Foundations of

Abstract Mathematics
Introduction to Mathematical Logic & Set Theory
Volume 1

AUREA Z. ROSAL
ii

Preface
Mathematics can not live on computations alone, but by every rule that
proceeds out of the concepts of logic and set theory.

Excuse the lame imitation to a famous Biblical verse, but the author be-
lieves that the above is true.

Without set theory, it is impossible to work with any mathematical theory.

Without mathematical logic, it is impossible to talk about mathematics.

It is with these in mind that the author, in her first attempt in writing a
book, has deemed it necessary to start where the beginning should be.
This work is an introductory book to the concepts of mathematical logic
and set theory. It is designed to be a textbook to a one semester course in,
you guessed it right, mathematical logic and set theory. A good command of
the English language as well as a little a mathematical maturity are to the
user’s advantage but not necessity. Students are also advised to somehow
“forget” about common sense and instead stick to the definitions and rules
of reasoning given in the book.

Do enjoy reading and using the book, and feel free to contact the author in
any comments you want to give or any errors you have noticed.

a.z.rosal
azrosal@yahoo.com
Contents

1 Communication in Mathematics 1

2 Logic 5
2.1 Proposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Negation and Compound Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.1 Negation, Disjunction, Conjunction . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.2 Conditional and Biconditional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.3 Truth Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Tautologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.1 Propositional Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4 Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.4.1 Direct Method of Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4.2 Indirect Method of Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.4.3 Some Challenging Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3 Sets 39
3.1 Roster and Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2 Set Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2.1 Null set, Universal set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2.2 Equal Sets, Subset, Superset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2.3 Power Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3 Set Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3.1 Complementation, Union, Intersection, Difference, Sym-
metric Difference, Cartesian Product . . . . . . . . . . . 46

iii
iv CONTENTS
Chapter 1

Communication in
Mathematics

Mathematics, like love and poetry are discussed in sentences. This may not
be obvious to a lot of people, as many mathematical sentences are presented
in a format far different from what most are accustomed to. For example,

A∩B =φ (1)
2
3x − 2x + 3 = 0 (2)

may not seem like sentences to some, but indeed they both are. Sentence
(1) is read:

“The intersection of sets A and B is empty.”

While sentence (2) is read:

“The sum of 3x2 , −2x and 3 is 0.”

Sentences are used in order to communicate. We can communicate best

when the people involved in the process understand the meaning of the sen-
tences uttered.

One of the aims of this book is to be able to teach mathematics students

how to communicate to each other as well as to others using sentences not
only in the language by which one is born, but to the language that is not
only beautiful, it is almost perfect. This language is the mathematical lan-
guage.

1
2 CHAPTER 1. COMMUNICATION IN MATHEMATICS

We shall assume that the readers know what a sentence or a statement is,
and the difference between the adjectives true and false. Also, our concern
will be declarative sentences that are either true or false (but not simulta-
neously both).

The meaning of a word is either given formally using other terms already
known to us, by experiencing examples of its use or by sensing the common
properties of the examples.

Formal definitions are usually found in dictionaries. However, since there

are only a limited number of terms that man has generated, trying to define
each and every term that is used in any sentence may lead us to an endless
loop.

For example, if we try to define a set formally as: “A set is a well-defined

collection of objects.”, there might be a need to define the term “collection”.
We might probably define a collection in terms of “aggregate”. This process
may go on a cycle, ending up again with the term “set”.

Since mathematics has to begin somewhere (or else, this discussion may
not see its end), mathematicians have agreed to accept the existence of
mathematical terms even without the benefit of a formal definition, or if
they are just intuitively defined. They are known as the “undefined terms”.
Some of these terms are: points, line, set, collection, element, belonging.

After intuitively defining some terms, we next proceed to formally defin-

ing some of our terms. These terms are introduced through formal defi-
nitions. Set operations such as union and intersection will be formally
defined later.

Distinguishing between what is true and what is not, is essential in the

study of mathematics. Thus, it is important that we lay the ground rules
before proceeding with any work we want done. These ground rules are
known as axioms or postulates ( in other books they are sometimes called
properties). An axiom is a statement which is accepted to be always true
without the benefit of a proof. The statement that states: “The sum of any
two real number is again a real number”, is what you call the closure axiom
for addition of real numbers.
 3

There are statements though which are accepted as true only after a
proof has been given to establish its validity. These statements are known
as theorems. A proof is a chain of statements leading implicity or ex-
plicitly from the axioms, definitions or previously proven theorems, to the
statement under consideration, convincing us to agree that the given state-
ment is in fact true. The method by which a proof is established follows the
rules of logic, either inductively or deductively.

These rules, together with the foundations of set theory, will be discussed
in this course.
4 CHAPTER 1. COMMUNICATION IN MATHEMATICS
Chapter 2

Logic

Logic is the study of the methods and principles used to distinguish good (or
correct) from bad (or incorrect) reasoning. Logic focuses on the relationship
among statements rather than to the content of just one statement. Consider
the following:

If a number is prime, then every man loves to eat broccoli.

If every man loves to eat broccoli, then the moon is made of cheese.
A number is prime. Hence the moon is made of cheese.

In the above set of statements, common sense would tell us that the
above argument can not be true. But if the first two statements are assumed
to be true, logic assures us that the statement

”The moon is made of cheese.”

is a logical consequence of the previous statements.

