Crucible - Cupola Furnaces-2 PDF

Crucible Furnaces
Prof. Dr. Eng. G. M. Attia Casting Eng. 1

Crucible furnace
• Crucible furnaces are used for melting and holding small batches of
non-ferrous alloys.
• Crucible furnaces are the oldest type of melting furnaces.
• A refractory crucible filled with the metal is heated through the
crucible wall.

Crucible Furnaces
Metal is melted without direct contact with
burning fuel mixture
• Sometimes called indirect fuel-fired furnaces
• Container (crucible) is made of refractory
material or high- temperature steel alloy
• Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze,
brass, and alloys of zinc and aluminum

Types
• Three types used in foundries:
a. lift-out type,
b. stationary, or bale out furnace
c. Tilting furnace
• Or classified as
a. Coke fired
b. Oil –gas fired
c. electricity resistance furnaces,
• Pit type,
• Advantage of Oil –gas fired : (no wastage, h. efficiency, temp. control,
less contamination, less floor area, l. labor cost )

Types of crucible furnace:
• There are two main types of crucible furnace:
• electricity resistance furnaces,
• gas (oil) fired furnaces.
• In the gas fired furnaces heat is provided by a burner directed to the
crucible.
• In the resistance furnaces electric heating elements are used as a
source of heat.

Crucible Furnaces
Figure 11.19 Three types of crucible furnaces: (a) lift-out crucible, (b)
stationary pot, from which molten metal must be ladled, and (c)
tilting-pot furnace.

Pit type furnace

Pit type furnace

Crucible furnace
• Employed for melting small quantities of nonferrous
metals.
• Crucibles are made of clay, graphite or silicon carbide
and it is kept in a cylindrical shell limited with refractory
bricks.
• Tilting furnace is tilted to transfer the molten metal to
the ladle.
• In non-tilting crucible is lifted out and taken to the
moulds for pouring the metal.

Crucible size (capacity): in kg Copper
from 1 to 400
Crucible material: clay – graphite,
graphite, silicon carbide.

Crucible furnace

Crucible tilting furnaces

The Cupola Furnace
Introduction
Construction
Operation
Chemical reaction
Working zones
Factors affecting efficiency of a cupola

Introduction
General description
Function
Advantages & Limitations
Classification

Introduction
• The largest percentage (60-70%) of cast iron produced is
melted in the cupola, basically a miniature blast furnace.
• The cupola shown is the basic furnace used to reduce copper
ore to matte copper. The cupola, besides reducing ore, can
melt bronze, brass, or cast iron, it is excellent for melting
bronze, in particular, silicon-bronze and bronze low in lead or
zinc content.
• Because the cupola melts continuously-as long as it is stoked
and fed-it will melt charge after charge. The big advantage of
the cupola is that you can pour a large quantity of molds, and
you can also melt single batches of cast iron or bronze.

Introduction
• For many years, the cupola was the primary
method of melting used in iron foundries.
• The cupola furnace has several unique
characteristics which are responsible for its
widespread use as a melting unit for cast iron.
• In more recent times, the use of the cupola has
declined in favor of electric induction melting,
which offers more precise control of melt
chemistry and temperature, and much lower
levels of emissions.

Cupola General description
• Cupola is the most common type of melting furnace used in foundry
industry.
• The cupola is a vertical shaft cylindrical furnace charged from the
top.
• Heat, released from combustion of coke in the bed, melts the
metallic charge materials.
• A schematic cross-section of the cupola, depicting the important
zones, is shown in the figure.

Advantages of the cupola
Some advantages of the cupola are listed below.
• Lower capital and operation cost
• Ease and flexibility of operation (Continuous or batch operation types )
• Relatively high melting rate
• Lower melting losses
• Lower energy cost
• Better metallurgical properties.
In more recent times, the use of the cupola has declined in favor of electric
induction melting, which offers more precise control of melt chemistry and
temperature, and much lower levels of emissions.

