Milk

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Milk
A glass of pasteurized cow's milk
Cows being milked.
Milk is a nutrient-rich, white liquid food produced by
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk 1/4/20, 11:50 PM

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the mammary glands of mammals. It is the primary
source of nutrition for infant mammals (including
humans who are breastfed) before they are able to
digest other types of food. Early-lactation milk contains
colostrum, which carries the mother's antibodies to its
young and can reduce the risk of many diseases. It
contains many other nutrients[1] including protein and
lactose. Interspecies consumption of milk is not
uncommon, particularly among humans, many of whom
consume the milk of other mammals.[2][3]
As an agricultural product, milk, also called dairy milk, is

extracted from farm animals during or soon after
pregnancy. Dairy farms produced about 730 million
tonnes of milk in 2011,[4] from 260 million dairy
cows.[5] India is the world's largest producer of milk,
and is the leading exporter of skimmed milk powder, yet
it exports few other milk products.[6][7] The ever
increasing rise in domestic demand for dairy products
and a large demand-supply gap could lead to India

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being a net importer of dairy products in the future.[8]
New Zealand, Germany and the Netherlands are the
largest exporters of milk products.[9] China and Russia
were the world's largest importers of milk and milk
products until 2016 when both countries became self-
sufficient, contributing to a worldwide glut of milk.[10]
Throughout the world, more than six billion people

consume milk and milk products. Over 750 million
people live in dairy farming households.[11]
Etymology and terminology

The term "milk" comes from "Old English meoluc (West
Saxon), milc (Anglian), from Proto-Germanic *meluks
"milk" (source also of Old Norse mjolk, Old Frisian
melok, Old Saxon miluk, Dutch melk, Old High German
miluh, German Milch, Gothic miluks)".[12]
In food use, from 1961, the term milk has been defined
under Codex Alimentarius standards as: "the normal

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mammary secretion of milking animals obtained from
one or more milkings without either addition to it or
extraction from it, intended for consumption as liquid
milk or for further processing."[13] The term dairy relates
to animal milk and animal milk production.
A substance secreted by pigeons to feed their young is

called "crop milk" and bears some resemblance to
mammalian milk, although it is not consumed as a milk
substitute.[14]
Non-dairy milks
The definition above precludes non-animal products

which resemble dairy milk in color and texture, such as
almond milk, coconut milk, rice milk, and soy milk. In
English, the word "milk" has been used to refer to "milk-
like plant juices" since 1200 AD.[15] Traditionally a
variety of non-dairy products have been described with
the word milk, including the traditional digestive

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remedies milk of magnesia[16] and milk of bismuth.[17]
Latex, the complex inedible emulsion that exudes from
the stems of certain plants, is generally described as
milky and is often sold as "rubber milk" because of its
white appearance. The word latex itself is deducted
from the Spanish word for milk.[18]
A 2018 survey by the International Food Information

Council Foundation suggests consumers in the United
States do not typically confuse plant-based milk
analogues with animal milk and dairy products.[19][20] In
the US, (mostly plant-based) milk alternatives now
command 13% of the "milk" market, leading the US
dairy industry to attempt, multiple times, to sue
producers of dairy milk alternatives, to have the name
"milk" limited to animal milk, so far without success.[21]
The Food and Drug Administration generally supports
restricting the term "milk", while the US Department of
Agriculture supports the continued use of terms such
as "soymilk".[22] In the European Union, words such as

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milk, butter, cheese, cream and yogurt are legally
restricted to animal products, with exceptions such as
coconut milk, almond milk, peanut butter, and ice
cream.[23]
Production of milk substitutes from vats of brewer's

yeast is under development by organizations including
Impossible Foods, Muufri, and the biohacker group Real
Vegan Cheese. Some components would be
chemically identical to those in animal-derived milk;
others, such as lactose, to which many people are
allergic, may be substituted.[24]
Types of consumption
Milk consumption occurs in two distinct overall types: a
natural source of nutrition for all infant mammals and a
food product obtained from other mammals for
consumption by humans of all ages.

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Nutrition for infant mammals
Breastfeeding to provide a mother's milk
A goat kid feeding on its mother's milk
In almost all mammals, milk is fed to infants through

breastfeeding, either directly or by expressing the milk
to be stored and consumed later. The early milk from
mammals is called colostrum. Colostrum contains
antibodies that provide protection to the newborn baby

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as well as nutrients and growth factors.[25] The makeup
of the colostrum and the period of secretion varies from
species to species.[26]
For humans, the World Health Organization

recommends exclusive breastfeeding for six months
and breastfeeding in addition to other food for up to two
years of age or more.[27] In some cultures it is common
to breastfeed children for three to five years, and the
period may be longer.[28]
Fresh goats' milk is sometimes substituted for breast

milk, which introduces the risk of the child developing
electrolyte imbalances, metabolic acidosis,
megaloblastic anemia, and a host of allergic
reactions.[29]
Food product for humans

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The Holstein Friesian cattle is the dominant breed in industrialized
dairy farms today
A bowl of milk for the shaman rite. Buryatia. Russia
In many cultures, especially in the West, humans

continue to consume milk beyond infancy, using the
milk of other mammals (especially cattle, goats and
sheep) as a food product. Initially, the ability to digest
milk was limited to children as adults did not produce
lactase, an enzyme necessary for digesting the lactose
in milk. People therefore converted milk to curd, cheese

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and other products to reduce the levels of lactose.
Thousands of years ago, a chance mutation spread in
human populations in Europe that enabled the
production of lactase in adulthood. This mutation
allowed milk to be used as a new source of nutrition
which could sustain populations when other food
sources failed.[30] Milk is processed into a variety of
products such as cream, butter, yogurt, kefir, ice cream,
and cheese. Modern industrial processes use milk to
produce casein, whey protein, lactose, condensed milk,
powdered milk, and many other food-additives and
industrial products.
Whole milk, butter and cream have high levels of

saturated fat.[31][32] The sugar lactose is found only in
milk, forsythia flowers, and a few tropical shrubs. The
enzyme needed to digest lactose, lactase, reaches its
highest levels in the human small intestine after birth
and then begins a slow decline unless milk is
consumed regularly.[33] Those groups who do continue

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to tolerate milk, however, often have exercised great
creativity in using the milk of domesticated ungulates,
not only of cattle, but also sheep, goats, yaks, water
buffalo, horses, reindeer and camels. India is the largest
producer and consumer of cattle and buffalo milk in the
world.[34]
Per capita consumption of milk and milk products in selected countries in 2011[35]
Country Milk (liters) Cheese (kg) Butter (kg)
Ireland 135.6 6.7 2.4
Finland 127.0 22.5 4.1
United Kingdom 105.9 10.9 3.0
Australia 105.3 11.7 4.0
Sweden 90.1 19.1 1.7
Canada 78.4 12.3 2.5
United States 75.8 15.1 2.8
Europe 62.8 17.1 3.6
Brazil 55.7 3.6 0.4
France 55.5 26.3 7.5
Italy 54.2 21.8 2.3
Germany 51.8 22.9 5.9
Greece 49.1 23.4 0.7
Netherlands 47.5 19.4 3.3
India 39.5 - 3.5
China 9.1 - 0.1
History

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Drinking milk in Germany in 1932
Humans first learned to consume the milk of other

mammals regularly following the domestication of
animals during the Neolithic Revolution or the
development of agriculture. This development occurred
independently in several global locations from as early
as 9000–7000 BC in Mesopotamia[36] to 3500–3000
BC in the Americas.[37] People first domesticated the
most important dairy animals – cattle, sheep and
goats – in Southwest Asia, although domestic cattle
had been independently derived from wild aurochs
populations several times since.[38] Initially animals
were kept for meat, and archaeologist Andrew Sherratt

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has suggested that dairying, along with the exploitation
of domestic animals for hair and labor, began much
later in a separate secondary products revolution in the
fourth millennium BC.[39] Sherratt's model is not
supported by recent findings, based on the analysis of
lipid residue in prehistoric pottery, that shows that
dairying was practiced in the early phases of agriculture
in Southwest Asia, by at least the seventh millennium
BC.[40][41]
From Southwest Asia domestic dairy animals spread to

Europe (beginning around 7000 BC but did not reach
Britain and Scandinavia until after 4000 BC),[42] and
South Asia (7000–5500 BC).[43] The first farmers in
central Europe[44] and Britain[45] milked their animals.
Pastoral and pastoral nomadic economies, which rely
predominantly or exclusively on domestic animals and
their products rather than crop farming, were
developed as European farmers moved into the Pontic-
Caspian steppe in the fourth millennium BC, and

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subsequently spread across much of the Eurasian
steppe.[46] Sheep and goats were introduced to Africa
from Southwest Asia, but African cattle may have been
independently domesticated around 7000–6000
BC.[47] Camels, domesticated in central Arabia in the
fourth millennium BC, have also been used as dairy
animals in North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula.[48]
The earliest Egyptian records of burn treatments
describe burn dressings using milk from mothers of
male babies.[49] In the rest of the world (i.e., East and
Southeast Asia, the Americas and Australia) milk and
dairy products were historically not a large part of the
diet, either because they remained populated by
hunter-gatherers who did not keep animals or the local
agricultural economies did not include domesticated
dairy species. Milk consumption became common in
these regions comparatively recently, as a
consequence of European colonialism and political
domination over much of the world in the last 500
years.