Logical statements may not make (common) sense. Most of the time,
people tend to confuse common sense with logic. In the study of logic, it is
advised that one has to somewhat “leave” common sense behind and focus
on the rules of reasoning instead.

We shall now proceed to laying the foundations of logic.

5
6 CHAPTER 2. LOGIC

2.1 Proposition
As what we have discussed in Chapter 1, we shall focus on declarative sen-
tences which may be determined to be either true or false (but not simulta-
neously both). Consider the following sentences.

1. The sun rises in the east every night.

2. Go to Cebu via Air Pacific.

3. Five is an even integer.

4. Zero is composite.

5. 3x − 4 = 0

6. Are you with us?

7. There exists an x ∈ R such that x2 + 1 = 0.

8. If the waves are rough then the dogs are barking.

9. I am bored!

10. There is life in planet Mars.

Sentence (1.) is a declarative sentence which is always true, while (3)

and (4) are false declarative sentences. Sentence (5.) is declarative but can
not be determined if true or false since x is not known. However, (2.) is
not a declarative sentence since it is a command. Likewise, it is impossible
to determine whether (6) is true or not since it is a question. (7.) is false
for any x ∈ R, while (8.) is false only if the waves are rough but the dogs
are not barking. Statement (9.) is not declarative but exclamatory. Finally,
(10.) is a declarative sentence, which is either true only or false only .

Definition 2.1.1. A declarative sentence or statement that can be deter-

mined to be either true or false, but not both at the same time, is called a
proposition.

To every proposition is assigned a truth value. A true proposition has a

truth value “True” and a false proposition has truth value “False”. Some-
times, the symbols T or 1 are used for true propositions and F or 0 are
assigned to false propositions.
2.1. PROPOSITION 7

In the above example, (1.), (3.), (4.), (7.) and (8.) are propositions. Al-
though, (8.) seems a bit odd and may not seem to be common sensical.
However, after studying the rules of logic, you can rest assure that (8.) in-
deed is a logical statement. Sentence (10.) is a proposition since it is a
declarative sentence, and although existence of life in Mars is still a contro-
versial issue, we can say that either it is true or false but not both.

Typically, to denote a proposition, we shall use lower case letters such

as p, q or r. These variables are called propositional variables or sen-
tential variables. When a sequence of letters and/or logical connectives1
are given such that when the variables are replaced by specific sentences, a
proposition is formed, then we call these sequence of symbols as sentential
form of the proposition.

To define a proposition, say p, we usually write: p : <the given statement>.

For instance,

p : The earth has two moons.

q : Seven divides 21.
t : Melissa drives a pink Cadillac.

Consider the following examples and determine which of these proposi-

tions are true, and which are false.

Hb 2.1.1.

1. p: The cat is a mammal.

2. q: Dogs fly.

3. u: The real number 5 is even.

4. r: Today is Monday.
√
5. v: 2 is prime.

6. t: |x| ≥ 0 for any real number x.

7. s: If 4 is prime, then 8 is odd.

1
This will be discussed in the next section
8 CHAPTER 2. LOGIC

Propositions p, t and s are true, while propositions q, u and v are all

false. However, proposition r is true if statement is stated on a Monday, but
false when stated on other days.

The following section will discuss how two or more propositions may be
combined to form another proposition.

Exercises 2.1.1.
Determine which of the following is a proposition. Indicate reason why
or why not.

1. The Earth is the fifth planet from the sun.

2. Buy a new book for your Algebra class.

3. 3x + 6 = 0 if and only if x = −2.

4. The platypus is a marsupial.

5. Are you going to church this Sunday?

6. If x > 5 then x = 3.

7. 5 + 9 = 3

8. Zion and James are brothers.

9. Hello, sister!

10. 10x2 − 4x + 2

11. The University of Sto. Tomas is the oldest school in the Philippines.

12. If the teacher is absent, then the students will celebrate.

13. The new president loves to wear khaki.

14. An unborn child loves the ocean.

15. Every one in the room goes to bed at 8 p.m..

2.2. NEGATION AND COMPOUND STATEMENTS 9

2.2 Negation and Compound Statements

2.2.1 Negation, Disjunction, Conjunction
Definition 2.2.1. Given a proposition p, the statement that says “not p”, is
a proposition known as the negation of p. This proposition is true if and
only if p is false and is denoted by ∼ p.

In other literature, the notations ¬p and p̄ are also used.

Hb 2.2.1. Consider the following:

1. p : 3 − 6 = 5.
∼ p : 3 − 6 6= 5.

2. q : Claudine is the sister of Gretchen.

∼ q : Claudine is not the sister of Gretchen.
Another form of ∼ q may be: “It is not true that Claudine is the sister
of Gretchen.”

3. r : Every real number has a multiplicative inverse.

∼ r : Not every real number has a multiplicative inverse.
Similarly, ∼ r may be stated as: “There exists a real number that has
no multiplicative inverse.”

4. If “w: Today is a Wednesday.” and “v: Today is a Thursday.”, then

v is not the negation of w, as both statements can be both false at some
given time.

Definition 2.2.2. A proposition which can not be broken down further into
two or more smaller sentences is called simple or elementary proposi-
tion.

If p is a simple proposition, then ∼ p is again a simple proposition.

However, simple propositions may be combined using connectives to form
another proposition. We call these propositions as compound proposi-
tions. To form compound propositions we use logical connectives such
as “or” “and ” and “implies”.

