Proceedings of The Thirteenth (2003) International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference
Honolulu, Hawaii, USA, May 25 –30, 2003
Copyright © 2003 by The International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers
ISBN 1 –880653 -60 –5 (Set); ISSN 1098 –6189 (Set)
AC Flashover Performance of Artificial Iced and Polluted Insulators
At High Altitude Districts
Lichun Shu, Xingliang Jiang, Caixin Sun, Yuchun Tian
The Key Lab. of High Voltage Eng. and Electrical New Technology
of Ministry of Education, Chongqing University
Chongqing, P. R. China
ABSTRACT This paper presents the effects of several environmental
parameters such as ice weight, atmospheric pressure and pollution
severity on the flashover performance of two types of short string
suspension insulators and short post insulator. The relationship between
the critical flashover voltage of the insulators and insulator profile,
amount of ice built up, pollution severity and atmospheric pressure was
determined. Moreover, the mathematical expression of minimum
flashover voltage of a short string of the suspension insulator units was
given. The results obtained are helpful for the insulation design of
transmission lines located at icing and high altitudes regions.
KEY WORDS: Icing; atmospheric pressure; pollution; insulator;
flashover; high altitudes.
INTRODUCTION
One of the most serious problems associated with ice and pollution
accreted on power transmission lines as well as low atmospheric
pressure is the loss in electrical performance of outdoor insulators. The
presence of ice together with contamination and low air pressure
sometimes produce insulator flashovers and consequent power outages,
which have been reported from several countries (Cherney, 1980;
Charneski, Gaibrois and Whitney, 1982; Farzaneh and Kiernicki, 1995;
Su, Jia, Wang, and Li, 1999).
This problem has allured attention of many researchers and,
consequently, a number of studies have been carried out separately on
the electrical strength of insulators under icing (Fujimura, Naito,
Hasegara and Kawaguchi, 1979; Phan and Matsuo, 1983; Matsuda,
Komuro and Takasu, 1991; Farzaneh and Drapeau, 1995; Wu, Halsan
and Fikke, 1996; Farzaneh, Zhang and Chen, 1997; Farzaneh and
Kiernicki, 1997; Farzaneh and Zhang, 2000), pollution (Zhang, 1991;
Rizk, 1995) or/and low atmospheric pressure (Fryxell and Schei, 1996;
Meier and Niggli, 1968; Kawamura, Ishii, Akbar and Nagai, 1982;
Kawamura, Ishii, Akbar and Nagai, 1982; Rudakova and Tikhodeev,
1989; Guan and Huang, 1994) conditions in several countries. However,
in spite of these efforts, some questions on this flashover phenomenon
on insulators has never been answered because it is complicated and is
influenced by many factors and parameters such as the insulator profile,
the test method, the atmospheric pressure, the pollution severity and the
ice type and quantity. Particularly, very little study has been done on the
403
Masoud Farzaneh, Yu Li, Jianhui Zhang
NSERC/Hydro-Québec/QUAC Industrial Chair on
Atmospheric Icing of Power Network Equipment (CIGELE)
Université du Québec à Chcoutimi Chicoutimi, Québec, Canada
flashover performance of iced insulators under the simultaneous
presence of low atmospheric pressure and pollutants (Zhang, 1991; Shu,
Sun, Zhang, and Gu, 1991; Li, Farzaneh and Zhang, 1998; Farzaneh, Li,
Fikke and Mercure, 1999; Shu, Farzaneh, Li and Sima, 2001).
In order to clarify some of the above questions and to acquire a better
idea of the effects of air pressure and contamination on the critical
flashover voltage of ice-covered insulators, a joined investigation
between the University of Quebec in Chicoutimi, Canada, and
Chongqing University in China was carried out. In this study, the
flashover voltages of several types of insulators were determined under
the simultaneous presence of the pollution, ice and low air pressure.
And some experimental results are provided in this paper, which could
be used as a reference for the insulation design of power systems under
such environmental conditions.
EXPERIMENTAL FACILITIES AND PROCEDURES
For Short Porcelain Suspension Insulator Strings
In the High Voltage Laboratory of Chongqing University in China,
