Electronic Circuits Analysis and Design 2

FINAL PERIOD
• For God so loved the world that he gave his only begotten son, that
whosoever believes in him will not perish but have everlasting life.
John 3:16

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Active Filters
Active Filters

• Active filters use transistors or op-amps combined with passive RC, RL,
or RLC circuits. The active devices provide voltage gain, and the passive
circuits provide frequency selectivity.
• Filters are usually categorized by the manner in which the output
voltage varies with the frequency of the input voltage. The categories of
active filters are low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, and band-stop.

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Active Filters

SELECTIVITY
- property of filters where circuits are capable of passing signals with
certain selected frequencies while rejecting signals with other frequencies.
PASSBAND
- the range of frequencies that are allowed to pass through the filter with
minimum attenuation (usually defined as less than -3dB of attenuation).
CRITICAL FREQUENCY (fc)
- also called the cutoff frequency; it defines the end of the passband and
is normally specified at the point where the response drops -3dB (70.7%)
from the passband response.

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Low-Pass Filter Response
• passes frequencies from dc to fc and
significantly attenuates all other
frequencies.
• the response drops to zero at frequencies
beyond the passband.
• This ideal response is sometimes referred
to as a “brick-wall” because nothing gets
through beyond the wall.
• The bandwidth of an ideal low-pass filter is
equal to fc.
BW=fc

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Low-Pass Filter Response

• Pole(s): 1 (single pole)

• Roll-off rate: -20dB/decade
• This roll-off rate is not a particularly good
filter characteristic because too much of
the unwanted frequencies (beyond the
passband) are allowed through the filter.
• The critical frequency of a low-pass RC
filter occurs when XC=R, where
1
𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶

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High-Pass Filter Response

• significantly attenuates or rejects all

frequencies below and passes all
frequencies above fc.
• the passband of a high-pass filter is all
frequencies above the critical
frequency
• The critical frequency of a low-pass
RC filter occurs when XC=R, where
1
𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶

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Band-Pass Filter Response

• passes all signals lying within a band

between a lower-frequency limit and
an upper-frequency limit and
essentially rejects all other frequencies
that are outside this specified band.
• Bandwidth, BW = fc2 - fc1
• The frequency about which the
passband is centered is called the
center frequency,f0,
𝑓0 = 𝑓𝑐1 𝑓𝑐2

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Low-Pass Filter Response

• Quality factor (Q) is an indication of the selectivity of a band-pass filter

• Classification:
• Narrow-band (Q>10)
• Wide-band (Q<10)
𝑓0 1
𝑄= =
𝐵𝑊 𝐷𝐹

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Example

A certain band-pass filter has a center frequency of 15 kHz and a

bandwidth of 1 kHz. Determine Q and classify the filter as narrow-band or
wide-band.

𝑓0 15𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑄= = = 15
𝐵𝑊 1𝑘𝐻𝑧
Because Q>10, this is a narrow-band filter

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Band-Stop Filter Response

• also known as notch, band-reject, or

band-elimination filter
• frequencies within a certain
bandwidth are rejected, and
frequencies outside the bandwidth are
passed.

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Filter Response Characteristics

• Each type of filter response (low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, or band-

stop) can be tailored by circuit component values:
• Butterworth
• Chebyshev
• Bessel

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The Butterworth Characteristic

• provides a very flat amplitude response in the

passband and a roll-off rate of
-20dB/decade/pole.
• a pulse applied to a filter with a Butterworth
response will cause overshoots on the output
because each frequency component of the
pulse’s rising and falling edges experiences a
different time delay.
• The Butterworth response is often referred to
as a maximally flat response.

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The Chebyshev Characteristic

• the response characteristic are useful when a

rapid roll-off is required because it provides a
roll-off rate greater than -20dB/decade/pole.
• characterized by overshoot or ripples in the
passband (depending on the number of
poles) and an even less linear phase response
than the Butterworth.

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The Bessel Characteristic

• exhibits a linear phase characteristic, meaning

that the phase shift increases linearly with
frequency.
• the result is almost no overshoot on the
output with a pulse input.
• filters with the Bessel response are used for
filtering pulse waveforms without distorting
the shape of the waveform.

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Damping Factor

• The damping factor (DF) of an active filter circuit determines which

response characteristic the filter exhibits.