Considering the propositions q and r, the statements: “q or r” and “q

and r” are again propositions. These propositions are respectively known
as the disjunction and conjunction of q and r.
10 CHAPTER 2. LOGIC

Definition 2.2.3. Given propositions p and q, the statement “p or q”, is a

proposition known as the disjunction of p and q. This proposition is true
if and only if at least one of p or q is true. The disjunction of p and q is
denoted by p ∨ q. The components p and q are called the disjuncts of the
disjunction.

Hb 2.2.2. Let
p: 3 > 0
q: 7 + 8 = 3
r: Charice will hold a concert in Tutuban Mall.
s: Charice will brush her teeth.
t: The dog is a mammal.
u: The dugong is a mammal.
Then

1. p ∨ q: Either 3 > 0 or 7 + 8 = 3

2. r ∨ s: Charice will either hold a concert in Tutuban Mall or she will

brush her teeth.

A variation would be:

3. r ∨ s: Either Charice will hold a concert in Tutuban Mall or she will

brush her teeth.

4. t ∨ u: Either the dog is a mammal or the dugong is a mammal.

Another way of saying the above disjunction is:

5. t ∨ u: Either the dog or the dugong is a mammal.

6. r ∨ t: Either Charice will hold a concert in Tutban Mall or the dog is

a mammal.

Remarks 2.2.1. 1. p ∨ q is true even if p is true but q is false. The same

is true if p is false but q is true.

2. p ∨ q is true if both p and q is true.

3. p ∨ q is false only when both p and q are false.

2.2. NEGATION AND COMPOUND STATEMENTS 11

Notice that the definition of a disjunction in logic sometimes runs con-

trary to the common “or” statements in regular conversations. For example,
when one says: “Either I am going to church or I am going to the mall.” It
is assumed that if you go to church then you would not go malling. Con-
versely, if you go malling, then you are not attending church. However, by
definition of disjunction, the two acts may be both done.

A variation of the “or” proposition is what is called the “exclusive or ”.

Exclusive or proposition is what we may deem as the ”common sense or”.
Formally,

Definition 2.2.4. If p and q are propositions, the statement “Exclusively p

or q”, is known as exclusive or (exor), denoted by p Y q. This proposition
is true only when exactly one of p or q is true.

Hb 2.2.3.

1. m : A positive integer is either odd or even.

2. n: A person is either male or female.

3. w: Manny Pacquiao will either keep or lose his title in boxing.

4. u: A student either gets a grade of 5 or a grade of 3 or higher in his

enrolled subject.

Note that all of the above statements are exor statements as the elemen-
tary statements that form the compound propositions can happen at the
same time. In general, if p is a proposition, then the proposition p∨ ∼ p is
an exclusive or statement. Furthermore, this proposition is always true for
any proposition p.

Definition 2.2.5. Given propositions p and q, the statement “p and q”, is a

proposition known as the conjunction of p and q. This proposition is true
if and only if p and q are both true. It is denoted by p ∧ q. The components
p and q are called the conjuncts of the conjunction.

Note 2.2.1. If p and q are propositions, then we can see that p ∧ q is false
if at least one of p and q is false.

Hb 2.2.4.

1. p : Zion is watching television.

12 CHAPTER 2. LOGIC

q : Zion is eating pizza.

p ∨ q : Zion is either watching television or eating pizza.

p ∧ q : Zion is watching television and eating pizza.

Alternately, p ∨ q could be:

p ∨ q : Either Zion is watching television or he is eating pizza.

∼ p ∨ q : Either Zion is not watching television, or he is eating

pizza.
∼ (p ∨ q) : It is not true that Zion is either watching television
or eating pizza.

Alternately, ∼ (p ∨ q) : could be:

∼ (p ∨ q) : Neither Zion is watching television nor is he eating
pizza.
∼ (p ∨ q) : Zion is neither watching television nor is he eating
pizza.

2. r : James is doing his homework.

s : James is playing basketball.
r ∨ s : James is either doing his homework or playing basketball.
r ∧ s : James is doing his homework while playing basketball.
Notice that the connective “while” is used instead of “and” to
make the sentence more pleasing to the ear.
Can you give an alternative formulation of r ∨ s?
∼ r ∧ s : James is not doing his homework but is playing basketball.
Note that the word “but” is used instead of “and”
∼ (s∧ ∼ r) : It is not true that James is playing basketball and not
doing his homework.

Remark 2.2.1. A word of caution! The ordinary English language has

no clear translation for grouping of words or phrases written symbolically.
Thus, one has to know where to place commas, or pauses when translating
from symbols to words. If one has to read aloud what he has translated, he
must learn when to make pauses correctly.
2.2. NEGATION AND COMPOUND STATEMENTS 13

As discussed earlier, given a proposition, then its negation is again a

proposition. Thus, the negation of a negation, a disjunction, and a conjunc-
tion are again propositions. How do you think can these be done?

If p is a proposition, then we know that ∼ p is true if and only if p is

false. Consequently ∼ (∼ p) is true if and only if ∼ p is false, i.e., if and only
if p is true. Thus, p and ∼ (∼ p) may be considered as statements which
are equivalent.

Two statements u and v are said to be equivalent or logically equiva-

lent if whenever u is true, it follows that v is also true, and vice versa. Later,
we shall formally define equivalence using more mathematical methods. In
symbols, we write u ⇔ v.
Hb 2.2.5. Let
p : Jonathan is sleeping

q : Jonathan is playing badminton

r : Alec is studying.

t : Alec is taking a bath.

