Glycosis

All living things need energy to do work. And every cell in our body is furiously producing
energy at all times. Energy doesn’t necessarily come from food. But rather start with the
energy that came from the sun.
Photosynthesis - It is the process by which plants, some bacteria and some protist use the
energy from sunlight to produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water.
Glucose - It's a type of sugar you get from foods you eat, and your body uses it for energy.
Glucose can be converted into pyruvate which releases adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
by cellular respiration.
Pyruvate - Is an important molecule that is present at the intersection of multiple
biochemical pathways. It is commonly encounters as one of the end products of the
glycolysis which is then transported to the mitochondria for the participating the citric acid
cycle.
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) - It is a high energy molecule which is spent by working
cells.
Pyruvic acid can be made from glucose through glycolysis, converted back to carbohydrates
(such as glucose) via gluconeogenesis, or to fatty acidsthrough a reaction with acetyl-CoA.
Acetyl-CoA (acetyl coenzyme A) is a molecule that participates in many biochemical
reactions in protein, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism.
What is Cellular Respiration?
Cellular Respiration or Aerobic Respiration is the process by which organisms use oxygen to
break down food molecules to get chemical energy for cell functions.
Cellular respiration takes place in the cells of animals, plants, and fungi, and also in algae and
other protists. It is often called aerobic respiration because the process requires oxygen.
Aerobic – needs oxygen to survive.
Anaerobic – doesn’t need oxygen to survive.

Cellular Respiration
The process in which organisms take molecules broken down from food and release the
chemical energy stored in the chemical bonds of those molecules.
The energy that is released from chemical bonds during cellular respiration is stored in
molecules of ATP.
Through cellular respiration the cells harvest energy stored in food by catabotic pathway for
the production of adenosine triphosphates (ATP).
Can be aerobic respiration in the presence of oxygen or anaerobic respiration in the absence
of oxygen.
Cellular respiration begins first outside of the mitochondria in the cytoplasm.
Cellular Respiration is important because it provides the energy for the living organisms to
perform all the other necessary functions to maintain life.
The purpose of cellular respiration is to make ATP which is the main energy source for
metabolic functions.

The 3 phases of cellular respiration

Glycolysis (Fermentation) – convertion of glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate,
Krebs Cycle - the sequence of reactions by which most living cells generate energy during
the process of aerobic respiration.
Electron Transport Chain - is the site of oxidative phosphorylation in eukaryotes.
Da Equation
Equation for Cellular Respiration: 6 O2 + C6 H12 O6 = 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy
Or Oxygen + Glucose = carbon dioxide + water + energy

Glycolysis
The name “glycolysis” comes from the Greek “glyco,” for “sugar” and “lysis” for “to split.”
It is the anaerobic catabolic reaction of glucose.
It is a process where a molecule of glucose is converted into two molecules of pyruvic acid.
It also creates 2 net ATP, and is quite in efficient
Glycolysis also create these coenzyme called NADH (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) .
NAD+ is reduced to NADH
It occurs in almost all cells. The pathway takes place with or without the presence of oxygen.
In the eukaryotic cells, glycolysis occurs in the cytosol.

Occurs in the cytoplasm

reaction: C6 H12 O6 + 2 ATP = 2 pyruvic acids + 4 ATP
10 steps of glycolysis
Preparatory Stage – First 5 stages. This stage consumes energy to convert the glucose
molecule into two molecules three-carbon sugar molecule.

Step 1 (Hexokinase)
• The enzyme hexokinase phosphorylates (adds a phosphate group to) glucose in the
cell's cytoplasm. In the process, a phosphate group from ATP is transferred to glucose
producing glucose 6-phosahate.

Glucose + hexokinase + ATP = ADP + Glucose 6-phosphate (G6P)

• Step 2 (Phosphoglucoisomerase)
 • The enzyme phosphoglucoisomerase converts glucose 6-phosphate into its isomer
fructose 6-phosphate.

Glucose 6-phosphate + Phosphoglucoisomerase (PPG) = Fructose 6-phosphate (F6P)

• Step 3 (Phosphofructokinase)
• The enzyme phosphofructokinase uses another ATP molecule to transfer a phosphate
group to fructose 6-phosphate to form fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate.
Fructose 6-phosphate + phosphofructokinase(PPF) + ATP = ADP + Fructose 1, 6-
bisphosphate (F1,6BP)

• Step 4 (Aldolase)
• The enzyme aldolase splits fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate into two sugars that are isomers
of each other. These two sugars are dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde
phosphate.
Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate + aldolase(AD) = Dihydroxyacetone phosphate(DDP) +
Glyceraldehyde phosphate(GDP)

• Step 5 (Isomerase)
• The enzyme triose phosphate isomerase rapidly inter-converts the molecules
dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. Glyceraldehyde 3-
phosphate is removed as soon as it is formed to be used in the next step of glycolysis.