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In the Middle Ages, milk was called the "virtuous white
liquor" because alcoholic beverages were safer to
consume than water.[50]
Industrialization
Preserved Express Dairies three-axle milk tank wagon at the

Didcot Railway Centre, based on an SR chassis
The growth in urban population, coupled with the

expansion of the railway network in the mid-19th
century, brought about a revolution in milk production
and supply. Individual railway firms began transporting
milk from rural areas to London from the 1840s and
1850s. Possibly the first such instance was in 1846,
when St Thomas's Hospital in Southwark contracted

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with milk suppliers outside London to ship milk by
rail.[51] The Great Western Railway was an early and
enthusiastic adopter, and began to transport milk into
London from Maidenhead in 1860, despite much
criticism. By 1900, the company was transporting over
25 million gallons annually.[52] The milk trade grew
slowly through the 1860s, but went through a period of
extensive, structural change in the 1870s and 1880s.
Milk transportation in Salem, Tamil Nadu
Urban demand began to grow, as consumer purchasing

power increased and milk became regarded as a
required daily commodity. Over the last three decades
of the 19th century, demand for milk in most parts of
the country doubled, or in some cases, tripled.

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Legislation in 1875 made the adulteration of milk illegal
– this combined with a marketing campaign to change
the image of milk. The proportion of rural imports by rail
as a percentage of total milk consumption in London
grew from under 5% in the 1860s to over 96% by the
early 20th century. By that point, the supply system for
milk was the most highly organized and integrated of
any food product.[51]
1959 milk supply in Oberlech, Vorarlberg, Austria
The first glass bottle packaging for milk was used in the
1870s. The first company to do so may have been the
New York Dairy Company in 1877. The Express Dairy
Company in England began glass bottle production in
1880. In 1884, Hervey Thatcher, an American inventor

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from New York, invented a glass milk bottle, called
"Thatcher's Common Sense Milk Jar," which was
sealed with a waxed paper disk.[53] Later, in 1932,
plastic-coated paper milk cartons were introduced
commercially.[53]
In 1863, French chemist and biologist Louis Pasteur

invented pasteurization, a method of killing harmful
bacteria in beverages and food products.[53] He
developed this method while on summer vacation in
Arbois, to remedy the frequent acidity of the local
wines.[54] He found out experimentally that it is
sufficient to heat a young wine to only about 50–60 °C
(122–140 °F) for a brief time to kill the microbes, and
that the wine could be nevertheless properly aged
without sacrificing the final quality.[54] In honor of
Pasteur, the process became known as
"pasteurization". Pasteurization was originally used as a
way of preventing wine and beer from souring.[55]
Commercial pasteurizing equipment was produced in

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Germany in the 1880s, and producers adopted the
process in Copenhagen and Stockholm by 1885.[56][57]
Overproduction
Continued improvements in the efficiency of milk

production led to a worldwide glut of milk by 2016.
Russia and China became self-sufficient and stopped
importing milk. Canada has tried to restrict milk
production by forcing new farmers/increased capacity
to "buy in" at C$24,000 per cow. Importing milk is
prohibited. The European Union theoretically stopped
subsidizing dairy farming in 2015. Direct subsidies were
replaced by "environmental incentives" which results in
the government buying milk when the price falls to
€200 per 1,000 liters (220 imp gal; 260 U.S. gal). The
United States has a voluntary insurance program that
pays farmers depending upon the price of milk and the
cost of feed.[10]

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Sources
Modern dairy farm in Norway
The females of all mammal species can by definition

produce milk, but cow's milk dominates commercial
production. In 2011, FAO estimates 85% of all milk
worldwide was produced from cows.[58] Human milk is
not produced or distributed industrially or
commercially; however, human milk banks collect
donated human breastmilk and redistribute it to infants
who may benefit from human milk for various reasons
(premature neonates, babies with allergies, metabolic
diseases, etc.) but who cannot breastfeed.[59]
In the Western world, cow's milk is produced on an

industrial scale and is by far the most commonly

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consumed form of milk. Commercial dairy farming
using automated milking equipment produces the vast
majority of milk in developed countries. Dairy cattle
such as the Holstein have been bred selectively for
increased milk production. About 90% of the dairy
cows in the United States and 85% in Great Britain are
Holsteins.[33] Other dairy cows in the United States
include Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, Guernsey, Jersey and
Milking Shorthorn (Dairy Shorthorn).
Other animal-based sources
Other significant sources of milk
Goats (2% Buffaloes

of world's (11%)
milk)

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Aside from cattle, many kinds of livestock provide milk
used by humans for dairy products. These animals
include water buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, donkey,
horse, reindeer and yak. The first four respectively
produced about 11%, 2%, 1.4% and 0.2% of all milk
worldwide in 2011.[58]
In Russia and Sweden, small moose dairies also

exist.[60]
According to the U.S. National Bison Association,

American bison (also called American buffalo) are not
milked commercially;[61] however, various sources
report cows resulting from cross-breeding bison and
domestic cattle are good milk producers, and have
been used both during the European settlement of
North America[62] and during the development of
commercial Beefalo in the 1970s and 1980s.[63]
Swine are almost never milked, even though their milk

is similar to cow's milk and perfectly suitable for human

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consumption. The main reasons for this are that milking
a sow's numerous small teats is very cumbersome, and
that sows can not store their milk as cows can.[64] A
few pig farms do sell pig cheese as a novelty item;
these cheeses are exceedingly expensive.[65]
Production worldwide
Top ten cow milk producers
in 2013[66]
Production
Rank Country
(metric tons)
1 United States 91,271,058
2 India 60,600,000
3 China 35,310,000
4 Brazil 34,255,236
5 Germany 31,122,000
6 Russia 30,285,969
7 France 23,714,357
8 New Zealand 18,883,000
9 Turkey 16,655,009
10 United Kingdom 13,941,000

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Top ten sheep milk producers
in 2013[67]
Production
Rank Country
(metric tons)
1 China 1,540,000
2 Turkey 1,101,013
3 Greece 705,000
4 Syria 684,578
5 Romania 632,582
6 Spain 600,568
7 Sudan 540,000
8 Somalia 505,000
9 Iran 470,000
10 Italy 383,837
Top ten goat milk producers

in 2013[68]
Production
Rank Country
(metric tons)
1 India 5,000,000
2 Bangladesh 2,616,000
3 Sudan 1,532,000
4 Pakistan 801,000
5 Mali 720,000
6 France 580,694
7 Spain 471,999
8 Turkey 415,743
9 Somalia 400,000
10 Greece 340,000

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Top ten buffalo milk producers
in 2013[69]
Production
Rank Country
(metric tons)
1 India 70,000,000
2 Pakistan 24,370,000
3 China 3,050,000
4 Egypt 2,614,500
5 Nepal 1,188,433
6 Myanmar 309,000
7 Italy 194,893
8 Sri Lanka 65,000
9 Iran 65,000
10 Turkey 51,947
In 2012, the largest producer of milk and milk products

was India followed by the United States of America,
China, Pakistan and Brazil.[70] All 28 European Union
members together produced 153.8 million tonnes of
milk in 2013, the largest by any politico-economic
union.[71]
Increasing affluence in developing countries, as well as

increased promotion of milk and milk products, has led
to a rise in milk consumption in developing countries in
recent years. In turn, the opportunities presented by
these growing markets have attracted investments by

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multinational dairy firms. Nevertheless, in many
countries production remains on a small scale and
presents significant opportunities for diversification of
income sources by small farms.[72] Local milk collection
centers, where milk is collected and chilled prior to
being transferred to urban dairies, are a good example
of where farmers have been able to work on a
cooperative basis, particularly in countries such as
India.[73]
Production yields
Child milking a cow by hand
FAO reports[58] Israel dairy farms are the most

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productive in the world, with a yield of 12,546
kilograms (27,659 lb) milk per cow per year. This
survey over 2001 and 2007 was conducted by ICAR
(International Committee for Animal Recording)[74]
across 17 developed countries. The survey found that
the average herd size in these developed countries
increased from 74 to 99 cows per herd between 2001
and 2007. A dairy farm had an average of 19 cows per
herd in Norway, and 337 in New Zealand. Annual milk
production in the same period increased from 7,726 to
8,550 kg (17,033 to 18,850 lb) per cow in these
developed countries. The lowest average production
was in New Zealand at 3,974 kg (8,761 lb) per cow. The
milk yield per cow depended on production systems,
nutrition of the cows, and only to a minor extent
different genetic potential of the animals. What the cow
ate made the most impact on the production obtained.
New Zealand cows with the lowest yield per year
grazed all year, in contrast to Israel with the highest
yield where the cows ate in barns with an energy-rich

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mixed diet.
The milk yield per cow in the United States, the world's
largest cow milk producer, was 9,954 kg (21,945 lb)
per year in 2010. In contrast, the milk yields per cow in
India and China – the second and third largest
producers – were respectively 1,154 kg (2,544 lb) and
2,282 kg (5,031 lb) per year.[75]
Price
It was reported in 2007 that with increased worldwide

prosperity and the competition of bio-fuel production
for feed stocks, both the demand for and the price of
milk had substantially increased worldwide. Particularly
notable was the rapid increase of consumption of milk
in China and the rise of the price of milk in the United
States above the government subsidized price.[76] In
2010 the Department of Agriculture predicted farmers
would receive an average of $1.35 per U.S. gallon of

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cow's milk (35 cents per liter), which is down 30 cents
per gallon from 2007 and below the break-even point
for many cattle farmers.[77]
Environmental impact
Mean greenhouse gas emissions for one glass
(200g) of different milks[78]
Milk Greenhouse Gas Emissions (kg CO2-Ceq
Types per 200g)
Cow's
0.62
Milk
Rice
0.23
Milk
Soy
0.21
Milk
Oat
0.19
Milk
Almond
0.16
Milk