Then
p ∧ r : Jonathan is sleeping while Alec is studying.

q ∨ t : Either Jonathan is playing badminton or Alec is taking a bath.

∼ (r ∨ t) : Alec is neither studying nor is taking a bath.

t∧ ∼ p : Alec is taking a bath and Jonathan is not asleep.

∼ (p ∧ q) : It is not true that Jonathan is sleeping and playing badminton at

the same time.

(p ∨ q) ∧ t : Jonathan is either sleeping or is playing badminton, and Alec is

taking a bath.

p ∨ (q ∧ t) : Either Jonathan is sleeping, or Jonathan is playing badminton

while Alec is taking a bath.
Can you give alternative ways of expressing the above compound state-
ments?
14 CHAPTER 2. LOGIC

Exercises 2.2.1.
I. Give the negation of the following statements.
1. The sun rises in the east.
2. Every mother has a husband.
3. |x − 2| ≥ 3.
4. There exists a rooster that lays eggs.
5. x3 − 8 < 0.
II. Given the following simple propositions, form the compound state-
ments as required.

p: Joy is playing tennis.

q: Joy is eating
r: Lenlen is running.
t: Lenlen is combing her hair.

Form the following compound statements.

(a) p∨q
(b) r∧t
(c) ∼ p∨ ∼ r
(d) p∧ ∼ t
(e) ∼ r∧ ∼ q
(f ) ∼ (r ∧ q)
(g) (p ∧ r) ∨ (q ∧ t)
III. Identify the elementary propositions that formed the following com-
pound propositions. Represent the elementary propositions with vari-
ables. From these variables, give the sentential forms.

1. The set of real numbers is infinite while the set of letters in the
English language is finite.
2. Either the sun revolves around the Earth or it is a made up of
ice.
3. Either Joy or Gina is going to Hong Kong to go shopping.
4. Kangaroos and koala are either marsupials or monotremes.
5. Amie is going to the market to buy fish and pork but not eggs.
6. Jesus is my Savior and He is also my Lord.
2.2. NEGATION AND COMPOUND STATEMENTS 15

2.2.2 Conditional and Biconditional

We usually hear statements such as this:

“If it rains then the streets will be flooded.”

Above is again a proposition of another type. This proposition is an

example of what is known as a conditional proposition.

Definition 2.2.6. Given p and q propositions, the statement “If p then q” is

known as a conditional proposition. p is called the premise, hypothesis
or antecedent, while q is known as the consequent or conclusion. We
denote this statement by : p → q. The conditional proposition is false only
when the premise is true and the conclusion is false.

Hb 2.2.6. Let
√
p: 5 is irrational.

q: 5 is odd.

r: Every real number has an additive inverse.

w: π is an algebraic number.

u: x2 + 3x − 1 = 0 has an integral solution.

Then,

√
1. p → q : If 5 is irrational, then 5 is odd.
√
2. p → w : If 5 is irrational, then π is an algebraic number.

3. ∼ u → r : If x2 + 3x − 1 = 0 has no integral solution, then every real

number has an additive inverse.

4. ∼ w →∼ q : If π is not an algebraic number, then 5 is not odd.

5. ∼ (q → w) : 5 is odd and π is not an algebraic number.

If p → q, then:

q → p is its converse
16 CHAPTER 2. LOGIC

∼ q →∼ p is its contrapositive
∼ p →∼ q is its inverse.

Hb 2.2.7.

a: Nanay will give you your allowance.

b: You will clean your room.
c: Yaya will play with Angelina.
d: Lola will give Yaya apple.

Then:

1. If a → b, then its:

converse is b → a : If you clean your room, then Nanay will give you
your allowance.
contrapositive is ∼ b →∼ a: If you will not clean your room, then
Nanay will not give you your allowance.
inverse is ∼ a →∼ b: If Nanay will not give you your allowance, then
you will not clean your room.

2. If d → c, then, find its

(a) converse
(b) contrapositive
(c) inverse

What about definitions? What kind of statement are definitions? In

mathematics, definition of a term is given, not only to give meaning to
words, but also to avoid any confusion on any discussion involving the term.
To define a term, say p, we give conditions say, g such that an object is p if
that object satisfies g. Conversely, if an object satisfies g, then that object
must be p. Translating above into sentential form, we may say that

(p → g) ∧ (g → p).

Thus, a definition is a conjunction of a conditional statement and its

converse. Notice that the conjunction of two conditional proposition is again
a proposition. Statement of this form is called a biconditional statement.
2.2. NEGATION AND COMPOUND STATEMENTS 17

Definition 2.2.7. If p and q are propositions, the statement, “p if and only

if q” (also written as p iff q) is called a biconditional proposition. It is true
whenever its components p and q have the same truth values. We symbolize
by p ↔ q.
Hb 2.2.8.
Let
a : 3 is odd.

b : 4 is prime.

c : The moon is a star.

d : 8 is a perfect cube.

e : 6 + 9 = 10

f : A whale is a mammal.
Then:

a ↔ b : 3 is odd if and only if 4 is prime.

c ↔ e : The moon is a star if and only if 6 + 9 = 10.

f ↔ d : A whale is a mammal if and only if 8 is a perfect cube.

b ↔ c : 4 is prime if and only if the moon is a star.

f ↔ e : A whale is a mammal if and only if 6 + 9 = 10.