Limitation
• Used Only for cast iron melting, reduction of copper, melting of
• Carbon limitation
• Alloying elements
• Pollution

Construction

•Size : 0-10 …0.5- 2m in
diameter, up to 15 hieght
•Shaft :6-12mm carbon steel
plate riveted or welded,
refractory lining, supported on
4 legs
•Drop bottom door
•Wind box, tuyeres
•Charging door
•Stack
•Refractory lining

The construction of a conventional cupola
• Shaft ( a vertical steel shell which is lined with a refractory brick).
• The cupola is supported on four legs and fitted with a pair of
Perforated, cast-iron doors underneath.
• Drop bottom type
• Stack is capped with a spark/fume arrester hood.
• Charging door (an opening approximately half way up the vertical
shaft. )
• Tap hole, slag hole, tuyeres

Charge
• The charge consists of alternate layers of the
• Metal to be melted (pig iron, scrap steel and domestic returns ),
• Coke fuel and
• Limestone flux.

• The construction of a conventional cupola consists of
a vertical steel shell which is lined with a refractory
brick.
• The charge is introduced into the furnace body by
means of an opening approximately half way up the
vertical shaft. The charge consists of alternate layers
of the metal to be melted, coke fuel and limestone
flux.
• The fuel is burnt in air which is introduced through
tiers positioned above the hearth.
• The hot gases generated in the lower part of the shaft
ascend and preheat the descending charge.
• Most cupolas are of the drop bottom type with hinged doors under
the hearth, which allows the bottom to drop away at the end of
melting to aid cleaning and repairs.
• At the bottom front is a tap hole for the molten iron at the rear,
positioned above the tap hole is a slag hole.
• The top of the stack is capped with a spark/fume arrester hood.

Important structural parameters Internal diameters
(productivity)
• Typical internal diameters of cupolas are 450 mm to 2000 mm
diameter witch can be operated on different fuel to metal ratios,
giving melt rates of approximately 1 to 30 tones per hour.
• Cupolas range in size from a No. 0 with an inside diameter of 18
inches (450mm) that will melt a ton of iron in an hour to a No. 12
with 84 inches (2100mm) in diameter that will melt more than 33
tons an hour.

Important structural parameters
• Tuyere size
The tuyere size determines the velocity of the blast air in the bed. The specification of the tuyere
differs between a cold blast and a hot blast system. For a cold blast system, the total area of the
tuyeres is about 20% of the melting zone area. Size of each tuyere can be calculated by dividing
the total tuyere area by the total number of tuyeres.
• The recommended number of tuyeres per row for cupolas of various diameters is as follows.
Cupola internal diameter less than 30 inch: 4
Cupola internal diameter between 30 inch and 42 inch: 6
• The shape of the tuyere can be either round (preferable) or rectangular.

Important structural parameters
• Stack height
In the cupola, hot gases rising from the melting zone exchange heat with the descending charge
materials. If the stack height is too short, inadequate charge pre-heating takes place and excess
heat escapes in the top gases. A stack height between 16 ft to 22 ft (5-7m) is recommended for a
cold blast cupola, depending upon its diameter.
Well depth
The well depth influences the carbon pickup and the metal tapping temperature. …has shown
that increasing the well depth leads to higher carbon-up. On the flip side, increasing the well
depth reduces the tapping temperature of the molten metal. As a rule of thumb, there is a drop
of about a degree centigrade in the molten metal temperature for every additional inch increase
in the well depth.

Operation

Operation cycle
• Cleaning and Repair
• Closing and propping the bottom hinged doors
• Preparing a hearth bottom with slopes towards a tapping hole
• Cook bed preparation and ignition with natural draft air.
• Adjust Cook bed height after Cook burning, air blowing, closing all opening
• Charging
• Melting
• Taping
• Bottom door doping

A typical Operation cycle
• A typical operation cycle for a cupola would consist of closing and propping the
bottom hinged doors and preparing a hearth bottom.
• The bottom is usually made from low strength molding sand and slopes towards a
tapping hole.
• A fire is started in the hearth using light weight timber; coke is charged on top of
the fire and is burnt by increasing the air draught from the tiers.
• Once the coke bed is ignited and of the required height, alternate layers of
metal, flux and coke are added until the level reaches the charged doors.
• The metal charge would typically consist of pig iron, scrap steel and domestic
returns.

Chemical reactions
(1) above the zone of melting,
(2) in the zone of melting and
(3) below the zone of melting.

Reaction zones
• Stuck (Charging door)
• Preheating
• Reduction
• Oxidation
• Melting
• Slag
• Molten metal

Chemical reactions
• Chemical reactions can be considered to occur in three regions:
(1) above the zone of melting,
(2) in the zone of melting and
(3) below the zone of melting.
• The zones are not distinct as the reactions take place over finite
distances determined by the existing physical and chemical
conditions.