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Critical Frequency and Roll-Off Rate

• Generally, to obtain a filter with three poles or more, one-pole or two-

pole filters are cascaded
• To obtain a third-order filter, for example, cascade a second-order and a
first-order filter; to obtain a fourth-order filter, cascade two second-
order filters; and so on. Each filter in a cascaded arrangement is called a
stage or section.

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Values for the Butterworth response

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Active Low-Pass Filters

Single-Pole Filter

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Active Low-Pass Filters

Sallen-Key Low-Pass Filter

- most common configurations for
a second-order (two-pole) filter. It
is also known as a VCVS (voltage-
controlled voltage source) filter.
-the damping factor is set by the
values of and thus making the filter
response either Butterworth,
Chebyshev, or Bessel.

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 Example

Determine the critical frequency of the Sallen-Key low-pass filter and set the
value of for an approximate Butterworth response.

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Solution
1 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝐵𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒,
𝑓𝑐 = 𝑅1
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 = 0.586
1 𝑅2
𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋(1𝑘Ω)(0.022µ𝐹) 𝑅1 = 0.586𝑅2
𝑓𝑐 = 7.23𝑘𝐻𝑧 𝑅1 = 0.586(1𝑘Ω)
𝑅1 = 586Ω

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Active Low-Pass Filters

Cascaded Low-Pass Filters

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Example

For the four-pole filter determine the capacitance values required to

produce a critical frequency of 2680 Hz if all the resistors in the RC low-
pass circuits are 1.8kΩ. Also select values for the feedback resistors to get a
Butterworth response.

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Solution
select R2 = R4 = 1.8kΩ for simplicity
1 1
𝑓𝑐 = 𝐶= 𝑅1 = 0.152𝑅2 𝑅3 = 1.235𝑅4
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 2𝜋𝑅𝑓𝑐
1 𝑅1 = 0.152(1.8𝑘Ω) 𝑅3 = 1.235(1.8𝑘Ω)
𝐶= 𝑅1 = 274Ω
2𝜋(1.8𝑘Ω)(2680𝐻𝑧) 𝑅3 = 2.22𝑘Ω)

𝐶 = 0.033µ𝐹

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Active High-Pass Filter

Single-Pole Filter
high-pass filter passes all frequencies
above fc without limit

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Active High-Pass Filter

Sallen-Key High-Pass Filter

- the positions of the resistors and
capacitors in the frequency-selective
circuit are opposite to those in the
low-pass configuration.
-as with the other filters, the response
characteristic can be optimized by
proper selection of the feedback
resistors, R1 and R2.

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Example

Choose values for the Sallen-Key high-pass filter to implement an equal-

value second-order Butterworth response with a critical frequency of
approximately 10 kHz.

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Solution

𝑅 = 𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑅2 = 3.3𝑘Ω(𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
1
𝐶= 𝑅1 = 0.568𝑅2
2𝜋𝑅𝑓𝑐
1 𝑅1 = 0.568(3.3𝑘Ω)
𝐶= 𝑅1 = 1.93𝑘Ω
2𝜋(3.3𝑘Ω)(10𝑘𝐻𝑧)
𝐶 = 0.0048µ𝐹

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Active High-Pass Filter

Cascading High-Pass Filters

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Active Band-pass Filter

• pass all frequencies bounded by a lower-frequency limit and an upper-

frequency limit and reject all others lying outside this specified band.
• can be thought of as the overlapping of a low-frequency response
curve and a high-frequency response curve.

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Cascaded Low-Pass and High-Pass Filters

• The critical frequency of the high-pass filter must be sufficiently lower

than that of the low-pass stage. This filter is generally limited to wide
bandwidth applications.

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Multiple-Feedback Band-Pass Filter

• The two feedback paths are through R2 and C1. Components R1 and C1
provide the low-pass response, and R2 and C2 provide the high-pass
response. The maximum gain, A0, occurs at the center frequency. Q
values of less than 10 are typical in this type of filter.