Exercises 2.2.2. Which of the propositions above are true and which are
false? Justify.
As we have said earlier, definitions are conjunction of two conditional
statements. We also said that they are indeed biconditional statements.
How do we show that this is so? We have the following theorem.
Theorem 2.2.1. If p and q are propositions, then the propositions (p →
q) ∧ (q → p) is logically equivalent to p ↔ q.
As of this time, we have not yet developed tools that we may use in order
to prove the above theorem. To remedy this, we now introduce a method of
showing the truth values of compound propositions depending on the truth
values of their component parts.
18 CHAPTER 2. LOGIC

2.2.3 Truth Tables

It may not be easy to determine the truth value of a compound proposition,
specially when it is composed of more than two simple propositions. An
easy way to determine when a compound proposition is true and when it is
false is by use of a table known as a truth table.

The following are the basic truth tables of the sentential forms we have
discussed earlier.

Table 2.1: ∼ p
p ∼p
1 0
0 1

If p and q are elementary propositions, then

Table 2.2: p ∨ q
p q p∨q
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0

Table 2.3: p ∧ q
p q p∧q
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0

Table 2.4 proves Theorem 2.2.1. From the table, we could see that
(p → q) ∧ (q → p) ⇔ (p ↔ q) since their truth values agree relative to the
truth values of p and q. Hence, we could say that one can replace the other
when the need arises.

Truth tables may be used to list all possible truth values of any conpound
proposition, although the table might be big for compound propotions that
2.2. NEGATION AND COMPOUND STATEMENTS 19

Table 2.4: [(p → q) ∧ (q → p)] ⇔ (p ↔ q)

p q p → q q → p p → q) ∧ (q → p) p ↔ q
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 1

tmay contain 3 or more simple propositions. Suppose there are n distinct el-
ementary propositions that consists the compound proposition. How many
rows and combinations of 1’s and 0’s will there be in the table? Since there
are two choices of truth value for each elementary proposition, then there are
2n possible rows for the truth value of the compound proposition. There will
be a total of 2n−1 1’s and 0’s for each column of the elementary propositions.

Hb 2.2.9. Let p, q and r be elementary propositions. then the truth table of

(p → q) ∧ (q → r) will have 23 = 8 rows, and each column of the elementary
propositions will have 4 1’s and 4 0’s.

Table 2.5: (p → q) ∧ (q → r)
p q r p→q q→r t
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 1 1

where
t : (p → q) ∧ (q → r)
20 CHAPTER 2. LOGIC

Exercises 2.2.3.
Construct the truth tables for the following compound propositions.
1. (p ∨ q) ∧ r
2. [(u → v) ∧ (u → w)] → (u → (v ∧ w)
3. (u ∨ w)∧ ∼ w
4. ∼ (t ∧ s) ↔ (t∨ ∼ s)
5. [(a ∨ b) ∨ c] ↔ [a ∨ (b ∨ c)]

2.3 Tautologies
A proposition is said to be a tautology iff its sentential form always gen-
erates a true truth value. On the other hand, a proposition whose senten-
tial form always generates a false truth value is called a contradiction.
A proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is known as a
contingency . A tautology is sometimes symbolized by t and a contincengy
by c. A conditional statement which is a tautology is called an implica-
tion, while a biconditional that is a tautology is a called an equivalence.
An implication is denoted by “⇒”while an equivalence is denoted by “⇐⇒”.
If p ⇐⇒ q, then we say that p and q are equivalent. Notice that the defini-
tion equivalence above is consistent with our new definition.

The proposition,
“The sun is hot.”
is a true proposition but not a tautology. This is so since its sentential form
p can take the truth values True or False. Thus, a tautology should not be
mistaken for a true proposition.

The statement
“If it is given that, if 10 is prime then 12 is odd, and if 12 is
odd, then 5 is irrational, thus, if 10 is prime then 5 is irrational.”
is a tautology, even if none of the elementary propositions above is true. To
prove that above is a tautology, we represent each elementary proposition by
propositional variable and form the sentential form. Next, we construct the
truth table in order to determine the possible truth values of the sentential
form.
2.3. TAUTOLOGIES 21

p : 10 is prime.

o : 12 is odd.

i : 5 is irrational.

Sentential form is [(p → o) ∧ (o → i)] → (p → i). The truth table is given

below.

Table 2.6: [(p → 0) ∧ (o → i)] → (p → i)

p o i p→o o→i s t u
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1

where:

s : (p → o) ∧ (o → i)
t:p→i
u:s→t

This time, let us take a look at another statement.

“If 8 is even then 49 is a multiple of 7, and 8 is even but 49 is not a

multiple of 7.”

If we let,

e : 8 is even.

m : 49 is a multiple of 7.

Then statement can be written as, (e → m) ∧ (e∧ ∼ m). The truth table
of the sentential form is seen below.
Observe that the last column of Table 2.7 consists of all 0’s. Thus,
22 CHAPTER 2. LOGIC

Table 2.7: (e → m) ∧ (e∧ ∼ m)

e m ∼ m e → m e∧ ∼ m (e→ m) ∧ (e∧ ∼ m)
1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0

(e → m) ∧ (e∧ ∼ m)
is a contradiction.

The statement, “If 9 divides 81 then the dog is a mammal.” is a true

proposition which is neither a tautology nor a contradiction. Thus, this
statement is a contingency.
Exercises 2.3.1.