Reactions occurring above the zone of melting
• Three important reactions occur in this zone:
(1) calcination of limestone and
(2) oxidation of scrap
(3) sulfidation of scrap.

Reactions occurring above the
zone of melting
CaCO3 = CaO + CO2 (1)
Fe + CO2 = FeO + CO -∆H (2)
SO2 + 3Fe = FeS + 2FeO (3)

Reactions above the melting zone
Calcination of limestone
• Limestone decomposes in the cupola shaft to form lime (equation 1).
The reaction is endothermic and its occurrence is determined by
chemical equilibrium which is governed by the temperature of
limestone and the CO2 content of the gas phase. The location where
decomposition occurs is governed by these factors and in addition by
the size of limestone.
• CaCO3 = CaO + CO2 (1)

Oxidation of scrap
• In this region iron scrap is partially oxidized to FeO. It is governed by
chemical equilibrium for reaction (2) which is endothermic:
• Fe + CO2 = FeO + CO -∆H (2)
• The FeO is assumed to create a porous oxide film through which iron
diffuses to react with CO2 at the gas/oxide interface.
• This reaction takes place a short distance above the melt zone.

Sulfidation reaction
• In this zone SO2, produced in the lower regions of the cupola, reacts with iron to
form iron sulfide (sulfidation) and iron oxide.
• The overall reaction is:
• SO2 + 3Fe = FeS + 2FeO (3)
• The modeling mechanism is based on reaction kinetics. It assumes iron diffuses
through the oxide layer to the gas/solid interface where reaction 3 takes place.
The amount of SO2 reacting according to reaction 3 is proportional to the surface
to volume ratio of the scrap.
• Any unreacted SO2 exits the cupola with the exhausting gases.

Reactions occurring in the melt
zone
FeO + Ciron = CO + Fe - ∆H
FeO + ½ Siiron = ½ SiO2 + Fe +∆H Oxidation
of other alloying elements which are
present in the charge.

Reaction occurring in the melt zone
• The primary reaction is melting of scrap and alloys which are
endothermic processes:
Fesolid = Feliquid -∆H (4)
FeSisolid = FeSiliquid -∆H (5)
• The area in which this reaction takes place depends on the melting
point of the scrap or alloy and its thickness.
• Cast iron and ferrosilicon melt higher in the cupola than steel due to
their lower melting points.

Reactions occurring in the melt zone
• Melting of ferrosilicon is followed by dissolution in the liquefied scrap. The dissolution of
ferrosilicon is exothermic.
• The heat released increases with the silicon content of the alloy. As observed in experimental
studies, ferrosilicon primarily dissolves in steel due to the low initial concentrations of silicon and
carbon (low silicon activity). All the ferrosilicon dissolves in the steel.
• FeSiliquid = FeSisteel +∆H (6)
• Oxidation of alloys by FeO begins in this zone.
• The available FeO is the amount introduced as rust on the charge material and that produced
above the melt zone.
• FeO + Ciron = CO + Fe - ∆H (7)
• FeO + ½ Siiron = ½ SiO2 + Fe +∆H (8)
• Oxidation of other alloying elements which are present in the
charge.
• In recent years, due to cost, silicon carbide has become a popular alloy material. It almost always
is produced in briquetted form using impure SiC. The contents of the briquettes include, in
addition to SiC, free-carbon, silica and cement. The relative amounts of the ingredients vary.
Because of the complex nature of the material it is difficult to model. A complicating factor is SiC
does not melt like the metallic materials; it must dissolve in order to be incorporated into the
iron. Several algorithms have been tested to describe the performance of SiC. None including the
most current one are entirely satisfactory. At present yet another algorithm is being developed.
The new algorithm is not considered here as it is not certain that it will be adopted. The model
will not be sold until a more suitable algorithm is developed. The current model considers the
following sequence of reactions:
• SiCsolid + FeOliquid = Si + Fe + CO (9)

• If the FeO is exhausted by this reaction the remaining carbon
dissolves in iron. If FeO consumes all the carbon and FeO is not
exhausted then silicon reacts with FeO by reaction 8.
• If all the silicon is consumed and some FeO remains it enters the slag
layer where further reactions occur.
• The free-carbon in the briquette is added to the fuel and the silica
and cement are added to slag.