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Mean water footprint for one glass (200g) of
different milks[78]
Milk
Water Use (L per 200g)
Types
Cow's
131
Milk
Almond
74
Milk
Rice
56
Milk
Oat
9
Milk
Soy
2
Milk

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Mean land use for one glass (200g) of different
milks[78]
Milk
Land Use (m2 per 200g)
Types
Cow's
1.81
Milk
Oat
0.25
Milk
Soy
0.23
Milk
Almond
0.19
Milk
Rice
0.14
Milk
The consumption of cow's milk poses numerous

threats to the natural environment. Compared to plant
milks, cow's milk requires the most land and water,[78]
and its production results in the greatest amount of
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, air pollution, and

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water pollution.[79] A 2010 UN report, Assessing the
Environmental Impacts of Consumption and
Production, argued that animal products, including
dairy, "in general require more resources and cause
higher emissions than plant-based alternatives".[80]:80
It proposed a move away from animal products to
reduce environmental damage.[a][82]
The global water footprint of animal agriculture is 2,422

billion cubic meters of water (one-fourth of the total
global water footprint), 19 percent of which is related to
dairy cattle.[83] A 2012 study found that 98 percent of
milk’s footprint can be traced back to the cows food.[84]
A 2010 Food and Agriculture Organization report found

that the global dairy sector contributes to four percent
of the total global anthropogenic GHG emissions. This
figure includes emissions allotted to milk production,
processing and transportation, and the emissions from
fattening and slaughtering dairy cows.[85] The same
report found that 52 percent of the GHGs produced by

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dairy cattle is methane, and nitrous oxide makes up for
another 27 percent of dairy cattle’s GHG emission. It is
estimated that cows produce between 250 and 500
liters of methane a day.[86] Methane has a heat-
trapping potential nearly 100 times larger than carbon
dioxide, and nitrous oxide has a global warming
potential almost 300 times greater than carbon
dioxide.[87]
Physical and chemical properties
Butterfat is a triglyceride (fat) formed from fatty acids such as

myristic, palmitic, and oleic acids.
Milk is an emulsion or colloid of butterfat globules

within a water-based fluid that contains dissolved
carbohydrates and protein aggregates with
minerals.[88] Because it is produced as a food source

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for the young, all of its contents provide benefits for
growth. The principal requirements are energy (lipids,
lactose, and protein), biosynthesis of non-essential
amino acids supplied by proteins (essential amino acids
and amino groups), essential fatty acids, vitamins and
inorganic elements, and water.[89]
pH
The pH of milk ranges from 6.4 to 6.8 and it changes

over time. Milk from other bovines and non-bovine
mammals varies in composition, but has a similar pH.
Lipids
Initially milk fat is secreted in the form of a fat globule

surrounded by a membrane.[90] Each fat globule is
composed almost entirely of triacylglycerols and is
surrounded by a membrane consisting of complex
lipids such as phospholipids, along with proteins. These

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act as emulsifiers which keep the individual globules
from coalescing and protect the contents of these
globules from various enzymes in the fluid portion of
the milk. Although 97–98% of lipids are triacylglycerols,
small amounts of di- and monoacylglycerols, free
cholesterol and cholesterol esters, free fatty acids, and
phospholipids are also present. Unlike protein and
carbohydrates, fat composition in milk varies widely in
the composition due to genetic, lactational, and
nutritional factor difference between different
species.[90]
Like composition, fat globules vary in size from less

than 0.2 to about 15 micrometers in diameter between
different species. Diameter may also vary between
animals within a species and at different times within a
milking of a single animal. In unhomogenized cow's
milk, the fat globules have an average diameter of two
to four micrometers and with homogenization, average
around 0.4 micrometers.[90] The fat-soluble vitamins A,

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D, E, and K along with essential fatty acids such as
linoleic and linolenic acid are found within the milk fat
portion of the milk.[33]
Proteins
Normal bovine milk contains 30–35 grams of protein

per liter of which about 80% is arranged in casein
micelles. Total proteins in milk represent 3.2% of its
composition (nutrition table).
Caseins
The largest structures in the fluid portion of the milk are

"casein micelles": aggregates of several thousand
protein molecules with superficial resemblance to a
surfactant micelle, bonded with the help of nanometer-
scale particles of calcium phosphate. Each casein
micelle is roughly spherical and about a tenth of a
micrometer across. There are four different types of
casein proteins: αs1-, αs2-, β-, and κ-caseins. Most of

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the casein proteins are bound into the micelles. There
are several competing theories regarding the precise
structure of the micelles, but they share one important
feature: the outermost layer consists of strands of one
type of protein, k-casein, reaching out from the body of
the micelle into the surrounding fluid. These kappa-
casein molecules all have a negative electrical charge
and therefore repel each other, keeping the micelles
separated under normal conditions and in a stable
colloidal suspension in the water-based surrounding
fluid.[33][91]
Milk contains dozens of other types of proteins beside

caseins and including enzymes. These other proteins
are more water-soluble than caseins and do not form
larger structures. Because the proteins remain
suspended in whey remaining when caseins coagulate
into curds, they are collectively known as whey
proteins. Lactoglobulin is the most common whey
protein by a large margin.[33] The ratio of caseins to

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whey proteins varies greatly between species; for
example, it is 82:18 in cows and around 32:68 in
humans.[92]
Ratio of caseins to whey proteins in milk of nine mammals[92]
Species Ratio
Human 29.7:70.3 – 33.7:66.3
Bovine 82:18
Caprine 78:22
Ovine 76:24
Buffalo 82:18
Equine 52:48
Camel 73:27 – 76:24
Yak 82:18
Reindeer 80:20 – 83:17
Salts, minerals, and vitamins
Minerals or milk salts, are traditional names for a variety

of cations and anions within bovine milk. Calcium,
phosphate, magnesium, sodium, potassium, citrate,
and chloride are all included as minerals and they
typically occur at concentration of 5–40 mM. The milk
salts strongly interact with casein, most notably calcium
phosphate. It is present in excess and often, much
greater excess of solubility of solid calcium

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phosphate.[89] In addition to calcium, milk is a good
source of many other vitamins. Vitamins A, B6, B12, C,
D, K, E, thiamine, niacin, biotin, riboflavin, folates, and
pantothenic acid are all present in milk.
Calcium phosphate structure
For many years the most accepted theory of the

structure of a micelle was that it was composed of
spherical casein aggregates, called submicelles, that
were held together by calcium phosphate linkages.
However, there are two recent models of the casein
micelle that refute the distinct micellular structures
within the micelle.
The first theory attributed to de Kruif and Holt,

proposes that nanoclusters of calcium phosphate and
the phosphopeptide fraction of beta-casein are the
centerpiece to micellular structure. Specifically in this
view, unstructured proteins organize around the
calcium phosphate giving rise to their structure and

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thus no specific structure is formed.
The second theory proposed by Horne, the growth of

calcium phosphate nanoclusters begins the process of
micelle formation but is limited by binding
phosphopeptide loop regions of the caseins. Once
bound, protein-protein interactions are formed and
polymerization occurs, in which K-casein is used as an
end cap, to form micelles with trapped calcium
phosphate nanoclusters.
Some sources indicate that the trapped calcium

phosphate is in the form of Ca9(PO4)6; whereas,
others say it is similar to the structure of the mineral
brushite CaHPO4 -2H2O.[93]
Sugars and carbohydrates

Page 40 of 149
A simplified representation of a lactose molecule being broken
down into glucose (2) and galactose (1)
Milk contains several different carbohydrate including

lactose, glucose, galactose, and other
oligosaccharides. The lactose gives milk its sweet taste
and contributes approximately 40% of whole cow's
milk's calories. Lactose is a disaccharide composite of
two simple sugars, glucose and galactose. Bovine milk
averages 4.8% anhydrous lactose, which amounts to
about 50% of the total solids of skimmed milk. Levels of
lactose are dependent upon the type of milk as other
carbohydrates can be present at higher concentrations
than lactose in milks.[89]

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Miscellaneous contents
Other components found in raw cow's milk are living

white blood cells, mammary gland cells, various
bacteria, and a large number of active enzymes.[33]
Appearance
Both the fat globules and the smaller casein micelles,

which are just large enough to deflect light, contribute
to the opaque white color of milk. The fat globules
contain some yellow-orange carotene, enough in some
breeds (such as Guernsey and Jersey cattle) to impart
a golden or "creamy" hue to a glass of milk. The
riboflavin in the whey portion of milk has a greenish
color, which sometimes can be discerned in skimmed
milk or whey products.[33] Fat-free skimmed milk has
only the casein micelles to scatter light, and they tend
to scatter shorter-wavelength blue light more than they
do red, giving skimmed milk a bluish tint.[91]

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Processing
Milk products and productions relationships (click to enlarge)
In most Western countries, centralized dairy facilities

process milk and products obtained from milk, such as
cream, butter, and cheese. In the U.S., these dairies
usually are local companies, while in the Southern
Hemisphere facilities may be run by large multi-national
corporations such as Fonterra.
Pasteurization
Pasteurization is used to kill harmful pathogenic

bacteria by heating the milk for a short time and then
immediately cooling it. Types of pasteurized milk
include full cream, reduced fat, skim milk, calcium