several types of porcelain insulators were tested in a small cylindrical
climate chamber, 3.8 m in length and 2 m in diameter, where the air
temperature can be adjusted between 20 and –40 °C and the air pressure
between 101.3 and 34.7 kPa, respectively. The wind velocity is about 3
m/s. The short strings of three units with three types of suspension
insulators (Type A and C in Tab. 1) were used in the tests. The profile
and dimension of these insulators are shown in Tab.1. Insulators of type
A and type C were used for pre-contaminated flashover tests, i.e., the
insulators string was firstly contaminated with a layer of mixture of salt
and kieselguhr. In this case, several salt deposit density (SDD) levels
were chosen as 0.015, 0.03, 0.05 and 0.10mg.cm-2. When the pollution
layer was dry, the pre-contaminated insulator string was vertically
suspended in the climate chamber and was covered with an ice layer at
an air temperature of –12°C. Insulator type B was used for polluted ice
tests, i.e., NaCl was added directly to the water used to form the ice to
simulate the pollution. In this case, the conductivity of water, σ, had
values of 300 and 630 µS.cm-1, respectively. For both kinds of tests, the
ice density covered on the insulators was about 0.8∼0.9 g.cm-3. The air
pressure was adjusted between 98.5 and 62.4 kPa, corresponding to the
altitude varying from 232 to 4000 m.
The AC power supply used consists of a 1000 kVA regulator and a 900
kVA/150 kV transformer with a maximum short-circuit current of about
30 A. In order to determine the minimum flashover voltage of the
insulator string during melting period, the “U” curve method was used
(Shu, Sun, Zhang, and Gu, 1991), which can be summarized as follows:
once the ice layer was formed on insulators, the airtight door of the
climate chamber was opened to rise the air temperature for a certain
degrees and make the ice melt. Then, the door was closed again. The air
pressure was then dropped to a pre-determined value and a voltage was
applied immediately to the insulator string and increased uniformly at a
rate of 3 kV.s-1 until a flashover occurred. These steps were repeated
every several minutes until a minimum flashover voltage appeared
which was considered as the critical flashover voltage of the insulator
string under the experimental conditions.
Tab. 1. The porcelain insulators used to perform the flashover tests.
Dimensions of insulators, mm
Insulator configuration
Shed Unit Leakage
diameter spacing distance
255 146 295
cylindrical shape, a diameter of 610 mm and a height of 760 mm, was
constructed to simulate low air pressure at high altitude. The evacuated
chamber was presented in the previous work (Li, Farzaneh and Zhang,
1998; Farzaneh, Li, Fikke and Mercure, 1999). Air pressure in the
chamber can be adjusted between 101.3 and 30 kPa, corresponding to
altitudes varying from 0 to 9,000 m respectively. The chamber is
transparent to make possible visual observation and photography. In
order to control the ambient temperature, the evacuated chamber is
placed in a climate room (Farzaneh and Drapeau, 1995). The artificial
ice with a radial thickness of 15 mm, measured on a rotating monitoring
cylinder, was accreted on this post insulator placed in the climate room.
Once the ice layer was formed, an air gap of 1 cm was made near the
upper electrode by cutting out a small fragment of ice. This air gap
could simulate the free ice zones on actual high voltage insulators
created by the heating effect of partial arcs, rise in air temperature
and/or ice falling during or after ice accretion (Farzaneh and Drapeau,
1995). The AC high voltage system used consists of a 240kVA, 120kV
transformer and a 240kVA regulator. The overall short-circuit current of
the HV system is about 28 A at maximum operating voltage of 120 kV.
In order to determine the maximum withstand (VWS) and minimum
flashover (VMF) voltages of the insulator tested, a method based on and
developed from the method described in the standard IEC 507 was used.
This method was described in the previous studies (Farzaneh and
Drapeau, 1995; Li, Farzaneh and Zhang, 1998).
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Type A Influence of Insulator Profile