• Once iron and steel melt they dissolve carbon from the coke. The dissolution
process continues to the top of the slag layer. The reaction is endothermic:
• Ccoke = Ciron (10)
• The dissolution rate is different for iron or steel as it is determined by reaction
kinetics which is governed by the sulfur concentration, temperature and carbon
equivalent of the liquid metal, the size of metal drops, the ash content and size of
coke and the velocity of the falling drop. The size of iron drops was determined
experimentally as they are much smaller than obtained from theoretical
predictions.

Reactions occurring below the
zone of melting
Ccoke + O2 = CO2
Ccoke + H2O = CO + H2
Scoke + O2 = SO2

􀂃 Reactions occurring below the zone of melting
• This zone is comprised of four regions.
• (1) Immediately below the melt zone is the region where air is introduced through water-cooled
pipes called tuyeres that extend into the cupola (see Figure 1).
• (2) Below this region is one comprised of coke through which iron and slag drops fall. There is no
gas flow in this region or below.
• (3) The next zone is a layer of slag, usually less than two feet thick.
• (4) The bottom layer is a layer of iron which passes out of the cupola through the tap hole. Most
cupolas in the US are front-slagging, that is, the bottom of the slag layer is also at the level of the
tap hole so it is discharged from the cupola with the iron.

Reactions in the tuyere region
Ccoke + O2 = CO2 (the sum of two

reaction)
Siiron + 2CO2 = SiO2 + 2CO

Reactions in the tuyere region
• Hot oxygen-enriched air reacts with coke to produce CO2 (combustion reaction). The reaction
rate is governed by the size of the coke, the oxygen content of the gas and gas temperature and
velocity. The reaction is exothermic and it is the major heat source in the cupola.
• Ccoke + O2 = CO2 (11)
• The combustion reaction is actually the sum of two reactions in series. First O2 diffuses to the
coke surface where it reacts to form CO:
• Ccoke + 1/2O2= CO (12)
• As the CO diffuses away from the coke it is oxidized by remaining oxygen.
• CO + 1/2O2 =CO2 (13)
• The rate of reaction depends on, oxygen content and temperature of the air, the size of coke and
gas velocity. The overall reaction is exothermic.

• Since CO is more stable than CO2 at the elevated temperatures that exist in the
combustion region, CO2 will react with coke to produce CO once all the oxygen is
consumed. This reaction is called the Boudouard or coke gasification reaction.
The reaction is endothermic.
• Ccoke + CO2 = 2CO (14)
• The rate of this reaction depends on the concentration of CO2, gas velocity and
the size, porosity and reactivity of coke. Since the main function of the cupola is
to melt metal the foundry attempts to minimize this reaction. The principle
method used by foundries is the use of large size coke.

• This reaction also involves two processes: first the diffusion of CO2 to the coke surface where it
reacts with coke. This is the predominant reaction. Some CO2 diffuses into the porous coke where
it also reacts with carbon. Below about 1000oC the pore reaction becomes rate controlling.
However, the rate drops precipitously as the temperature decreases. It effectively appears as if
the gasification of coke suddenly stops. This usually occurs near the lower end of the melt zone.
• Another reaction that is important, especially in humid climates, is the reaction between coke
and water in the incoming blast (reaction 14). The reaction is endothermic and it is controlled by
equilibrium with CO and CO2 (reaction 15).
• Ccoke + H2O = CO + H2 (14)
• H2O + CO = CO2 + H2 (15)

• Coke contains between 0.5% and 0.8% sulfur. As the carbon in coke is consumed the contained
sulfur reacts with air to produce SO2 (reaction 16). This reaction is essentially complete. As
indicated earlier some of the SO2 subsequently reacts with iron; the remaining
• SO2 escapes the cupola in the outgoing gas stream.
• Scoke + O2 = SO2 (16)
• Because of the high oxidation potential of the gasses in the region of the tuyeres, alloy oxidation
takes place. The reactions considered by the model concern oxidation of dissolved carbon and
silicon. The assumed reactions are:
• Ciron + CO2 = 2CO (17)
• Siiron + 2CO2 = SiO2 + 2CO (18)

• These reactions occur in a sequence that is determined by
thermodynamic criteria. Carbon
• reacts at higher temperatures and silicon at lower temperatures.
Reaction kinetics is also
• considered as the rate of reaction considers the diffusion of gases to
the surface of iron drop
• and reaction at the surface. Depending on the concentration of the
alloys in the iron and the
• concentration of CO2 in the gas phase, the rates of reaction can be
governed by diffusion or
• reaction.