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enriched, flavored, and UHT.[94] The standard high
temperature short time (HTST) process of 72 °C for 15
seconds completely kills pathogenic bacteria in
milk,[95] rendering it safe to drink for up to three weeks
if continually refrigerated.[96] Dairies print best before
dates on each container, after which stores remove any
unsold milk from their shelves.
A side effect of the heating of pasteurization is that

some vitamin and mineral content is lost. Soluble
calcium and phosphorus decrease by 5%, thiamin and
vitamin B12 by 10%, and vitamin C by 20%.[97] Because
losses are small in comparison to the large amount of
the two B-vitamins present, milk continues to provide
significant amounts of thiamin and vitamin B12. The
loss of vitamin C is not nutritionally significant, as milk
is not an important dietary source of vitamin C.
Filtration
Microfiltration is a process that partially replaces

Page 44 of 149
pasteurization and produces milk with fewer
microorganisms and longer shelf life without a change
in the taste of the milk. In this process, cream is
separated from the skimmed milk and is pasteurized in
the usual way, but the skimmed milk is forced through
ceramic microfilters that trap 99.9% of microorganisms
in the milk[98] (as compared to 99.999% killing of
microorganisms in standard HTST pasteurization).[99]
The skimmed milk then is recombined with the
pasteurized cream to reconstitute the original milk
composition.
Ultrafiltration uses finer filters than microfiltration,

which allow lactose and water to pass through while
retaining fats, calcium and protein.[100] As with
microfiltration, the fat may be removed before filtration
and added back in afterwards.[101] Ultrafiltered milk is
used is cheesemaking, since it has reduced volume for
a given protein content, and is sold directly to
consumers as a higher protein, lower sugar content,

Page 45 of 149
and creamier alternative to regular milk.[102]
Creaming and homogenization
A milking machine in action
Upon standing for 12 to 24 hours, fresh milk has a

tendency to separate into a high-fat cream layer on top
of a larger, low-fat milk layer. The cream often is sold as
a separate product with its own uses. Today the
separation of the cream from the milk usually is
accomplished rapidly in centrifugal cream separators.
The fat globules rise to the top of a container of milk
because fat is less dense than water.[33]
The smaller the globules, the more other molecular-

Page 46 of 149
level forces prevent this from happening. The cream
rises in cow's milk much more quickly than a simple
model would predict: rather than isolated globules, the
fat in the milk tends to form into clusters containing
about a million globules, held together by a number of
minor whey proteins.[33] These clusters rise faster than
individual globules can. The fat globules in milk from
goats, sheep, and water buffalo do not form clusters as
readily and are smaller to begin with, resulting in a
slower separation of cream from these milks.[33]
Milk often is homogenized, a treatment that prevents a

cream layer from separating out of the milk. The milk is
pumped at high pressures through very narrow tubes,
breaking up the fat globules through turbulence and
cavitation.[103] A greater number of smaller particles
possess more total surface area than a smaller number
of larger ones, and the original fat globule membranes
cannot completely cover them. Casein micelles are
attracted to the newly exposed fat surfaces.

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Nearly one-third of the micelles in the milk end up
participating in this new membrane structure. The
casein weighs down the globules and interferes with
the clustering that accelerated separation. The
exposed fat globules are vulnerable to certain enzymes
present in milk, which could break down the fats and
produce rancid flavors. To prevent this, the enzymes are
inactivated by pasteurizing the milk immediately before
or during homogenization.
Homogenized milk tastes blander but feels creamier in

the mouth than unhomogenized. It is whiter and more
resistant to developing off flavors.[33] Creamline (or
cream-top) milk is unhomogenized. It may or may not
have been pasteurized. Milk that has undergone high-
pressure homogenization, sometimes labeled as "ultra-
homogenized", has a longer shelf life than milk that has
undergone ordinary homogenization at lower
pressures.[104]

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UHT
Ultra Heat Treatment (UHT), is a type of milk

processing where all bacteria are destroyed with high
heat to extend its shelf life for up to 6 months, as long
as the package is not opened. Milk is firstly
homogenized and then is heated to 138 degrees
Celsius for 1–3 seconds. The milk is immediately
cooled down and packed into a sterile container. As a
result of this treatment, all the pathogenic bacteria
within the milk are destroyed, unlike when the milk is
just pasteurised. The milk will now keep for up for 6
months if unopened. UHT milk does not need to be
refrigerated until the package is opened, which makes
it easier to ship and store. But in this process there is a
loss of vitamin B1 and vitamin C and there is also a
slight change in the taste of the milk.[105]
Nutrition and health

The composition of milk differs widely among species.

Page 49 of 149
Factors such as the type of protein; the proportion of
protein, fat, and sugar; the levels of various vitamins
and minerals; and the size of the butterfat globules, and
the strength of the curd are among those that may
vary.[35] For example:
Human milk contains, on average, 1.1% protein, 4.2%

fat, 7.0% lactose (a sugar), and supplies 72 kcal of
energy per 100 grams.
Cow's milk contains, on average, 3.4% protein, 3.6%
fat, and 4.6% lactose, 0.7% minerals[106] and
supplies 66 kcal of energy per 100 grams. See also
Nutritional value further on
Donkey and horse milk have the lowest fat content,

while the milk of seals and whales may contain more
than 50% fat.[107]

Page 50 of 149
Milk composition analysis, per 100 grams
Water
Constituents Unit Cow Goat Sheep
buffalo
Water g 87.8 88.9 83.0 81.1
Protein g 3.2 3.1 5.4 4.5
Fat g 3.9 3.5 6.0 8.0
----Saturated fatty acids g 2.4 2.3 3.8 4.2
----Monounsaturated fatty acids g 1.1 0.8 1.5 1.7
----Polyunsaturated fatty acids g 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.2
Carbohydrate (i.e. the sugar form of lactose) g 4.8 4.4 5.1 4.9
Cholesterol mg 14 10 11 8
Calcium mg 120 100 170 195
kcal 66 60 95 110
Energy
kJ 275 253 396 463

Page 51 of 149
Nutritional content of cow, soy, almond and oat milks
Cow milk (whole, Soy milk (unsweetened; calcium, Almond milk Oat milk
vitamin D added)[108] vitamins A and D added)[109] (unsweetened)[110] (unsweetened)[111]
Calories
149 80 39 120
(cup, 243g)
Protein (g) 7.69 6.95 1.55 3
Fat (g) 7.93 3.91 2.88 5
Saturated fat
4.55 0.5 0 0.5
(g)
Carbohydrate
11.71 4.23 1.52 16
(g)
Fiber (g) 0 1.2 0 2
Sugars (g) 12.32 1 0 7
Calcium (mg) 276 301 516 350
Potassium
322 292 176 390
(mg)
Sodium (mg) 105 90 186 140
Vitamin B12
1.10 2.70 0 1.2
(µg)
Vitamin A
395 503 372 267
(IU)
Vitamin D
124 119 110 144
(IU)
Cholesterol
24 0 0 0
(mg)
Cow's milk
These compositions vary by breed, animal, and point in

the lactation period.

Page 52 of 149
Milk fat percentages
Cow breed Approximate percentage
Jersey 5.2
Zebu 4.7
Brown Swiss 4.0
Holstein-Friesian 3.6
The protein range for these four breeds is 3.3% to

3.9%, while the lactose range is 4.7% to 4.9%.[33]
Milk fat percentages may be manipulated by dairy

farmers' stock diet formulation strategies. Mastitis
infection can cause fat levels to decline.[112]
Nutritional value

Page 53 of 149
Nutrient contents in %DV of common foods (raw, uncooked) per 100 g
Protein Fiber Vitamins Minerals
Food DV Q DV A B1 B2 B3 B5 B6 B9 B12 Ch. C D E K Ca Fe Mg P K Na Zn
cooking
10 30 20 25 25 35 0 0 30 10 15 20 10 20 5 10
Reduction %
Corn 20 55 6 1 13 4 16 4 19 19 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 11 31 34 15 1 20
Rice 14 71 1.3 0 12 3 11 20 5 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 9 6 7 2 0 8
Wheat 27 51 40 0 28 7 34 19 21 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 20 36 51 12 0 28
Soybean(dry) 73 132 31 0 58 51 8 8 19 94 0 24 10 0 4 59 28 87 70 70 51 0 33
Pigeon
42 91 50 1 43 11 15 13 13 114 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 29 46 37 40 1 18
pea(dry)
Potato 4 112 7.3 0 5 2 5 3 15 4 0 0 33 0 0 2 1 4 6 6 12 0 2
Sweet potato 3 82 10 284 5 4 3 8 10 3 0 0 4 0 1 2 3 3 6 5 10 2 2
Spinach 6 119 7.3 188 5 11 4 1 10 49 0 4.5 47 0 10 604 10 15 20 5 16 3 4
Dill 7 32 7 154 4 17 8 4 9 38 0 0 142 0 0 0 21 37 14 7 21 3 6
Carrots 2 9.3 334 4 3 5 3 7 5 0 0 10 0 3 16 3 2 3 4 9 3 2
Guava 5 24 18 12 4 2 5 5 6 12 0 0 381 0 4 3 2 1 5 4 12 0 2
Papaya 1 7 5.6 22 2 2 2 2 1 10 0 0 103 0 4 3 2 1 2 1 7 0 0
Pumpkin 2 56 1.6 184 3 6 3 3 3 4 0 0 15 0 5 1 2 4 3 4 10 0 2
Sunflower oil 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 205 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Egg 25 136 0 10 5 28 0 14 7 12 22 45 0 9 5 0 5 10 3 19 4 6 7
Milk 6 138 0 2 3 11 1 4 2 1 7 2.6 0 0 0 0 11 0 2 9 4 2 3
Chicken Liver 34 149 0 222 20 105 49 62 43 147 276 30 0 4 0 1 50 5 30 7 3 18
%DV = % daily value i.e. % of DRI (Dietary Reference Intake)
Note: All nutrient values including protein and fiber are in %DV per 100 grams of the food item. Significant values are highlighted
in light Gray color and bold letters. [113][114] Cooking reduction = % Maximum typical reduction in nutrients due to boiling without
draining for ovo-lacto-vegetables group[115][116] Q = Quality of Protein in terms of completeness without adjusting for
digestability.[116]
Cow's milk (whole)