The obtained results show that the anti-pollution insulator (Type C) has
a short shed space and is more rapidly bridged by icicles than the
standard insulator (Type A). Therefore, the flashover is easier to occur
255 155 305 on this kind of insulator (see Tab. 2). As presented in Tab. 2, the rate of
decrease in minimum flashover voltage of anti-pollution insulator
becomes more significant as the ice weight decrease. The lower the
Type B atmospheric pressure, the more obvious the effect of insulator profiles.

Tab. 2. Comparison of minimum flashover voltage between the short

string of 3 suspension standard insulators (Type A) and anti-pollution
insulators (Type C).

255 146 400 ∆VMF1

Ice weight w
SDD (mg/cm2) P=98.5 kPa P=89.7 kPa
(kg)
(H=232m) (H=1000m)
0.5 10.7% 13.1%
Type C: Anti-pollution 0.015
2.0 2.2% 8.5%
insulator
0.5 9.4% 10.5%
0.03
2.0 1.9% 7.2%
0.5 9.0% 9.8%
0.10
2.0 4.7% 7.0%
VMF , insulator A − VMF , insulator C
where ∆VMF1 = .
155 240 670 VMF , insulator A

Influence of Ice Weight

The amount of ice built up on the insulators has an obvious influence on

Type D: Post insulator
For Short Porcelain Post Insulator
In the CIGELE Laboratories at the University of Quebec in Chicoutimi,
Canada, a series of tests were carried out in an evacuated chamber using
a short post insulator (Type D in Tab. 1). This chamber, having a
the minimum flashover voltage of tested insulators. It may be noted that
the minimum flashover voltage, VMF, of three types of ice-covered
suspension insulators tested decreases with an increase of the ice weight,
and then present a tendency of saturation. Tab. 3 shows the influence of
the ice weight on the minimum flashover voltage of insulator type A.

404
 Tab. 3. Influence of the ice weight for the short string of 3 suspension conductivity increases. This variation tendency of exponent m may be
insulator units (Type A) due to the fact that the arc sometimes propagates in air instead of along
ice surface. During the flashover tests, it was observed that the arc
∆VMF2 propagation from one electrode to another might occur in two different
SDD Ice weight w
(mg.cm-2) (kg) P=98.5 kPa P=89.7 kPa ways: along the ice surface or in the air. Sometimes both situations
(H=232m) (H=1000m) could occur on one arc, i.e., part of the arc along the ice surface and the
1.0 9.4% 9.3% other part in air. When the arc propagates in air, the arc length increases
0.015 2.0 17.9% 17.6% and, consequently, the flashover distance is longer resulting in a higher
3.0 22.6% 22.1% flashover voltage. In the present study, it was observed that, for the
1.0 9.9% 10.3% lower SDD or freezing water conductivity, the arc was always
0.03 2.0 19.0% 19.4% propagated along the ice surface at the standard pressure while
3.0 23.8% 24.3% propagated in air at lower atmospheric pressure. This results in a lower
1.0 9.8% 10.0% decrease rate of flashover voltage and, accordingly, in a lower m value.
0.10 2.0 18.6% 19.1% For the higher SDD or freezing water conductivities, the arc always
3.0 23.5% 23.9% propagated in air at standard pressure and all other low air pressure
values. This causes a higher decrease rate of flashover voltage and a
VMF , w=0.5 − VMF , w higher value of exponent m.
where ∆VMF 2 = .
VMF , w=0.5
65
Influence of Air Pressure
60 Insulator type A
The atmospheric pressure is one of the factors that considerably 2
influence the minimum flashover voltage of insulators. The relationship SDD=0.015mg/cm
between the critical flashover voltage of polluted insulators and the air 55