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Multiple-Feedback Band-Pass Filter

• the three resistor values are calculated to achieve the desired values for
f0, BW, and A0.
• The resistor values can be found using the following formulas

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Multiple-Feedback Band-Pass Filter

• for Q in the R1 and R2 formulas is as follows:

• The maximum gain, A0, is:

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Example

Determine the center frequency, maximum gain, and bandwidth for the
filter

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Solution

1 𝑅1 + 𝑅3
𝑓0 =
2𝜋𝐶 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

1 68𝑘Ω + 2.7𝑘Ω
𝑓0 =
2𝜋(0.01𝜇𝐹) 68𝑘Ω (180𝑘Ω)(2.7𝑘Ω)
𝑓0 = 736𝐻𝑧

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Solution

𝑅2 𝑄 = 𝜋𝑓0 𝐶𝑅2
𝐴0 =
2𝑅1
𝑄 = 𝜋(736𝐻𝑧)(0.01𝜇𝐹)(180𝑘Ω)
180𝑘Ω
𝐴0 = 𝑄 = 4.16
2(68𝑘Ω)

𝐴0 = 1.32 𝑓0
𝐵𝑊 =
𝑄
736𝐻𝑧
𝐵𝑊 =
4.16
𝐵𝑊 = 177𝐻𝑧

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State-Variable Filter

• the state-variable or universal active filter is widely used for band-pass

applications.
• it consists of a summing amplifier and two op-amp integrators (which
act as single-pole low-pass filters) that are combined in a cascaded
arrangement to form a second-order filter.
• Although used primarily as a band-pass (BP) filter, the statevariable
configuration also provides low-pass (LP) and high-pass (HP) outputs.
The center frequency is set by the RC circuits in both integrators.
• When used as a band-pass filter, the critical frequencies of the
integrators are usually made equal, thus setting the center frequency of
the passband.

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State-Variable Filter

𝟏 𝑹𝟓
𝑸= +𝟏
𝟑 𝑹𝟔

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State-Variable Filter

• At input frequencies below fc, the input signal passes through the summing
amplifier and integrators and is fed back out of phase.
• Thus, the feedback signal and input signal cancel for all frequencies below
approximately fc.
• As the low-pass response of the integrators rolls off, the feedback signal
diminishes, thus allowing the input to pass through to the band-pass output.
• Above fc, the low-pass response disappears, thus preventing the input signal
from passing through the integrators. As a result, the band-pass filter output
peaks sharply at fc
• Stable Qs up to 100 can be obtained with this type of filter.

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Example

Determine the center frequency, Q, and BW for the passband of the state-
variable filter

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Solution

1 1 𝑓0 = 𝑓𝑐 = 7.23𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑐 = =
2𝜋𝑅4 𝐶1 2𝜋𝑅7 𝐶2

1
𝑓𝑐 = 1 𝑅5 1 100𝑘Ω
2𝜋 1𝑘Ω (0.022𝜇𝐹) 𝑄= +1 = + 1 = 33.7
3 𝑅6 3 1𝑘Ω

𝑓𝑐 = 7.23𝑘𝐻𝑧

𝑓0 7.23𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝐵𝑊 = = = 215𝐻𝑧
𝑄 33.7

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The Biquad Filter

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Active Band-stop Filter

• Band-stop filters reject a specified band of frequencies and pass all

others.
• The response is opposite to that of a band-pass filter.
• Band-stop filters are sometimes referred to as notch filters.

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Multiple-Feedback Band-Stop Filter

• this configuration is similar to the band-pass version except that R3 has

been moved and R4 has been added.

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State-Variable Band-Stop Filter

• Summing the low-pass and the high-pass responses of the state-

variable filter with a summing amplifier creates a band-stop filter
• One important application of this filter is minimizing the 60 Hz “hum” in
audio systems by setting the center frequency to 60 Hz.

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Example

Verify that the band-stop has a center frequency of 60 Hz, and optimize
the filter for a Q of 10.

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Solution

1 1 1 𝑅5
𝑓𝑐 = = 𝑄= +1 𝑅5 = 3𝑄 − 1 𝑅6
2𝜋𝑅4 𝐶1 2𝜋𝑅7 𝐶2 3 𝑅6
1
𝑓𝑐 = Choose R6 = 3.3kΩ
2𝜋 12𝑘Ω (0.22𝜇𝐹)
𝑅5 = 3 10 − 1 3.3kΩ = 95.7𝑘Ω
𝑓𝑐 = 60𝐻𝑧

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La Sallian Prayer

“I will continue, O my God,

to do all my actions for the love of Thee.”
St. John Baptist de La Salle, pray for us.
Live Jesus in our hearts, forever.

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