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 252 kJ (60 kcal)

Page 54 of 149
Energy 252 kJ (60 kcal)
Carbohydrates 5.26 g
Sugars 5.26 g
lactose 5.26 g
Fat 3.25 g
Saturated 1.865 g
Monounsaturated 0.812 g
Polyunsaturated 0.195 g
Protein 3.22 g
Tryptophan 0.075 g
Threonine 0.143 g
Isoleucine 0.165 g
Leucine 0.265 g
Lysine 0.140 g
Methionine 0.075 g
Cystine 0.017 g
Phenylalanine 0.147 g
Tyrosine 0.152 g
Valine 0.192 g
Arginine 0.075 g
Histidine 0.075 g
Alanine 0.103 g
Aspartic acid 0.237 g
Glutamic acid 0.648 g

Page 55 of 149
Glutamic acid 0.648 g
Glycine 0.075 g
Proline 0.342 g
Serine 0.107 g
Vitamins Quantity %DV†

Vitamin A equiv. 46 µg 6%
Thiamine (B1) 0.044 mg 4%
Riboflavin (B2) 0.183 mg 15%
Vitamin B12 0.45 µg 19%
Choline 14.3 mg 3%
Vitamin D 2 IU 0%
Minerals Quantity %DV†

Calcium 113 mg 11%
Magnesium 10 mg 3%
Potassium 132 mg 3%
Sodium 43 mg 3%
Other constituents Quantity

Water 88.32 g
100 mL corresponds to 103 g.[117]
Units
µg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units
†Percentages are roughly approximated using

Page 56 of 149
†Percentages are roughly approximated using
US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database
Processed cow's milk was formulated to contain

differing amounts of fat during the 1950s. One cup
(250 mL) of 2%-fat cow's milk contains 285 mg of
calcium, which represents 22% to 29% of the daily
recommended intake (DRI) of calcium for an adult.
Depending on its age, milk contains 8 grams of protein,
and a number of other nutrients (either naturally or
through fortification) including:
Biotin
Iodine
Magnesium
Pantothenic acid
Potassium
Riboflavin
Selenium

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Thiamine
Vitamin A
Vitamin B12
Vitamins D
Vitamin K
Recommended consumption
The U.S. federal government document Dietary

Guidelines for Americans, 2010[118] recommends
consumption of three glasses of fat-free or low-fat milk
for adults and children 9 and older (less for younger
children) per day. This recommendation is disputed by
some health researchers who call for more study of the
issue, given that there are other sources for calcium
and vitamin D. The researchers also claim that the
recommendations have been unduly influenced by the
American dairy industry,[119] and that whole milk may
be better for health due to its increased ability to satiate
hunger.

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Medical research
A 2008 review found evidence suggesting that

consumption of milk is effective at promoting muscle
growth.[120] Some studies have suggested that
conjugated linoleic acid, which can be found in dairy
products, is an effective supplement for reducing body
fat.[121]
Calcium absorption
The amount of calcium from milk that is absorbed by

the human body is disputed.[122] Calcium from dairy
products has a greater bioavailability than calcium from
certain vegetables, such as spinach, that contain high
levels of calcium-chelating agents,[123] but a similar or
lesser bioavailability than calcium from low-oxalate
vegetables such as kale, broccoli, or other vegetables in
the genus Brassica.[124][125]

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Milk as a calcium source has been questioned in media,
but scientific research is lacking to support the
hypothesis of acidosis induced by milk. The hypothesis
in question being that acidosis would lead to leaching
of calcium storages in bones to neutralize pH levels
(also known as acid-ash hypothesis). Research has
found no link between metabolic acidosis and
consumption of milk.[126][127][128]
Milk and bone strength
A 2011 meta-analysis examining whether milk

consumption might protect against hip fracture in
middle-aged and older adults found no association
between drinking milk and lower rates of fractures.[129]
Milk and acne
A 2009 meta-analysis concluded that milk

consumption increases the risk of acquiring acne.[130]

Page 60 of 149
Lactose intolerance
Lactose, the disaccharide sugar component of all milk,

must be cleaved in the small intestine by the enzyme
lactase, in order for its constituents, galactose and
glucose, to be absorbed. Lactose intolerance is a
condition in which people have symptoms due to not
enough of the enzyme lactase in the small
intestines.[131] Those affected vary in the amount of
lactose they can tolerate before symptoms develop.
These may include abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhea,
gas, and nausea. Severity depends on the amount a
person eats or drinks.[132] Those affected are usually
able to drink at least one cup of milk without developing
significant symptoms, with greater amounts tolerated if
drunk with a meal or throughout the day.[132][133]
Lactose intolerance does not cause damage to the

gastrointestinal tract.[134] There are four types: primary,
secondary, developmental, and congenital. Primary

Page 61 of 149
lactose intolerance is when the amount of lactase
decline as people age. Secondary lactose intolerance is
due to injury to the small intestine such as from
infection, celiac disease, inflammatory bowel disease,
or other diseases.[132][135] Developmental lactose
intolerance may occur in premature babies and usually
improves over a short period of time. Congenital lactose
intolerance is an extremely rare genetic disorder in
which little or no lactase is made from birth.[132] When
lactose intolerance is due to secondary lactase
deficiency, treatment of the underlying disease allows
lactase activity to return to normal levels.[136] Lactose
intolerance is different from a milk allergy.[132]
The number of people with lactose intolerance is

unknown.[137] The number of adults who cannot
produce enough lactase in their small intestine varies
markedly in different populations. Since lactase's only
function is the digestion of lactose in milk, in most
mammal species the activity of the enzyme is

Page 62 of 149
dramatically reduced after weaning.[138] Within most
human populations, however, some individuals have
developed, by natural evolution, the ability to maintain
throughout their life high levels of lactose in their small
intestine,[139] as an adaptation to the consumption of
nonhuman milk and dairy products beyond infancy.
This ability, which allows them to digest lactose into
adulthood, is called lactase persistence. The
distribution of people with lactase persistence is not
homogeneous in the world. For instance, those people
with lactase persistence are more than 90% of the
population in North Europe, and as low as 5% in parts
of Asia and Africa.[131]
Possible harms
Milk and dairy products have the potential for causing

serious infection in newborn infants. Unpasteurized
milk and cheeses can promote the growth of Listeria
bacteria. Listeria monocytogenes can also cause

Page 63 of 149
serious infection in an infant and pregnant woman and
can be transmitted to her infant in utero or after birth.
The infection has the potential of seriously harming or
even causing the death of a preterm infant, an infant of
low or very low birth weight, or an infant with a
congenital defect of the immune system. The presence
of this pathogen can sometimes be determined by the
symptoms that appear as a gastrointestinal illness in
the mother. The mother can also acquire infection from
ingesting food that contains other animal products
such as hot dogs, delicatessen meats, and cheese.[140]
Cow's milk allergy (CMA) is an immunologically

mediated adverse reaction, rarely fatal, to one or more
cow's milk proteins.[141]
Flavored milk in U.S. schools
Milk must be offered at every meal if a United States

school district wishes to get reimbursement from the

Page 64 of 149
federal government.[142] A quarter of the largest school
districts in the U.S. offer rice or soy milk and almost
17% of all U.S. school districts offer lactose-free milk.
Of the milk served in U.S. school cafeterias, 71% is
flavored, causing some school districts to propose a
ban because flavored milk has added sugars. (Though
some flavored milk products use artificial sweeteners
instead.) The Boulder, Colorado, school district banned
flavored milk in 2009 and instead installed a dispenser
that keeps the milk colder.[142]
Evolution of lactation
The mammary gland is thought to have derived from
apocrine skin glands.[143] It has been suggested that
the original function of lactation (milk production) was
keeping eggs moist. Much of the argument is based on
monotremes (egg-laying mammals).[143][144][145] The
original adaptive significance of milk secretions may
have been nutrition[146] or immunological

Page 65 of 149
protection.[147][148] This secretion gradually became
more copious and accrued nutritional complexity over
evolutionary time.[143]
Tritylodontid cynodonts seem to have displayed

lactation, based on their dental replacement
patterns.[149]
Bovine growth hormone

supplementation
Since November 1993, recombinant bovine
somatotropin (rbST), also called rBGH, has been sold to
dairy farmers with FDA approval. Cows produce bovine
growth hormone naturally, but some producers
administer an additional recombinant version of BGH
which is produced through genetically engineered E.
coli to increase milk production. Bovine growth
hormone also stimulates liver production of insulin-like
growth factor 1 (IGF1). The U.S. Food and Drug
Administration,[150] the National Institutes of Health[151]

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and the World Health Organization[152] have reported
that both of these compounds are safe for human
consumption at the amounts present.
Milk from cows given rBST may be sold in the United

States, and the FDA stated that no significant
difference has been shown between milk derived from
rBST-treated and that from non-rBST-treated
cows.[153] Milk that advertises that it comes from cows
not treated with rBST, is required to state this finding on
its label.
Cows receiving rBGH supplements may more

frequently contract an udder infection known as
mastitis.[154] Problems with mastitis have led to
Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan banning
milk from rBST treated cows. Mastitis, among other
diseases, may be responsible for the fact that levels of
white blood cells in milk vary naturally.[155][156]
rBGH is also banned in the European Union, for reasons