V MF (kV)
pressure is normally expressed by the following equation (Mercure,
1989; Sundararajan and Nowlin, 1996)
w (kg)
50
m 1.0
V  P 
(1) 45
= 
V0  P0 

2.0
40
where P0 and P are the standard pressure (101.3 kPa) and the pressure at
3.0
high altitude; V0 and V are the critical flashover voltages of insulators
corresponding to air pressure P0 and P, respectively; the exponent m is a 35
constant the value of which characterizes the influence of air pressure 60 70 80 90 100
on the critical flashover voltage of insulators and depends on several P (kPa)
factors and parameters including insulator profile, voltage polarity and
pollution severity(Huang, Guan and Zhang, 1993; Rizk and Rezazada, (a)
1996).

Figs.1~2 show the minimum flashover voltages of insulator strings of 55

types A and B, respectively, as a function of the atmospheric pressure.
Fig. 3 presents the minimum flashover voltage of the short post 50 Insulator type A
insulator as a function of atmospheric pressure for various freezing
water conductivities measured at 20°C. From the results presented in SDD=0.10mg/cm
2
Figs.1~2, it may be noted that the minimum AC flashover voltage, VMF, 45
V MF (kV)

of ice-covered suspension insulators tested decreases with a reduction

in atmospheric pressure. The decrease rate in minimum flashover 40
voltage of insulator type A, insulator type B and insulator type D w (kg)
becomes more significant as SDD or σ increase (see Tab.4). As
mentioned in the introduction, the influence of atmospheric pressure on 35 1.0
the critical flashover voltage of polluted and ice-covered insulators can
be evaluated from Eq.1. In this equation, exponent m characterizes the 30 2.0
effect of atmospheric pressure on the flashover voltage of insulators and
constitutes an important parameter for the insulation design of 3.0
transmission lines located at high altitudes.
25
60 70 80 90 100
Using the regression analysis method (i.e., the least square method) to P (kPa)
the test results obtained in the present study, the values of exponent m
as a function of ice amount, SDD and freezing water conductivity were (b)
determined as presented in Tab. 5.
Fig. 1. Minimum AC flashover voltage of a string of three
From the above results, it may be noted that the value of exponent m for suspension insulator units (Type A) as a function of
three types of insulator increases with SDD or freezing water atmospheric pressure.

405
 Tab. 4. Comparison of minimum flashover voltage between standard
50
pressure and low air pressure.
Ice weight
Insulator type B SDD (mg/cm2) ∆VMF3
45 σ=300 µS /cm w (kg)
Short string of 3 0.015 14.2%
1.0
suspension 0.10 18.7%
40
V MF (kV)

insulator units 0.015 17.9%

σ=630 µS /cm 2.0
(Type A) 0.10 23.6%
35 0.015 19.8%
3.0
0.10 25.9%
Ice Weight
30 Ice weight, w=2.2kg σ (µS/cm) ∆VMF4
Short string of 3 w (kg)
suspension 300 16.8%
2.2
25 insulator units 630 28.4%
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 (Type B) 300 17.1%
3.0
P (kPa) 630 26.9%
Ice
(a) thickness ε σ (µS/cm) ∆VMF5
Short post
45 insulator (mm)
σ=300 µS /cm (Type D) 80 29.0%
Insulator type B 15
250 33.0%
40 V MF , P =98.5 − V MF , P = 70.4
where ∆V ,
MF 3 =
V MF , P =98.5
V MF (kV)

σ=630 µS /cm V − VMF , P = 62.4 , and

35 ∆VMF 4 = MF , P =98.5
VMF , P =98.5
VMF , P =101.3 − VMF , P = 45.0 .
∆VMF 5 =
30 VMF , P =101.3
Ice weight, w=3.0kg