• Dihydroxyacetone phosphate = Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GD3P)

• Step 6 (triose phosphate dehydrogenase )

• The enzyme triose phosphate dehydrogenase serves two functions in this step. First
the enzyme transfers a hydrogen (H-) from glyceraldehyde phosphate to the oxidizing
agent nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) to form NADH. Next triose
phosphate dehydrogenase adds a phosphate (P) from the cytosol to the oxidized
glyceraldehyde phosphate to form 1, 3-bisphosphoglycerate. This occurs for
both molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate produced in step 5.

• A. Triose phosphate dehydrogenase + 2 H- + 2 NAD+ = 2 NADH + 2 H+

• B. Triose phosphate dehydrogenase + 2 P + 2 glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate = 2
molecules of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (1,3 BSG)

• Step 7 (phosphoglycerokinase)
• The enzyme phosphoglycerokinase transfers a P from 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to a
molecule of ADP to form ATP. This happens for each molecule of 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate. The process yields two 3-phosphoglycerate molecules and two
ATP molecules.

• 2 molecules of 1,3-bisphoshoglycerate (+ phosphoglycerokinase + 2 ADP → 2

molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (3PPG) + 2 ATP
 • Step 8 (phosphoglyceromutase)
• The enzyme phosphoglyceromutase relocates the P from 3-phosphoglycerate from the
third carbon to the second carbon to form 2-phosphoglycerate.

• 2 molecules of 3-Phosphoglycerate + phosphoglyceromutase = 2 molecules of 2-

Phosphoglycerate (2PPG)

• Step 9 (Enolase)
• The enzyme enolase removes a molecule of water from 2-phosphoglycerate to form
phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP). This happens for each molecule of 2-phosphoglycerate.

• 2 molecules of 2-Phosphoglycerate + enolase = 2 molecules of

phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)

• Step 10
• The enzyme pyruvate kinase transfers a P from PEP to ADP to form pyruvate and
ATP. This happens for each molecule of phosphoenolpyruvate. This reaction yields 2
molecules of pyruvate and 2 ATP molecules.

• 2 molecules of phosphoenolpyruvate + pyruvate kinase + 2 ADP = 2 molecules of

pyruvate + 2 ATP
• Glucose 6-phosphate (G6P)
• Phosphoglucoisomerase (PPG)
• Fructose 6-phosphate (F6P)
• phosphofructokinase(PPF)
• Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate (F1,6BP)
• aldolase(AD)
• Dihydroxyacetone phosphate(DDP)
• Glyceraldehyde phosphate(GDP)
• Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GD3P)
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Hydrogen (NADH)
GLYCOLYSIS is the conversion of Glucose into Pyruvate.
• Glucose- sugar that is used for energy
• Pyruvate -is the simplest of the alpha-keto acids, with a carboxylic acid and a ketone
functional group.
 Krebs cycle

HISTORY
It was named after the Hans Adolf Krebs who discovered it in 1937.He received the Nobel Prize in
physiology or medicine in 1953 for his discovery. Forced to leave Germany prior to WWII because he
was Jewish

It is also known by several other names:

• Citric Acid Cycle

• Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle (TCA)

WHERE DOES THE KREBS CYCLE OCCURS?

In prokaryotic cells the citric acid cycle occurs in the cytoplasm;

in eukaryotic cells the citric acid cycle takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria.

PROKARYOTIC -EUKARYOTIC

Where is TCA cycle located?

In eukaryotes, the citric acid cycle takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria, just like the
conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA . In prokaryotes, these steps both take place in the cytoplasm

KREBS CYCLE

• It is the series of biochemical reactions in which the acetyl portion of acetyl CoA is oxidized to
carbon dioxide and the reduced coenzymes FADH2 and NADH are produced.

• The Krebs cycle is what is known as Amphibolic, in that it is both catabolic (breaks down
molecules) and anabolic (builds molecules).

• It is a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to generate energy through the
oxidization of acetate derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into carbon dioxide

Unlocking of Terms

Oxidation – removal of electrons from a molecule. This subsequently lowers the energy content of a
molecule.

Most biological oxidations involve the loss of hydrogen atoms. This type of oxidation is referred to as
a dehydrogenation. The enzymes that catalyzes these reactions are called dehydrogenases.

• Gain of oxygen atoms

Reduction – opposite of oxidation. It is the addition of electrons to a molecule.