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of animal welfare.[157]
Criticism
Vegans and some other vegetarians do not consume
milk for reasons mostly related to animal rights and
environmental concerns. They may object to features of
dairy farming including the necessity of keeping dairy
cows pregnant, the killing of almost all the male
offspring of dairy cows (either by disposal soon after
birth, for veal production, or for beef), the routine
separation of mother and calf soon after birth, other
perceived inhumane treatment of dairy cattle, and
culling of cows after their productive lives.[158]
Other people who do not drink milk are convinced that

milk is not necessary for good health or that it may
cause adverse health effects. Several studies have
indicated that milk consumption does not result in
stronger bones.[129] Other studies have found that milk
intake increases the risk of acquiring acne.[130]

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It is often argued that it is unnatural for humans to drink
milk from cows (or other animals) because mammals
normally do not drink milk beyond the weaning period,
nor do they drink milk from another species.[159]
Some have criticized the American government's

promotion of milk consumption. Their main concern is
the financial interest that the American government has
taken in the dairy industry, promoting milk as the best
source of calcium. All United States schools that are a
part of the federally funded National School Lunch Act
are required by the federal government to provide milk
for all students. The Office of Dietary Supplements
recommends that healthy adults between ages 19 and
50 get about 1,000 mg of calcium per day.[160]
Milk production is also resource intensive. On a global

weighted average, for the production of a given volume
of milk, a thousand times as much water has to be
used.[161]

Page 69 of 149
Varieties and brands
Glass milk bottle used for home delivery service in the UK
Milk products are sold in a number of varieties based on

types/degrees of:
additives (e.g. vitamins, flavorings)

age (e.g. cheddar, old cheddar)
coagulation (e.g. cottage cheese)
farming method (e.g. organic, grass-fed, hay milk)
fat content (e.g. half and half, 3% fat milk, 2% milk,
1% milk, skim milk)
fermentation (e.g. buttermilk)

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flavoring (e.g. chocolate and strawberry)
homogenization (e.g. cream top)
packaging (e.g. bottle, carton, bag)
pasteurization (e.g. raw milk, pasteurized milk)
reduction or elimination of lactose
species (e.g. cow, goat, sheep)
sweetening (e.g., chocolate and strawberry milk)
water content (e.g. dry milk powder, condensed milk,
ultrafiltered milk)
Milk preserved by the UHT process does not need to be

refrigerated before opening and has a much longer
shelf life (six months) than milk in ordinary packaging. It
is typically sold unrefrigerated in the UK, U.S., Europe,
Latin America, and Australia.
Reduction or elimination of lactose
Lactose-free milk can be produced by passing milk

Page 71 of 149
over lactase enzyme bound to an inert carrier. Once the
molecule is cleaved, there are no lactose ill effects.
Forms are available with reduced amounts of lactose
(typically 30% of normal), and alternatively with nearly
0%. The only noticeable difference from regular milk is
a slightly sweeter taste due to the generation of
glucose by lactose cleavage. It does not, however,
contain more glucose, and is nutritionally identical to
regular milk.
Finland, where approximately 17% of the Finnish-

speaking population has hypolactasia,[162] has had
"HYLA" (acronym for hydrolysed lactose) products
available for many years. Lactose of low-lactose level
cow's milk products, ranging from ice cream to cheese,
is enzymatically hydrolysed into glucose and galactose.
The ultra-pasteurization process, combined with
aseptic packaging, ensures a long shelf life. In 2001,
Valio launched a lactose-free milk drink that is not
sweet like HYLA milk but has the fresh taste of ordinary

Page 72 of 149
milk. Valio patented the chromatographic separation
method to remove lactose. Valio also markets these
products in Sweden, Estonia, Belgium,[163] and the
United States, where the company says ultrafiltration is
used.[164]
In the UK, where an estimated 4.7% of the population

are affected by lactose intolerance,[165] Lactofree
produces milk, cheese, and yogurt products that
contain only 0.03% lactose.
To aid digestion in those with lactose intolerance, milk

with added bacterial cultures such as Lactobacillus
acidophilus ("acidophilus milk") and bifidobacteria
("a/B milk") is available in some areas.[166] Another milk
with Lactococcus lactis bacteria cultures ("cultured
buttermilk") often is used in cooking to replace the
traditional use of naturally soured milk, which has
become rare due to the ubiquity of pasteurization,
which also kills the naturally occurring Lactococcus
bacteria.[167]

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Lactose-free and lactose-reduced milk can also be
produced via ultra filtration, which removes smaller
molecules such as lactose and water while leaving
calcium and proteins behind. Milk produced via these
methods has a lower sugar content than regular
milk.[100]
Additives and flavoring
In areas where the cattle (and often the people) live

indoors, commercially sold milk commonly has vitamin
D added to it to make up for lack of exposure to UVB
radiation.
Reduced-fat milks often have added vitamin A

palmitate to compensate for the loss of the vitamin
during fat removal; in the United States this results in
reduced fat milks having a higher vitamin A content
than whole milk.[168]
Milk often has flavoring added to it for better taste or as

Page 74 of 149
a means of improving sales. Chocolate milk has been
sold for many years and has been followed more
recently by strawberry milk and others. Some
nutritionists have criticized flavored milk for adding
sugar, usually in the form of high-fructose corn syrup,
to the diets of children who are already commonly
obese in the U.S.[169]
Distribution
Returning reusable glass milk bottles, used for home delivery

service in the U.K

Page 75 of 149
A glass bottle of non-homogenized, organic, local milk from the
U.S. state of California. American milk bottles are generally
rectangular in shape
A rectangular milk jug design used by Costco and Sam's Club

stores in the United States which allows for stacking and display of
filled containers rather than being shipped to the store in milk
crates and manual loading into a freezer display rack

Page 76 of 149
Due to the short shelf life of normal milk, it used to be
delivered to households daily in many countries;
however, improved refrigeration at home, changing
food shopping patterns because of supermarkets, and
the higher cost of home delivery mean that daily
deliveries by a milkman are no longer available in most
countries.
Australia and New Zealand
In Australia and New Zealand, prior to metrication, milk

was generally distributed in 1 pint (568 mL) glass
bottles. In Australia and Ireland there was a government
funded "free milk for school children" program, and milk
was distributed at morning recess in 1/3 pint bottles.
With the conversion to metric measures, the milk
industry were concerned that the replacement of the
pint bottles with 500 mL bottles would result in a 13.6%
drop in milk consumption; hence, all pint bottles were
recalled and replaced by 600 mL bottles. With time,

Page 77 of 149
due to the steadily increasing cost of collecting,
transporting, storing and cleaning glass bottles, they
were replaced by cardboard cartons. A number of
designs were used, including a tetrahedron which could
be close-packed without waste space, and could not
be knocked over accidentally. (slogan: No more crying
over spilt milk.) However, the industry eventually settled
on a design similar to that used in the United
States.[170]
Milk is now available in a variety of sizes in paperboard

milk cartons (250 mL, 375 mL, 600 mL, 1 liter and 1.5
liters) and plastic bottles (1, 2 and 3 liters). A significant
addition to the marketplace has been "long-life" milk
(UHT), generally available in 1 and 2 liter rectangular
cardboard cartons. In urban and suburban areas where
there is sufficient demand, home delivery is still
available, though in suburban areas this is often 3 times
per week rather than daily. Another significant and
popular addition to the marketplace has been flavored

Page 78 of 149
milks – for example, as mentioned above, Farmers
Union Iced Coffee outsells Coca-Cola in South
Australia.
India
In rural India, milk is home delivered, daily, by local

milkmen carrying bulk quantities in a metal container,
usually on a bicycle. In other parts of metropolitan India,
milk is usually bought or delivered in plastic bags or
cartons via shops or supermarkets.
The current milk chain flow in India is from milk

producer to milk collection agent. Then it is transported
to a milk chilling center and bulk transported to the
processing plant, then to the sales agent and finally to
the consumer.
A 2011 survey by the Food Safety and Standards

Authority of India found that nearly 70% of samples had
not conformed to the standards set for milk. The study

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found that due to lack of hygiene and sanitation in milk
handling and packaging, detergents (used during
cleaning operations) were not washed properly and
found their way into the milk. About 8% of samples in
the survey were found to have detergents, which are
hazardous to health.[171]
Pakistan
In Pakistan, milk is supplied in jugs. Milk has been a

staple food, especially among the pastoral tribes in this
country.
United Kingdom
Since the late 1990s, milk-buying patterns have

changed drastically in the UK. The classic milkman,
who travels his local milk round (route) using a milk
float (often battery powered) during the early hours and
delivers milk in 1 pint glass bottles with aluminium foil
tops directly to households, has almost disappeared.

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Two of the main reasons for the decline of UK home
deliveries by milkmen are household refrigerators
(which lessen the need for daily milk deliveries) and
private car usage (which has increased supermarket
shopping). Another factor is that it is cheaper to
purchase milk from a supermarket than from home
delivery. In 1996, more than 2.5 billion liters of milk
were still being delivered by milkmen, but by 2006 only
637 million liters (13% of milk consumed) was delivered
by some 9,500 milkmen.[172] By 2010, the estimated
number of milkmen had dropped to 6,000.[173]
Assuming that delivery per milkman is the same as it
was in 2006, this means milkmen deliveries now only
account for 6–7% of all milk consumed by UK
households (6.7 billion liters in 2008/2009).[174]
Almost 95% of all milk in the UK is thus sold in shops

today, most of it in plastic bottles of various sizes, but
some also in milk cartons. Milk is hardly ever sold in
glass bottles in UK shops.