25 Tab. 5. Typical values of the exponent m.

50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Ice weight W (kg) SDD (mg.cm-2) Exponent m
P (kPa)
0.015 0.42
(b) Short string of 1.0
0.10 0.53
3 suspension
Fig.2. Minimum AC flashover voltage of a string of three 0.015 0.53
insulator units 2.0
suspension insulator units (Type B) as a function of 0.10 0.60
(Type A)
atmospheric pressure. 0.015 0.58
3.0
0.10 0.63
Ice weight w (mm) σ (µS.cm-1) Exponent m
Short string of
300 0.40
35 3 suspension 2.2
630 0.72
insulator units
σ=80 µS /cm 300 0.42
30 (Type B) 3.0
630 0.70
25 Ice thickness ε
Short post σ (µS.cm-1) Exponent m
V MF (kV)

(mm)
20 insulator
σ=250 µS /cm 80 0.40
(Type D) 15
250 0.53
15
Insulator type D
10
Ice thickness, ε=15 mm Influence of Pollution Severity
5 From the test results, it can be seen that the pre-contamination layer
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 reduces the flashover voltage of insulators under icing conditions. The
higher the pollution levels, the lower the minimum flashover voltage of
P (kPa) ice-covered insulators (see Tab.6). Also, Tab. 6 show that the decrease
in minimum AC flashover voltage with the increase of SDD or freezing
Fig. 3. Minimum AC flashover voltage of post insulator (Type D) water conductivity is more significant at high altitude than at sea level
as a function of atmospheric pressure. (standard pressure).

406
 Tab. 6 Typical values of reduction in minimum flashover voltage as The coefficient α depends on the pollution flashover voltage (VF, kV) of
pollution severity increase. the insulators under ice free condition; the exponent β is a constant
Ice weight w related to the pre-contamination severity. It can be obtained as β=0.143
Pressure P (kPa) ∆VMF6
(kg) from the statistical calculation of test results presented for various SDD
70.4 27.9% at standard air pressure. By definition, the coefficient α is
Short string 1.0 89.7 24.2%
of 3
98.5 23.9% α = kVF
suspension
70.4 29.5%
insulator
2.0 89.7 25.0% where k is a constant. Using the regression analysis method, the k can be
units
(Type A) 98.5 24.2% calculated approximately as k=1.31. Therefore, Eq.5 may be written in
70.4 30.2% the form
3.0 89.7 25.4%
98.5 27.9% V0 = 1.31VF ⋅ w−0.143 (6)
Short string Ice weight w
Pressure P (kPa) ∆VMF7
of 3 (mm)
At standard pressure, the relation between the pollution flashover
suspension 62.4 20.8%
2.2 voltage of insulators, VF, and SDD can normally be characterized by
insulator 98.5 8.5%
units 62.4 20.2%
(Type B) 3.0
98.5 9.4% VF = γ ⋅ S − λ (7)
Ice thickness
Short post Pressure P (kPa) ∆VMF8 where S is the SDD (mg.cm-2) of pollution insulators (ice free); the
ε (mm)
insulator coefficient γ and exponent λ are constants, and can be obtained from the
45.0 27.0%
(Type D) 15 statistical analysis on the obtained results. Thus
101.3 23.0%

VMF , ESDD = 0.015 − VMF , ESDD = 0.1 , VF = 16.72 ⋅ S −0.246 (8)