I. Construct the truth tables of the following.

1. (p → w) ∨ s
2. ∼ p ∨ q
3. [(j → z) ∧ (∼ z)] →∼ j
4. u ∧ (v ∨ w)
5. (u ∧ v) ∨ (u ∧ w)

II. Identify which of the following statements is a tautology, a contradic-

tion or a contingency using truth tables.

1. [∼ (p ∨ q)] ↔ (∼ p∧ ∼ q)
2. [(p ∨ q)∧ ∼ p] → q
3. (∼ p ∨ q) ∧ (p∧ ∼ q)
4. [(f → g) ∧ (f → h)] → (f → (g ∧ h))
5. (w∨ ∼ r) ∧ (∼ w ∨ r)

III. Prove the following.

1. p∨ ∼ p is a tautology. This is known as the Law of the Ex-

cluded Middle.
2.3. TAUTOLOGIES 23

2. p∧ ∼ p is a contradiction.
3. [(a → b) ∧ a] ⇒ b. This is known as the Modus Ponens.
4. [(a → b)∧ ∼ b]⇒∼ a. This is known as the Modus Tollens.
5. [(m ∨ n)∧ ∼ m] ⇒ n. This is known as the Disjunctive Syllo-
gism.

2.3.1 Propositional Calculus

The following theorems are the basic tautologies that may be proved using
truth table. These laws will serve as a foundation for proving most of the
mathematical properties.

The following theorems are what we call the Rules of Replacement.

They are so called because propositions on any side of the equivalence symbol
may be replaced for the other.

Theorem 2.3.1. If p is a proposition, then

1. Law of excluded middle (p∨ ∼ p) ⇐⇒ 1

2. Negation of LEM (p∧ ∼ p) ⇐⇒ 0
3. Law of double negation ∼ (∼ p) ⇐⇒ p
4. Idempotent laws p ∨ p ⇐⇒ p
p ∧ p ⇐⇒ p
5. Identity laws (p ∨ 0) ⇐⇒ p
(p ∧ 1) ⇐⇒ p
(p ∨ 1) ⇐⇒ 1
(p ∧ 0) ⇐⇒ 0
Hb 2.3.1.

1. The statement, “It is not true that the sun is not hot.”is equivalent to
saying “The sun is hot.”

2. The statement, “Either an nth degree polynomial has n roots or 5 is

even.”is true, but not a tautology. Why is this so?

3. The statement, “An nth degree polynomial has n roots and 5 is even.”is
a contingency.

4. An integer is either odd or even.

5. A real number can not be both rational and irrational.

 24 CHAPTER 2. LOGIC

6. The statement, “Either I am hungry or I am hungry.”may be simplified

into “I am hungry.”

7. The statement “The moon is round and 10 is both even and odd.” is
a contradiction.

De Morgan’s law was Theorem 2.3.2. If p, q and r are propositions, then

formulated by Augustus 1. p⇒p
De Morgan (1806-1871), a 2. Commutative laws (p ∨ q) ⇐⇒ (q ∨ p)
British mathematician and (p ∧ q) ⇐⇒ (q ∧ p)
logician. He also introduced
3. Associative laws [(p ∨ q) ∨ r)] ⇐⇒ [p ∨ (q ∨ r)]
the term mathematical
induction. [(p ∧ q) ∧ r)] ⇐⇒ [p ∧ (q ∧ r)]
4. Distributive laws (p ∨ (q ∧ r)) ⇐⇒ [(p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r)]
(p ∧ (q ∨ r)) ⇐⇒ [(p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r)]
5. De Morgan’s laws ∼ (p ∨ q) ⇐⇒ (∼ p∧ ∼ q)
∼ (p ∧ q) ⇐⇒ (∼ p∨ ∼ q)
Hb 2.3.2.

1. Statements, “The dog is either a mammal or a fish. ”and “The dog is

either a fish or a mammal. ”are equivalent.
√ √ √ √
2. 5 and 7 ∈ R ⇐⇒ 7 and 5 ∈ R.

3. If the moon is round, then the moon is round.

4. 97 is both prime and rational. Consequently, 97 is both rational and

prime.

5. The statement: “Either 6 is even and rational or it is odd.”, is equiv-

alent to, “6 is either rational or odd.”
2.3. TAUTOLOGIES 25

Theorem 2.3.3. If p, q and r are propositions and 0 is a contradiction, then

1. Equivalence laws (p ↔ q) ⇐⇒ ((p → q) ∧ (q → p))

2. Implication laws
3. Contrapositive
4. Reductio ad absurdum
5.
6. Exportation law
(p ↔ q) ⇐⇒ ((p ∧ q) ∨ (∼ p∧ ∼ q))
(p ↔ q) ⇐⇒ ((∼ p →∼ q) ∧ (∼ q →∼ p))
(p → q) ⇐⇒ (∼ p ∨ q)
∼ (p → q) ⇐⇒ (p∧ ∼ q)
(p → q) ⇐⇒ (∼ q →∼ p)
(p → q) ⇐⇒ [(p∧ ∼ q) → 0
[(p → r) ∨ (q → r)] ⇐⇒ ((p ∨ q) → r)
[(p → r) ∧ (p → q)] ⇐⇒ ((p → (q ∧ r)
[(p ∧ q) → r] ⇐⇒ (p → (q → r))

The above theorem completes our rules of replacement. The next set
of theorems will give us the Rules of Inference. Rules of inference are
implication laws. In these laws, propositions to the left of the implication
symbol are sufficient conditions for the propositions on the right. The propo-
sitions to the right of the implication symbol is called necessary conditions
for propositions on the left.