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United States
Getting milk at the back door ~ 1940
In the United States, glass milk bottles have been

replaced mostly with milk cartons and plastic jugs.
Gallons of milk are almost always sold in jugs, while half
gallons and quarts may be found in both paper cartons
and plastic jugs, and smaller sizes are almost always in
cartons.
The "half pint" (237 mL, 5⁄12 imp pt) milk carton is the
traditional unit as a component of school lunches,
though some companies have replaced that unit size
with a plastic bottle, which is also available at retail in
6- and 12-pack size.

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Packaging
This section needs additional citations for verification.
Glass milk bottles are now rare. Most people purchase

milk in bags, plastic bottles, or plastic-coated paper
cartons. Ultraviolet (UV) light from fluorescent lighting
can alter the flavor of milk, so many companies that
once distributed milk in transparent or highly
translucent containers are now using thicker materials
that block the UV light. Milk comes in a variety of
containers with local variants:
Argentina
Commonly sold in 1 liter bags and cardboard boxes.
The bag is then placed in a plastic jug and the corner
cut off before the milk is poured.
Australia and New Zealand
Distributed in a variety of sizes, most commonly in
aseptic cartons for up to 1.5 liters, and plastic screw-

Page 83 of 149
top bottles beyond that with the following volumes;
1.1 L, 2 L, and 3 L. 1 liter milk bags are starting to
appear in supermarkets, but have not yet proved
popular. Most UHT-milk is packed in 1 or 2 liter paper
containers with a sealed plastic spout.[170]
Brazil
Used to be sold in cooled 1 liter bags, just like in
South Africa. Today the most common form is 1 liter
aseptic cartons containing UHT skimmed, semi-
skimmed or whole milk, although the plastic bags are
still in use for pasteurized milk. Higher grades of
pasteurized milk can be found in cartons or plastic
bottles. Sizes other than 1 liter are rare.
Canada
1.33 liter plastic bags (sold as 4 liters in 3 bags) are
widely available in some areas (especially the
Maritimes, Ontario and Quebec), although the 4 liter
plastic jug has supplanted them in western Canada.
Other common packaging sizes are 2 liter, 1 liter, 500
mL, and 250 mL cartons, as well as 4 liter, 1 liter,

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250 mL aseptic cartons and 500 mL plastic jugs.
Chile
Distributed most commonly in aseptic cartons for up
to 1 liter, but smaller, snack-sized cartons are also
popular. The most common flavors, besides the
natural presentation, are chocolate, strawberry and
vanilla.
China
Sweetened milk is a drink popular with students of all
ages and is often sold in small plastic bags complete
with straw. Adults not wishing to drink at a banquet
often drink milk served from cartons or milk tea.
Colombia
Sells milk in 1 liter plastic bags.
Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia,
Montenegro
UHT milk (trajno mlijeko/trajno mleko/трајно млеĸо)
is sold in 500 mL and 1 L (sometimes also 200 mL)
aseptic cartons. Non-UHT pasteurized milk (svježe
mlijeko/sveže mleko/свеже млеĸо) is most

Page 85 of 149
commonly sold in 1 L and 1.5 L PET bottles, though in
Serbia one can still find milk in plastic bags.
Estonia
Commonly sold in 1 L bags or 0.33 L, 0.5 L, 1 L or 1.5
L cartons.
Parts of Europe
Sizes of 500 mL, 1 liter (the most common), 1.5 liters,
2 liters and 3 liters are commonplace.
Finland
Commonly sold in 1 L or 1.5 L cartons, in some
places also in 2 dl and 5 dl cartons.
Germany
Commonly sold in 1-liter cartons. Sale in 1-liter
plastic bags (common in the 1980s) now rare.
Hong Kong
Milk is sold in glass bottles (220 mL), cartons (236
mL and 1 L), plastic jugs (2 liters) and aseptic cartons
(250 mL).
India
Commonly sold in 500 mL plastic bags and in bottles

Page 86 of 149
in some parts like in west. It is still customary to serve
the milk boiled, despite pasteurization. Milk is often
buffalo milk. Flavored milk is sold in most
convenience stores in waxed cardboard containers.
Convenience stores also sell many varieties of milk
(such as flavored and ultra-pasteurized) in different
sizes, usually in aseptic cartons.
Indonesia
Usually sold in 1 liter cartons, but smaller, snack-
sized cartons are available.
Israel
A plastic bag of milk in Israel.
Non-UHT milk is most commonly sold in 1 liter

waxed cardboard boxes and 1 liter plastic bags. It
may also be found in 1.5 L and 2 L waxed cardboard

Page 87 of 149
boxes, 2 L plastic jugs and 1 L plastic bottles. UHT
milk is available in 1 liter (and less commonly also in
0.5 L) carton "bricks".
Japan
Commonly sold in 1 liter waxed paperboard cartons.
In most city centers there is also home delivery of
milk in glass jugs. As seen in China, sweetened and
flavored milk drinks are commonly seen in vending
machines.
Kenya
Milk in Kenya is mostly sold in plastic-coated aseptic
paper cartons supplied in 300 mL, 500 mL or 1 liter
volumes. In rural areas, milk is stored in plastic bottles
or gourds.[175][176] The standard unit of measuring
milk quantity in Kenya is a liter.
Pakistan
Milk is supplied in 500 mL plastic bags and carried in
jugs from rural to cities for selling
Philippines
Milk is supplied in 1000 mL plastic bottles and

Page 88 of 149
delivered from factories to cities for selling.
Poland
UHT milk is mostly sold in aseptic cartons (500 mL,
1 L, 2 L), and non-UHT in 1 L plastic bags or plastic
bottles. Milk, UHT is commonly boiled, despite being
pasteurized.
South Africa
Commonly sold in 1 liter bags. The bag is then placed
in a plastic jug and the corner cut off before the milk
is poured.
South Korea
Sold in cartons (180 mL, 200 mL, 500 mL 900 mL,
1 L, 1.8 L, 2.3 L), plastic jugs (1 L and 1.8 L), aseptic
cartons (180 mL and 200 mL) and plastic bags (1 L).
Sweden

Page 89 of 149
The milk section in a Swedish grocery store.
Commonly sold in 0.3 L, 1 L or 1.5 L cartons and

sometimes as plastic or glass milk bottles.
Turkey
Commonly sold in 500 mL or 1L cartons or special
plastic bottles. UHT milk is more popular. Milkmen
also serve in smaller towns and villages.
United Kingdom
Most stores stock imperial sizes: 1 pint (568 mL), 2
pints (1.136 L), 4 pints (2.273 L), 6 pints (3.408 L) or
a combination including both metric and imperial
sizes. Glass milk bottles delivered to the doorstep by
the milkman are typically pint-sized and are returned

Page 90 of 149
empty by the householder for repeated reuse. Milk is
sold at supermarkets in either aseptic cartons or
HDPE bottles. Supermarkets have also now begun to
introduce milk in bags, to be poured from a
proprietary jug and nozzle.
United States
Commonly sold in gallon (3.78 L), half-gallon
(1.89 L) and quart (0.94 L) containers of natural-
colored HDPE resin, or, for sizes less than one gallon,
cartons of waxed paperboard. Bottles made of
opaque PET are also becoming commonplace for
smaller, particularly metric, sizes such as one liter.
The U.S. single-serving size is usually the half-pint
(about 240 mL). Less frequently, dairies deliver milk
directly to consumers, from coolers filled with glass
bottles which are typically half-gallon sized and
returned for reuse. Some convenience store chains in
the United States (such as Kwik Trip in the Midwest)
sell milk in half-gallon bags, while another
rectangular cube gallon container design used for

Page 91 of 149
easy stacking in shipping and displaying is used by
warehouse clubs such as Costco and Sam's Club,
along with some Wal-Mart stores.[177]
Uruguay
Pasteurized milk is commonly sold in 1 liter bags and
ultra-pasteurized milk is sold in cardboard boxes
called Tetra Briks. Non-pasteurized milk is forbidden.
Until the 1960s no treatment was applied; milk was
sold in bottles. As of 2017, plastic jugs used for
pouring the bags, or "sachets", are in common use.
Practically everywhere, condensed milk and

evaporated milk are distributed in metal cans, 250 and
125 mL paper containers and 100 and 200 mL squeeze
tubes, and powdered milk (skim and whole) is
distributed in boxes or bags.
Spoilage and fermented milk products

Page 92 of 149
Yakult, a probiotic milk-like product made by fermenting a mixture
of skimmed milk with a special strain of the bacterium
Lactobacillus casei Shirota
Gourd used by Kalenjins to prepare a local version of fermented

milk called mursik[175]
When raw milk is left standing for a while, it turns

"sour". This is the result of fermentation, where lactic
acid bacteria ferment the lactose in the milk into lactic

Page 93 of 149
acid. Prolonged fermentation may render the milk
unpleasant to consume. This fermentation process is
exploited by the introduction of bacterial cultures (e.g.
Lactobacilli sp., Streptococcus sp., Leuconostoc sp.,
etc.) to produce a variety of fermented milk products.
The reduced pH from lactic acid accumulation
denatures proteins and causes the milk to undergo a
variety of different transformations in appearance and
texture, ranging from an aggregate to smooth
consistency. Some of these products include sour
cream, yogurt, cheese, buttermilk, viili, kefir, and kumis.
See Dairy product for more information.
Pasteurization of cow's milk initially destroys any

potential pathogens and increases the shelf
life,[178][179] but eventually results in spoilage that
makes it unsuitable for consumption. This causes it to
assume an unpleasant odor, and the milk is deemed
non-consumable due to unpleasant taste and an
increased risk of food poisoning. In raw milk, the