where ∆V
MF 6 =
VMF , ESDD = 0.015
Finally, combining Eqs.4, 6 and 8 leads to Eq.9, i.e., the minimum
V − VMF ,σ = 630 , and
∆VMF 7 = MF ,σ =300 flashover voltage of short strings of 3 pre-contaminated insulators (Type
VMF ,σ =300 A) at icing and low atmospheric pressure conditions can be calculated
VMF ,σ =80 − VMF ,σ = 250 . by
∆VMF 8 =
VMF ,σ =80
Calculation of Minimum Flashover Voltage at Low Air VMF = 21.9 S −0.246 w−0.143 (1 - 0.63 ∆P ) (9)
Pressure
Fig. 4 shows the test results as well as the calculated results from
If we define ∆P = ( P0 − P) / P0 , Eq.1 can be rewrite as the Eq.9. In Fig.4, the maximum error between the calculated
results and the experimental results is about 4.5%. At the same
V = V0( 1 − ∆P)m (2) conditions, when SDD equals to 0.015, 0.05 and 0.10 mg.cm-2
respectively, the maximum errors are about 10.7%, 12.3% and
Deploying Eq.2 to Taylor Series and omitting with the high-order terms 13.1%. It can be seen that there is a concordance between the
of ∆P, the above relation becomes minimum flashover voltage calculated with Eq.9 and the test
results obtained in the laboratory.
V = V0( 1 − m ⋅ ∆P ) (3)
80
From Eq.3 it can be found directly that the flashover voltage depends on Insulator type A
the exponent m and decrease as the pressure decrease (i.e., ∆P increase). 70
_____
The larger the m, the more significant the effects of air pressure on V. calculation results
Normally, the dispersity of minimum flashover voltage of insulators is 60 + o * experiment results
V MF (kV)

large due to the effect of many factors. Therefore, for the sake of power
system safety, the maximum value of exponent m is used in engineering
consideration. Accordingly, for the pre-contaminated and ice-covered 50 w (kg)
standard insulators (type A), the effect of air pressure on minimum 1.0
flashover voltage, VMF, may be estimated by 40
2.0
VMF = V0 (1 - 0.63∆P ) (4) 3.0
30 2
SDD=0.03mg/cm
where V0 (kV) is the minimum flashover voltage of insulators at
standard air pressure (sea level), which depends on the ice weight, w 20
(kg), and the pollution severity. The relation between V0 and w may be 60 70 80 90 100
expressed as P (kPa)

V0 = α ⋅ w− β (5) Fig.4 Calculated and test results of the minimum flashover of

short strings of 3 suspension insulator units (Type A).

407
CONCLUSION
Laboratory investigations for determining AC flashover performance of
three types of insulators covered with artificial ice at low atmospheric
pressure were carried out. This study made it possible to determine the
relationship between the critical flashover voltage of ice-covered
insulators and the pollution as well as the air pressure. Although there is
some difference between the laboratory investigations in the University
of Quebec in Chicoutimi and in Chongqing University, some common
conclusions may be drawn from the obtained results:
(1) The insulators (Type C) with a short shed space are more rapidly
bridged by icicles under icing condition than the standard
insulator and, therefore, are easier to have flashover.
(2) Comparing with the standard insulator (Type A), the decrease in
minimum flashover voltage of anti-pollution insulator (Type C),
as the atmospheric pressure reduce or the ice weight decrease, is
more significant.
(3) The minimum flashover voltage, VMF, of three tapes of ice-
covered suspension insulators decreases obviously with an
increase of ice weight, and then present a saturation tendency.
(4) The air pressure has a definite effect on the AC minimum
flashover voltage of insulators, VMF, under icing conditions. The
lower the atmospheric pressure the lower the VMF.
(5) The VMF of the tested insulators decreases with the increase in
SDD or freezing water conductivity, σ. In addition, the reduction
rate of VMF, with a decrease in atmospheric pressure, becomes
more significant as SDD or σ increases. The decrease in VMF with
an increase in SDD or σ is more obvious at high altitudes than at
sea level.
(6) The value of the exponent m depends on the insulator profile,
SDD, σ and the amount of ice accreted. It increases when the
SDD or σ increases.
(7) A mathematical expression of minimum flashover voltage of a
short string of the suspension insulators (i.e., Type A) was
obtained and was validated with the experimental results. There is
a concordance between the calculated minimum flashover voltage
and the experimental results.
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