Theorem 2.3.4. If p and q are propositions, then

1. Law of addition p =⇒ (p ∨ q)
2. Law of simplification (p ∧ q) =⇒ p
3. Modus ponens ((p → q) ∧ p) =⇒ q
4. Modus tollens ((p → q)∧ ∼ q) =⇒∼ p
5. Hypothetical syllogism ((p → q) ∧ (q → r)) =⇒ (p → r)
6. Disjunctive syllogism ((p ∨ q)∧ ∼ p) =⇒ q
7. Absurdity (p → 0) =⇒∼ p
8. [(p → r) ∧ (q → s)] =⇒ [(p ∨ q) → (r ∨ s)]
9. (p → q) =⇒ [(p ∨ r) → (q ∨ r)]
10. (0 → p) =⇒ 1
11. (p → 1) =⇒ 1

Hb 2.3.3.

1. It is by the law of addition that the statement: “Since a triangle has

exactly three sides, then it has at least three sides.” is true.

2. “If 8 is a perfect cube and transcendental, then 8 is transcendental.”

is true by the law of simplification.
26 CHAPTER 2. LOGIC

3. “Either the Seven Dwarfs have taken growth pills or Snow White has
eaten a spoiled apple. Snow White did not eat a spoiled apple. Hence,
the Seven Dwarfs have taken growth pills.” is logically true.

4. The following is also true: “If π is rational, then snakes could fly.”
√
5. This is also true: “If 10 is imaginary then the kangaroo is a marsu-
pial.”
2.3. TAUTOLOGIES 27

Exercises 2.3.2.

I. Using the tautologies given in the section, prove or justify why the
following are tautologies. Assume that p, q and r are propositions.

1. (p∧ ∼ q) →∼ q
2. ((∼ p ∨ q) ∧ p) → q
3. (p ∨ q) ↔ (∼ p → q)
4. (p ∨ q) ↔ (∼ q → p)
5. (p ∨ (q∧ ∼ p)) ↔ (p ∨ q)
6. (p → (q ∨ r)) ↔ ((p → q) ∨ r)
7. (p ↔ q) → (p → q)
8. ((p ∨ q) → r) → (p → r)
9. (p∧ ∼ p) → p
10. (p∧ ∼ p) → q

II. Identify whether the following propositions are tautologies, contradic-

tions or contingencies using propositional calculus.

1. (∼ p ∧ q) → (∼ q ∨ p)
2. (p → (q ∨ r)) → ((p → q) ∨ r)
3. (p ∧ q) ↔ q
4. ((p ∧ q) → r) → (p → r) (q∨ ∼ q) → (q∧ ∼ q)

III. Which of the following propositions are tautologies and which are not?
Justify your answers.

1. Two is the only even prime integer.

2. If 11 is a perfect square and even, then it is even.
3. If the sun rises in the east everyday, then the revolves around the
Earth.
4. If either 6 is a perfect number or 8 is odd then if 8 is even it
follows that 6 is a perfect number.
5. The fish are biting and the cats are sleeping if and only if the cats
are not awake but the fish are biting.
28 CHAPTER 2. LOGIC

2.4 Arguments
We always hear people argue on certain things and more often than not,
nobody wins. This is so since the arguers do not meet on the same level. In
logic, how does one define an argument and how do we win an argument?

An argument is a conditional proposition of the form

(p1 ∧ p2 ∧ · · · ∧ pk ) −→ q

where p1 , p2 , . . . , pk , and q are propositions. We call p1 , p2 , . . . , pk , as the

premises or hypotheses and q as the conclusion. An argument is valid,
if it is a tautology, that is, if it is an implication. If the argument is valid,
then we say that the conclusion follows logically from the premises, or it
is a logical consequence of the premises. A valid argument is also called
a theorem. Notice from definition of a conditional statement that the only
chance that an argument is invalid is when the premises are all true but the
conclusion is false. Thus, if all the premises are true, then conclusion must
also be true for the argument to be valid. If at least one of the premises is
false, then conclusion may be either true or false and the argument will still
be valid. In mathematics, theorems always have true premises.

Arguments may also be written vertically as follows

p1
p2
..
.
pk
q

Every theorem under the rules of inference is a valid argument and may
be written vertically too.

Modus Ponens Modus Tollens

p→q p→q
p ∼q
q ∼p
2.4. ARGUMENTS 29

Disjunctive Syllogism Hypothetical Syllogism

p∨q p→q
∼p q→r
q p→r

Conjunction
p
q
p∧q

How do we win an argument then? To win an argument means to

prove the validity of the argument (under the assumption that the arguers
are logical and not emotional). How do we show then the validity of an
argument? One option is by truth table. However, we have shown that the
number of rows of a truth table is equal to 2k where k is the number of
elementary propositions. Thus, if an argument has more than 3 elementary
propositions, then the truth table would be very large. A a much simpler
way of testing for validity is demonstrated below.