Page 94 of 149
presence of lactic acid-producing bacteria, under
suitable conditions, ferments the lactose present to
lactic acid. The increasing acidity in turn prevents the
growth of other organisms, or slows their growth
significantly. During pasteurization, however, these
lactic acid bacteria are mostly destroyed.
In order to prevent spoilage, milk can be kept

refrigerated and stored between 1 and 4 °C (34 and
39 °F) in bulk tanks. Most milk is pasteurized by
heating briefly and then refrigerated to allow transport
from factory farms to local markets. The spoilage of
milk can be forestalled by using ultra-high temperature
(UHT) treatment. Milk so treated can be stored
unrefrigerated for several months until opened but has
a characteristic "cooked" taste. Condensed milk, made
by removing most of the water, can be stored in cans
for many years, unrefrigerated, as can evaporated milk.
The most durable form of milk is powdered milk, which
is produced from milk by removing almost all water. The

Page 95 of 149
moisture content is usually less than 5% in both drum-
and spray-dried powdered milk.
Freezing of milk can cause fat globule aggregation

upon thawing, resulting in milky layers and butterfat
lumps. These can be dispersed again by warming and
stirring the milk.[180] It can change the taste by
destruction of milk-fat globule membranes, releasing
oxidized flavors.[180]
Use in other food products
Steamed milk is used in a variety of espresso-based coffee

beverages.
Milk is used to make yogurt, cheese, ice milk, pudding,

hot chocolate and french toast. Milk is often added to

Page 96 of 149
dry breakfast cereal, porridge and granola. Milk is often
served in coffee and tea. Steamed milk is used to
prepare espresso-based drinks such as cafe latte.
Language and culture
Hindu Abhisheka ritual in Agara, Bangalore Rural District,

Karnataka
The importance of milk in human culture is attested to

by the numerous expressions embedded in our
languages, for example, "the milk of human kindness",
the expression "there's no use crying over spilt milk"
(which means don't "be unhappy about what cannot be
undone"), "don't milk the ram" (this means "to do or

Page 97 of 149
attempt something futile") and "Why buy a cow when
you can get milk for free?" (which means "why pay for
something that you can get for free otherwise").[181]
In Greek mythology, the Milky Way was formed after

the trickster god Hermes suckled the infant Heracles at
the breast of Hera, the queen of the gods, while she
was asleep.[182][183] When Hera awoke, she tore
Heracles away from her breast and splattered her
breast milk across the heavens.[182][183] In another
version of the story, Athena, the patron goddess of
heroes, tricked Hera into suckling Heracles
voluntarily,[182][183] but he bit her nipple so hard that
she flung him away, spraying milk everywhere.[182][183]
In many African and Asian countries, butter is

traditionally made from fermented milk rather than
cream. It can take several hours of churning to produce
workable butter grains from fermented milk.[184]
Holy books have also mentioned milk. The Bible

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contains references to the "Land of Milk and Honey." In
the Qur'an, there is a request to wonder on milk as
follows: "And surely in the livestock there is a lesson for
you, We give you to drink of that which is in their bellies
from the midst of digested food and blood, pure milk
palatable for the drinkers" (16-The Honeybee, 66). The
Ramadan fast is traditionally broken with a glass of milk
and dates.
Abhisheka is conducted by Hindu and Jain priests, by

pouring libations on the idol of a deity being
worshipped, amidst the chanting of mantras. Usually
offerings such as milk, yogurt, ghee, honey may be
poured among other offerings depending on the type of
abhishekam being performed.
A milksop is an "effeminate spiritless man," an

expression which is attested to in the late 14th
century.[12] Milk toast is a dish consisting of milk and
toast. Its soft blandness served as inspiration for the
name of the timid and ineffectual comic strip character

Page 99 of 149
Caspar Milquetoast, drawn by H. T. Webster from 1924
to 1952.[185] Thus, the term "milquetoast" entered the
language as the label for a timid, shrinking, apologetic
person. Milk toast also appeared in Disney's Follow Me
Boys as an undesirable breakfast for the aging main
character Lem Siddons.
To "milk" someone, in the vernacular of many English-

speaking countries, is to take advantage of the person,
by analogy to the way a farmer "milks" a cow and takes
its milk. The word "milk" has had many slang meanings
over time. In the 19th century, milk was used to
describe a cheap and very poisonous alcoholic drink
made from methylated spirits (methanol) mixed with
water. The word was also used to mean defraud, to be
idle, to intercept telegrams addressed to someone else,
and a weakling or "milksop." In the mid-1930s, the
word was used in Australia meaning to siphon gas from
a car.[186]

Page 100 of 149
Other uses
Besides serving as a beverage or source of food, milk
has been described as used by farmers and gardeners
as an organic fungicide and fertilizer,[187][188][189]
however, its effectiveness is debated. Diluted milk
solutions have been demonstrated to provide an
effective method of preventing powdery mildew on
grape vines, while showing it is unlikely to harm the
plant.[190][191]
See also
A2 milk
Babcock test (determines the butterfat content of
milk)
Blocked milk duct
Fermented milk products
Health mark
Human breast milk
Lactation
Page 101 of 149
Lactation
List of dairy products
List of national drinks
Milk line
Milk paint
Milk substitute
Milky Way
Operation Flood
Raw milk
Food portal Drink portal
Notes
a. United Nations Environment Programme (2010):
"Impacts from agriculture are expected to
increase substantially due to population growth,
increasing consumption of animal products.
Unlike fossil fuels, it is difficult to look for
alternatives: people have to eat. A substantial

Page 102 of 149
reduction of impacts would only be possible with
a substantial worldwide diet change, away from
animal products."[81]:82
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Further reading
Dupuis, E. Melanie. Nature's Perfect Food (2002)
excerpt and text search

Page 146 of 149
Kardashian, Kirk. Milk Money: Cash, Cows, and the
Death of the American Dairy Farm (2012) excerpt
and text search
McGee, Harold (2004). On Food and Cooking (2nd
ed.). New York: Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-80001-1.
Smith-Howard, Kendra. Pure and Modern Milk: An
Environmental History Since 1900. Oxford, England:
Oxford University Press; 2013.
Valenze, Deborah. Milk: A Local and Global History
(Yale University Press, 2011) 368 pp.
Wiley, Andrea. Re-imagining Milk: Cultural and
Biological Perspectives (Routledge 2010) (Series for
Creative Teaching and Learning in Anthropology)
excerpt and text search
United States. Office of Dietary Supplements. Dietary
Supplement Fact Sheet: Calcium. 2013. Web.
<http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Calcium-
HealthProfessional/ >.
Feskanich, D.; Willett, WC; Stampfer, MJ; Colditz, GA

Page 147 of 149
(1997). "Milk, dietary calcium, and bone fractures in
women: a 12-year prospective study" . American
Journal of Public Health. 87 (6): 992–97.
doi:10.2105/ajph.87.6.992 . PMC 1380936 .
PMID 9224182 .
External links
Milk
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions
from
Wiktionary
Media from
Wikimedia
Commons
Quotations
from
Wikiquote

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Texts from
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A glass of pasteurized cow's milk

Cows being milked.

Milk is a nutrient-rich, white liquid food produced by

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk 1/4/20, 11:50 PM

As an agricultural product, milk, also called dairy milk, is

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk 1/4/20, 11:50 PM

Throughout the world, more than six billion people

Etymology and terminology

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk 1/4/20, 11:50 PM

A substance secreted by pigeons to feed their young is

The definition above precludes non-animal products

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk 1/4/20, 11:50 PM

A 2018 survey by the International Food Information

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk 1/4/20, 11:50 PM

Production of milk substitutes from vats of brewer's

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk 1/4/20, 11:50 PM

Breastfeeding to provide a mother's milk

A goat kid feeding on its mother's milk

In almost all mammals, milk is fed to infants through

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk 1/4/20, 11:50 PM

For humans, the World Health Organization

Fresh goats' milk is sometimes substituted for breast

Food product for humans

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk 1/4/20, 11:50 PM

A bowl of milk for the shaman rite. Buryatia. Russia

In many cultures, especially in the West, humans

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk 1/4/20, 11:50 PM

Whole milk, butter and cream have high levels of

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk 1/4/20, 11:50 PM

Ireland 135.6 6.7 2.4

Finland 127.0 22.5 4.1

United Kingdom 105.9 10.9 3.0

Australia 105.3 11.7 4.0

Sweden 90.1 19.1 1.7

Canada 78.4 12.3 2.5

United States 75.8 15.1 2.8

Europe 62.8 17.1 3.6

Brazil 55.7 3.6 0.4

France 55.5 26.3 7.5

Italy 54.2 21.8 2.3

Germany 51.8 22.9 5.9

Greece 49.1 23.4 0.7

Netherlands 47.5 19.4 3.3

India 39.5 - 3.5

China 9.1 - 0.1

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk 1/4/20, 11:50 PM

Humans first learned to consume the milk of other

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk 1/4/20, 11:50 PM

From Southwest Asia domestic dairy animals spread to

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk 1/4/20, 11:50 PM

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk 1/4/20, 11:50 PM

Preserved Express Dairies three-axle milk tank wagon at the

The growth in urban population, coupled with the

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk 1/4/20, 11:50 PM

Milk transportation in Salem, Tamil Nadu

Urban demand began to grow, as consumer purchasing

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk 1/4/20, 11:50 PM

1959 milk supply in Oberlech, Vorarlberg, Austria

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk 1/4/20, 11:50 PM

In 1863, French chemist and biologist Louis Pasteur

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk 1/4/20, 11:50 PM

Continued improvements in the efficiency of milk