When a molecule is oxidized, the liberated hyrdride ions (H-) do not remain free in the cell. In order
to harness the energy of these electrons, they are immediately transferred to another compound by
coenzymes

• Loss of oxygen atoms

Phosphorylation - accomplished by transferring a phosphate group to ADP

Decarboxylation – carbon chain is shortened by the removal of a carbon atom (COO-) as CO2

Isomerization - is the process by which one molecule is transformed into another molecule which
has exactly the same atoms

Dehydration – removing of water molecules

Hydration – addition of water molecules

Link Reaction between Glycolysis and Krebs Cycle -Pyruvate conversion to Acetyl CoA

Pyruvate is transported across the mitochondrion’s inner membrane and into the inner
compartment, called the matrix.

An enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase complex splits each molecule of pyruvate into a molecule of
CO2 and a two-carbon acetyl group.

• The CO2 diffuses out of the cell, and the acetyl group combines with a molecule called coenzyme A
(abbreviated as CoA). The product of this reaction is acetyl-CoA.

• NAD+ is changed to its reduced form, NADH that will enter the Electron Transport Chain.

Step 1: Citrate synthase

Citrate synthase The first step is to put energy into the system. The Citrate synthase links to the
Oxaloacetate substrate which can then bind to the Acetyl–CoA’s acetyl group, which then releases
the Co-enzyme A. This produces the very familiar and common citric acid, i.e. a citrate. It is this six-
carbon molecule that will be broken down, and remolded back into Oxaloacetate.

Step 2: Aconitase

Step 2: Aconitase Unfortunately, citrate is too stable for the reactions that follow. So, the Acontiase
links to the Citrate to move one of its oxygen atoms to create a more unstable citrate isomer. It does
this by extracting a water molecule producing cis–Aconitate, and then reattaching the water to
produce D–Isocitrate.

Step 3: Isocitrate dehydrogenase

Isocitrate dehydrogenase With the citrate rearranged, the process begins in earnest; the Isocitrate
dehydrogenase links to the D–Isocitrate, which transfers an electron to the NAD+, Nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide, producing its energized form NADH. With the electron removed, the enzyme
then detaches a carbon atom to form a molecule of carbon dioxide. This transforms the substrate
from a 6-carbon molecule to a 5-carbon molecule.

Step 4: α-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase

This step involves a highly-developed complex of 24 enzymes. Labeled here α–Ketoglutarate

dehydrogenase, this complex transfers also electrons to NAD+ producing NADH, removes another
carbon atom as carbon dioxide (transforming the substrate from a 5-carbon to a 4-carbon molecule),
and relinks the Coenzyme A to the substrate.

Step 5: Succinyl-CoA synthetase

This step directly produces ATP because the substrate’s link to Coenzyme A is sufficiently energetic
to power the reaction. In mitochondria, the enzyme links to the Succinyl–CoA and uses the energy
from releasing the coenzyme, to add a phosphate (P) to GDP to produce GTP. In the cytoplasm, a
variation on this enzyme can produce ATP directly. This also begins the manipulation of the
substrate to re-produce its original form.

Step 6: Succinate dehydrogenase

With the carbons removed, the rearrangement process begins manipulating the hydrogen. When
the Succinate dehydrogenase links to the substrate, it releases two hydrogen atoms attaching them
to a carrier, ubiquinone (Q), or FAD Flavin adenine dinucleotide. With the additional 2 electrons
ubiquinone forms ubiquinol (QH2 or FADH2) which is then transferred to power the electron
transport chain.

Step 7: Fumarase

Fumarase continues the rearrangement process by adding Hydrogen and Oxygen back into the
substrate that had been previously removed.

Step 8: Malate dehydrogenase

Finally, the Malate dehydrogenase recreates the Oxaloacetate substrate and moves electrons from
the NAD+ to form NADH, the last energy produced by the Krebs cycle. Interestingly, this Malate–
Oxaloacetate reaction is also used to move anaerobic energy from the cytoplasm into the
mitochondria. While anaerobic reactions produce NADH, it cannot move from the cytoplasm to the
mitochondria to be processed in the electron transport chain, but the Malate can be transported
across the mitochondria’s membrane, so the anaerobic NADH transforms Oxaloacetate into Malate,
which is then converted back into Oxaloacetate to produce NADH for the production of ATP. Process
as a whole
x

ELECTRON TRANSPORT
CHAIN

A stage of cellular respiration.

Definition of Terms

Adenine Triphospate - a compound consisting of an adenosine molecule bonded to three phosphate

groups, present in all living tissue.

Electron - is a subatomic particle, symbol e− or β−, with a negative elementary electric charge.

FADH2 - Flavin adenine dinucleotide , or FADH2 , is a redox cofactor that is created during the Krebs
cycle and utilized during the last part of respiration, the electron transport chain.

