in shear τe* = 0.577 σe* = 116.9 MPa.,
τy = 0.577 σy = 203.6 MPa.

K’ A’ E’
τe*/fs
τa

54.040 450
D’
O τy/fs
τm

The alternating and mean twisting moment in the shaft are

Ta = (Tmax - Tmin)/2 = (400 + 100)/2 = 250 Nm, Tm= (Tmax +
Tmin)/2 = (400 - 100)/2 = 150 Nm.
tanθ = Ta/Tm = 250/150 = 1.67 → θ = 59.040.
The permissible stresses are obtained from the modified
Goodman diagram for torsion by using the following equtions as
shown in the diagram.
τa = τe*/2 and τa /τm = tanθ = 1.67 → τa = 58.4 MPa., τm = 35
MPa,
or τa + τm = τy /2 and τa /τm = tanθ = 1.67. → τa = 63.6 MPa., τm =
38.1 MPa,
Choosing the smaller value for τa = 58.4 MPa,
16Ta/πd3 = 58.4 → d = 27.9 mm.
Q.7 A shaft is subjected to bending moment varying from -200
Nm to 500 Nm and a varying torque from 50 Nm to 175 Nm. If
material of the shaft is 30C8, stress concentration factor is 1.85,
notch sensitivity is 0.95, reliability is 99.9% and factor of safety
is 1.5, find the diameter of the shaft.
The alternating and mean bending moment at the fillet section
are
Ma = (Mmax - Mmin)/2 = (500 + 200)/2 = 350 Nm, Mm= (Mmax +
Mmin)/2 = (500 - 200)/2= 150 Nm
The alternating and mean twisting moment in the shaft are
Ta = (Tmax - Tmin)/2 = (175 - 50)/2 = 62.5 Nm, Tm= (Tmax + Tmin)/2
= (175 + 50)/2 = 112.5 Nm.
Material 30C8: σu = 490 MPa and σy = 270 MPa.
σe*= 0.5 σu = 245 MPa.
Surface finish factor Ksf = 0.8 ( machined and cold drawn , σu =
490 MPa ).
Size factor Ksz = 0.85 ( expecting 7.5 < t ≤ 50 ).
Reliability factor for 99.9% reliability Kre = 0.753.
Fatigue stress concentration factor Kf = 1 +q(Kt - 1) = 1 +
0.95(1.85 - 1) = 1.8075.
Modified endurance limit σe* = (Ksf Ksz Kre /Kf) σe =
(0.8×0.85×0..753)×245 = 69.4 MPa.
Using distortion energy theory, the equivalent alternating and
mean stresses are

2 2 16
𝜎𝑎 = √𝜎𝑥𝑎 + 3𝜏𝑥𝑦𝑎 = (𝜋𝑑3 )√4𝑀𝑎2 + 3𝑇𝑎2 = 3607450/d3
N/mm2

2 2 2 16
𝜎𝑚 = √𝜎𝑥𝑚 + 3𝜏𝑥𝑦𝑚 = (𝜋𝑑3 )√4𝑀𝑚 + 3𝑇𝑚2 = 1821890/d3
N/mm2
The permissible stresses are obtained from the modified
Goodman diagram using the equations
𝜎𝑒∗ 𝜎𝑚𝑓𝑠
𝜎𝑎 = 𝑓𝑠 [1 − ] and σa /σm = tanθ = 1.98 . → σa = 40.4 MPa.,
𝜎𝑢
σm = 20.4 MPa,
σa + σm = σy /fs and σa /σm = tanθ = 1.98 → σa = 89.6 MPa., σm =
45.3 MPa,
Choosing the smaller value for σa = 40.4 MPa,
3607450/d3 = 40.4 → d = 44.7 mm.