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How Plants Survive
How Plants Survive
This module will introduce you to the function and form of plants. It
will also focus on how plants develop and grow. An understanding of
plant form and function is integral to understanding the natural world
since plants are essential for the survival of all life on earth. As
members of the biosphere, plants govern the oxygen exchange on the
planet, and are thus important subjects for study.
Plant Structure
Plants have structural adaptations to their environment. However, in
addition to this, plants have developed a specific morphology, or
external form, that they accumulated through natural selection. For
instance, cacti have become so specialized for the desert environment
that their leaves have become spines, and their stems are little more
than photosynthetic organs. The adaption of leaf morphology has
added to the success of cacti in the desert environment because the
surface areas of their leaves are reduced, which means that they lose
less water. Both genetic and environmental factors influence form in
both plants and animals. However, the effect of the environment in
greater in plants. Consequently, the morphology of plants vary widely
among species compares to animals.
The three basic plant organs are roots, stems, and leaves. The basic
morphology of most vascular plants reflect their evolutionary history
as terrestrial organisms that inhabit and draw resources from below
ground and above ground. Plants need to absorb water and minerals
from below the ground surface and CO2 and light from above the
ground. The ability to acquire these resources resulted in three distinct
organs which are morphological features- leaves, stems, and roots.
These organs form a shoot system and a root system, with the former
consisting of stems and leaves. With very few exceptions, angiosperns
and other vascular plants rely on both these systems for survival.
Roots
Roots are multicellular organs that anchor vascular plants in the soil.
They also absorb water and minerals, and they often store
carbohydrates. Most eudicots and gymnosperms have taproot systems.
A taproot system consists of a main vertical root, the taproot, that
develops from the embryonic root. The taproot gives rise to lateral
roots, which are also called branch roots. In many angiosperms, the
taproot stores carbohydrates and sugars that the plant will consume
during flowering and fruit production. For this reason, many crops,
such as carrots and beets, are harvested before they flower. Taproot
systems generally penetrate deep into the soil and are well-adapted to
accessing sources of water that are far from the ground surface.
Although the entire root system helps anchor the plant into the soil,
most plants absorb minerals and water primarily near the tips of roots.
This is where vast numbers of root hairs are located, and these increase
the surface area of roots enormously. Root hairs are short-lived and
constantly being replaced. A root hair is a thin, tubular extension of a
root epidermal cell. It should not be confused with a lateral root, which
is a multicellular organ. Despite their large surface area, root hairs
contribute little to the anchoring of plants to the soil. Many plants have
modified roots. Some of these arise from roots, while others are
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EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE
Stems
Leaves
Each of the three plant organs have dermal, vascular, and ground
tissues. These three categories of tissues form a tissue system, which is
a functional unit connecting all of the organs of the plant. Although
each tissue system is continuous throughout the plant, specific
characteristics of the tissues and their spatial relationships to one
another vary in different organs.
The dermal tissue system is the outer protective layer of the plant, or
the covering. It forms the first line of defense against pathogens and
physical damage. In plants that are not woody, it is usually a single
tissue called an epidermis, which is a layer of tightly packed cells. In
leaves and most stems, the cuticle, which is a waxy coating on the
epidermal surface, helps prevent the loss of water. In woody plants, the
protective tissue is called a periderm. This replaces the epidermis in
the older regions of the stems and roots. In addition to protecting the
plant from pathogens and water loss, the epidermis has specialized
characteristics in each organ. For instance, a root hair is an extension
of an epidermal cell near the tip of the root. Trichomes which are
hairlike outgrowths of the shoot epidermis, reduce water loss and
reflect excess light. They can also provide defense against insects by
secreting stickly fluids and toxic compounds. For example, trichomes
on aromatic leaves such as mint secret oils that protect plants from
herbivores.
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Tissues that are neither dermal nor vascular are part of the ground
tissue system. Ground tissue that is internal to the vascular tissue is
called pith. Ground tissue that is external to the vascular tissue is
called cortex. The ground tissue system is not just a filler. It includes
cells that are specialized for functions such as storage, photosynthesis,
and transport.
Parenchyma cells have primary walls that are relatively thin and
flexible, and most of them lack secondary walls. Parenchyma cells
generally lack a central vacuole when they are maure. These cells are
the least specialized structurally. Parenchyma cells perform most of
the metabolic functions of the plant. They synthesize and store various
organic products. For instance, photosynthesis occurs in the
chloroplasts of parenchyma cells in the leaf. Some parenchyma cells in
the roots and stems have plastids which store starch. The fleshy tissue
of most fruits is composed of parenchyma cells. Most parenchyma
cells retain the ability to divide and differentiate into other types of
plant cells under particular conditions. For instance, during wound
repair, parenchyma cells can differentiate. Thus, it is possible for
scientists to grow an entire plant from a single parenchyma cell.