Redox reactions- are chemical reactions in which electrons are transferred from an oxidised donor
molecule to a deficient acceptor molecule.

NADH - Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide hydrogen is a coenzyme found in all living cells.

Protons - is a subatomic particle, symbol p or p+, with a positive electric charge of +1e elementary
charge and mass slightly less than that of a neutron.
Eukaryote - an organism consisting of a cell or cells in which the genetic material is DNA in the form
of chromosomes contained within a distinct nucleus.

Prokaryote - a microscopic single-celled organism that has neither a distinct nucleus with a
membrane nor other specialized organelles.

 What is Electron Transport Chain?

 Allows the release of the large amount of chemical energy stored in reduced NAD+ (NADH)
and Reduced FAD (FADH2).

 It is the third stage of cellular respiration.

 What is Electron Transport Chain? Contd.

 Is a series of complexes that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors
via redox (both reduction and oxidation occurring simultaneously) reactions, and couples
this electron transfer with the transfer of protons (H+ ions) across a membrane.

 Function of Electron Transport Chain

 Produce a great number of ATPs.

 Is to produce a transmembrane proton electrochemical gradient as a result of the redox

reactions.

 Function of Electron Transport Chain contd.

 If protons flow back through the membrane, they enable mechanical work, such as rotating
bacterial flagella. ATP synthase, an enzyme highly conserved among all domains of life,
converts this mechanical work into chemical energy by producing ATP.

 Electron Transport Chain in other Organisms

 In eukaryotes, an important electron transport chain is found in the inner mitochondrial

membrane where it serves as the site of oxidative phosphorylation through the action of
ATP synthase.

 It is also found in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast in photosynthetic eukaryotes.

 In bacteria, the electron transport chain is located in their cell membrane.

 How ETC works?

 The produced NADH and FADH2 in the past 2 stages are moved in oxidative phospolyration
which generates most ATPs by using the pathways, the pathways utilize electron trasport
chain that has a series mitochndrial membrane proteins that sit in the inner mitchondrial
membrane, these mitochondrial membrane are called complexes 1 to 4.

 The Four Protein Complexes

  How ETC works? Contd.

 There is 1 compound in the Electron Transport Chain that is not a protein, and it is the
ubiquinone or coenzyme Q or CoQ, a mobile transfer molecule.

 Things to ponder

ETC is a stepwise process that produce :

 34 ATPS

 Water

 NAD and FAD (which are recycled to use in the krebs cycle again)

1 NADH=3 ATP

1FADH2 = 2 ATP

 Flow of ETC

 Once NADH feed electrons to the first complex, the protein then facilitate redox reactions,
shuttling the electrons of a component (NADH) to another

 Coupled with the shuttling of electrons, there will be a pumping of hydrogen ions for each of
the electrons and next, the electrons are now transferred to the ubiquinone and moved to
the complex 3….

 Flow of ETC contd.

 …the FADH2 in this stage is processed in the complex 2 which is not doing a pumping of
hydrogen from matrix to the intermembrane space. After the ubiquinone moved the
electrons from the complex 1, the ubiquinone then collects the electrons from the complex
2 (electrons are released by the oxidation of FADH2) then move it to the complex 3, the
ubiquinone then do again its work in the complex 1….

 Flow of ETC contd.

 In complex 3, hydrogen are also pumped out from matrix to the membrane space,
furthermore, the complex 3 transfer the electrons one by one into the cytochrome c (each
transfer of electrons is also a pumping of hydrogen ions) and then the cytochrome c then
move it to the complex 4.

 In the complex 4, 4 electrons are needed and 2 molecular oxygen and hydrogen ions to
make water (H2O), Hydrogen are also pumped out here.

 Flow of ETC contd.

  Protons(hydrogen) accumulated in the intermembrane space will power another protein
complex called ATP synthase. ATP synthase is the one that synthesizes ATP. The process
where the hydrogen from matrix that went to intermembrane space and goes back to the
matrix is called chemiosmosis.

The reason why is chemiosmosis is happening is because the proton concentration in the
intermembrane space becomes greater.

 Other information

 Complex 1 is also called NADH Dehydrogenase

 Complex 3 is also called Cytochrome b-c1

 Complex 4 is also called Cytochrome oxidase

 In some references, 1 NADH=2.5 and 1 FADH2=1.5

 Production of ATP is dependent on a proton gradient. (Gradient is formed if there is a high

concentration).

 The F1 portion of Atp synthase is responsibe for hydrolizing ATP.

 Proton-Motive Force is generated by an electron transport chain which acts as a proton

pump. (That is why protons from matrix are pump to the intermembrane space)

 Protons receiveed from NADH act as coenzymes