Reactions in the coke bed
Only coke and iron and slag drops (no scrap)

Siron + CaOslag + ½ Siiron =
CaSslag+ ½ SiO2 slag

Reactions in the coke bed
• This region is defined by the absence of solid scrap, i.e., it contains only coke and iron and slag
drops. It encompasses the area below the melt zone and above the slag layer.
• The upper boundary is defined by combustion and gasification of coke and the thickness and
composition of scrap.
• The lower boundary is the top of the slag layer whose height is controlled by cupola
backpressure and the height of the iron dam outside the cupola. In this region the iron drops
contact coke and dissolve carbon by reaction 10.
• The controlling processes for carbon dissolution are the same as indicated above.
• In this region silicon from FeSi continues to combine with steel drops as indicted by reaction 6.

Reactions occurring in the slag layer
• The model assumes any FeO that does not react in the melt zone descends and dissolves
homogeneously. The uniformity of the dispersion of FeO is based on experimental data. Carbon
and silicon in the iron drops passing through the slag layer react with FeO via reactions 7 and 8 in
proportion to their “normality” (molar concentrations divided by valence). This is based on
limited evidence. Complete reaction of FeO is assumed. A more accurate model based on
available kinetic data may be implemented in the future.
• Another reaction considered by the model is the partition of sulfur between iron and slag
(reaction 19). Partition is based on an empirical relationship which works well. It also can be
calculated based on the equilibrium expressed by reaction 20.
• (x+y)Siron = xSiron + ySslag (19)
• Siron + CaOslag + ½ Siiron = CaSslag+ ½ SiO2 slag (20)

Reactions occurring in the iron layer
No reactions are assumed to take

place in the slag layer.

Spark arrester
Stack
Zone A (Preheating)
Zone B (Melting, Red. Oxtd.
Zone C (Well or Crucible)

Important operation
zones of cupola
•Charging zone
•Preheating
•Melting
•Reduction
•Oxidation (tuyers)
•Well (hearth or crucible)
•Coke bed zone (from
bottom –up to 80-120 cm
above tuyers.

Important zones of cupola
Spark arrester
Stuck (Charging zone)
Preheating
Melting
Reduction Oxidation (tuyers)
Well (hearth or crucible

• The model accounts for eight chemical reactions
• in the cupola:
• C + 1/2 O2 → CO
• C + H2O → CO + H2
• C + CO2 → 2 CO
• CO + 1/2 O2 ↔ CO2
• H2 + 1/2 O2 → H2O
• CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
• FeO → Fe + ½O2
• Fe2O3 → 2Fe + 1½O2
Factors affecting efficiency of a
cupola
Coke rate
Blast rate
Coke size and coke quality

Factors affecting efficiency of a cupola
• Coke rate or coke ratio or fuel ratio (it is metal to fuel ratio, normally
between 6:1 to 12:1 ), it may be expressed as a %
• Blast rate. It is vary from 70-125 m3/m2 of cupola plan area per min
at 0°C and 760 mm pressure of mercury.
• Coke size and quality

Coke size and quality
• 50mm for charge and 120 for coke bed for cupola under 900mm
diameter
• 75mm for charge and 150 for coke bed for cupola of 900mm and
above in diameter
• Requirements of coke (specifications include porosity 35-45%,
Volatile matter 0.5- 2%, Max. Ash content 28%, shatter index over
75mm 28-35% by weight and over 50mm 70-80% by weight), S 0.1-
1%, P 0.1- 0.3%)

How to judge cupola performance

How to judge cupola performance
1. Maximum temperature of melt (1300-1550°C)
2. Melting rate (5-12 ton/m2 plain area of cupola/hour)
3. Combustion ratio CO2/(CO2+ CO)x100 (45-90%)
4. Thermal efficiency (% of total heat input absorbed by metal and
slag 28-45%)

End

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Crucible Furnaces

Prof. Dr. Eng. G. M. Attia Casting Eng. 1

Prof. Dr. Eng. G. M. Attia Casting Eng. 2

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Ccoke + O2 = CO2 (the sum of two

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Only coke and iron and slag drops (no scrap)

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