There are two types of water conducting cells: tracheids and vessel
elements. Both of these cell types are tubular and elongated. They are
also dead at maturity. Tracheids are found in the xylem of nearly all
vascular plants. In addition to tracheids, most angiosperms, as well as
a few gymnosperms, have vessel elements. When the living contents
of the plant’s tracheids and vessel elements disintegrate, the thickened
walls of the cells remain behind. These form a living conduit through
which water can flow. The secondary walls of tracheids and vessel
elements are often interrupted by pits, which are thinner regions where
only primary walls are present. Thus, water can migrate laterally
through pits.
Tracheids are long, thin cells with tapered ends. Water moves from
cell to cell mainly through pits, where it does not have to cross thick
secondary walls. The secondary walls of tracheids are hardened
through lignin, and this prevents the collapse of the cell during water
transport.
Vessel elements are generally wider, shorter, and thin-walled. They are
also less tapered that tracheids. They are aligned from end-to-end,
forming long micropipes called vessels. The end walls of the vessel
elements have perforation plates that enable water to flow freely
through the vessels.
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EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE
Although plants continue to grow throughout their lives, they also die.
As was discussed in previous chapters, plants may be annuals, biennals
or perennials.
The tip of the root is covered by a root cap, which protects the delicate
apical meristem as the root pushes through the abrasive soil during
primary growth. The root cap also secretes a polysaccharide slime that
lubricates the soil around the tip of the root. Growth occurs behind the
tip in three zones of cells. These cells are at successive stages of
primary growth. Away from the tip, they are zones of cells division,
elongation, and differentiation.
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EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE
There are no sharp boundaries between the three zones, and they grade
together. The zone of cell division includes its derivatives and root
apical meristem. In this region, new root cells are produced. Behind
the tip of the root is the zone of elongation. This is where root cells
elongate. Sometimes, these cells elongate to more than 10 times their
length. In this zone, cell elongation allows the tip to penetrate farther
into the soil. Even before the root cells start lengthening, they may
begin specializing in structure and function. In the zone of
differentiation, which is the zone of maturation, cells complete the
differentiation process and become specific cell types.
In the roots of most eudicots, the xylem has a star-like appearance. The
phloem occurs the indentations between the arms of the star. In
monocots, the central core is composed of parenchyma cells. This core
surrounded by a ring of xylem and then a ring of phloem. This central
region is called a pith, but it is different from a stem pith.
Lateral roots come from the pericycle, which is the outermost layer in
the vascular cylinder. It is adjacent to, and just inside, the endodermis.
A lateral root pushes through the epidermis and the cortex until it
emerges from the main root. The lateral root cannot come from near
the root’s surface because the vascular system must be continuous with
vascular cylinder at the center of the established root.
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The internodes are shaped close together within leaf primordia because
the internodes are very short. Most of the elongation of the shoot is
due to the lengthening of the internode cells underneath the shoot tip.
In grasses, and other plants, some of the leaf cells are produced by
areas of merismatic tissue that is separated from the apical meristem.
These areas are called the intercalary meristems, and remain at the
base of leaf blades and stem internodes. This type of morphological
feature helps grasses tolerate grazing because the elevated part of the
leaf blade can be removed without interfering with growth.
vascular bundle is situated beside the pith, and the phloem in each
bundle is situated beside the cortex. In most monoct stems, the
vascular bundles are scattered throughout the ground tissue. They do
no form rings. In the stems of both eudicots and monocots, the ground
tissue consists mainly of parenchymal cells. However, collenchyma
cells underneath the epidermis strengthen many stems. Sclerenchyma
cells, especially fiber cells, also provide support in parts of the stem
that have stopped elongating.
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The vascular tissue of each leaf is continuous with the vascular tissue
of the stem. Connections from the vascular bundles in the stem, leaf
traces, pass through petioles and into the leaves. In the vascular bundle
are veins, which branch out. This network brings the xylem and
phloem near the photosynthetic tissue. The photosynthetic tissue
receives water and minerals, and brings the products of photosynthesis
to the phloem. The vascular structure also reinforces the shape of the
leaf. Each vein is enclosed by a bundle sheath, consisting of one or
more layers of cells, which are usually parenchyma cells. Unlike stems
and roots, leaves rarely undergo secondary growth.
Secondary Growth
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that forms to the interior of the cork cambium. The other group of cells
form to the exterior of the cork cambium. As these cells mature, they
deposit suberin, which is a waxy material. The cork tissue functions as
a barrier that prevents the stem or root from water loss, pathogens, and
physical damage. Each cork cambium and the tissue it produces
comprises a layer of the periderm.
The thickening of a stem or root often splits the first cork cambium.
The first cork cambium often differentiates into cork cells and loses its
merismatic activity. A new cork cambium forms on the inside,
resulting in another layer of periderm. The bark contains all the tissues
that are external to the vascular cambium. Its components are, from the
inside, the secondary phloem, the most recent periderm, and all the
older layers of periderm.
Glossary
Dicots: dicotyledons, where embryonic seeds have two cotyledons.
Plant Tissues
Plant Anatomy
References
Reece, J. B., Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A., Minorsky, P.
V., & Jackson, R. B. (2011). Campbell biology (p. 379). Boston:
Pearson.
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