Test for Validity

Let u : (p1 ∧ p2 ∧ . . . ∧ pk ) −→ q be an argument. Then u is false if

and only if every pi is true for all i but q is false. Hence, if we assume
the conclusion q to be false, we can show that the argument is not valid or
invalid if we can find an instance when all the premises p0i s are true. This
instance is called a counterexample. If it is impossible for such an instance
to exist, then we say that our argument is valid.

Hb 2.4.1. Is the following argument valid?

p ∨ (q → r)
q∨r
r→p
p

Since p is the conclusion, we assume it to be false. Thus, every proposi-

tion p in the argument is assumed false. Since we want the premise r → p
to be true, and since p is false, then r must be false. For the premise q ∨ r
to be true, q must be true. Since q is true and r is false, then q → r is false.
30 CHAPTER 2. LOGIC

Thus, the premise p ∨ (q → r) is false. Notice that the above assignment of

truth values is the only possible one under the assumption that the conclu-
sion is false. Consequently, we have shown that if p is false, then one of the
hypothesis will also be false and therefore the conditional statement is true
and the argument is valid.

Hb 2.4.2. What about this one?

p → (q → r)
q∨r
r→p
p

Following the same procedure as in the above example, we could see

that all the premises will become true if p is false, q is true and r is false.
Thus, the conditional statement is false and the argument is invalid. This
combination of truth values for the given propositions is a counterexample
to show the invalidity of the above argument.

Having tested an argument for validity, we then prove its validity using
any of the two methods: direct or indirect.

2.4.1 Direct Method of Proof

The direct method of proof may be done using the following principle.
2.4. ARGUMENTS 31

Principle of Demonstration2

To prove that (p1 ∧ p2 ∧ · · · ∧ pk ) −→ q is valid, a finite sequence of

propositions s1 , s2 , . . . sn is demonstrated, where sn is q and for each si ,
1 ≤ i < n at least one of the following is satisfied,

1. si is one of the premises

2. si a tautology

3. si a logical consequence of the previous propositions in the sequence.

The demonstration is usually written in tabular form although not nec-

essarily. The above method gives us a way of showing a formal proof of
validity for valid arguments. Let us consider some examples.

Hb 2.4.3.

1. Prove [(p → q) ∧ (r →∼ q)] =⇒ (p →∼ r)

p→q
r →∼ q
p →∼ r

Proof:
Step Proposition Reason
1. p→q Given
2. r →∼ q Given
3. ∼ (∼ q) →∼ r 2., Contrapositive
4. q→∼ r 3., Double negation
5. p→∼ r 1. and 4., Hypothetical syllogism

2. Prove ([(u ∨ v) →∼ r] ∧ u) =⇒∼ r

(u ∨ v) →∼ r
u
∼r
2
Kurtz, David C., Foundations of Abstract Mathematics, 1992, Mc Graw Hill-
Singapore
32 CHAPTER 2. LOGIC

Proof:
Step Proposition Reason
1. (u ∨ v) →∼ r Given
2. u Given
3. u∨v 2., Law of addition
4. ∼r 1. and 2, Modus ponens

3. Prove [(p ∨ q) ∧ (p → r) ∧ (q → r)] =⇒ r. (Exercise)

Exercises 2.4.1.

I. Test the validity of each of the following arguments. Construct a for-

mal proof of validity for the valid arguments using the principle of
demonstration. Write arguments in vertical form. For invalid argu-
ments, give a counterexample.

1. Constructive dilemma. [(p → q) ∧ (r → s) ∧ (p ∨ r)] =⇒ (q ∨ s))

2. Absorption. (p → q) =⇒ (p → (p ∧ q))
3. [(a → b) ∧ (c → d)] =⇒ (b∧ ∼ c)
4. [(p → (q → r)) ∧ (q ∨ r) ∧ (∼ p)] =⇒ (∼ r)
5. [r ∧ (r → u) ∧ (u →∼ w] =⇒ (∼ w)
6. [(w → x) ∧ ((w → y) → (z ∨ x)) ∧ ((w ∧ x) → y)∧ ∼ z] =⇒ x
7. [(i → j) ∧ (j → k) ∧ (l → m) ∧ (i ∨ l)] =⇒ (k ∨ m)
8. [((x ∨ y) → (x ∧ y))∧ ∼ (x ∨ y)] =⇒∼ (x ∧ y)
9. [(u ∨ w) ∧ (∼ u ∧ s) ∧ (s → w)] =⇒ s
10.

(∼ g ∨ f ) → (a → b)

∼g∧h

(d∧ ∼ g) → (b → d)

g∨d

a→d
2.4. ARGUMENTS 33

11.

a→b

f→ d

a∧e

∼d

g∨d

b∧ ∼ f
12. p =⇒ (q∨ ∼ q)

II. Write the following arguments into sentential forms. Identify well your
variables and prove or disprove the arguments.

1. The store is open every day except Sunday. Parking is free on

Saturday and Sunday. Therefore parking is free and the store is
open on Saturday.
2. If Allan goes to Farmtown then he will harvest the fields of Dora.
It is not true that either the fields of Dora is harvested or Cor-
rie has planted peppers. Either Allan goes to Farmtown or Ben
plowed Dora’s field. Hence Ben plowed Dora’s field.
3. If the group is either finite or cyclic then it has an element of finite
order. If the group is of order 10, then it contains an element of
order 5. If the group is not cyclic, then it is of order 10. The
group is abelian but not of order 5. Hence, it has an element of
finite order.
4. If a matrix is diagonal, then it is symmetric. It is not true that
either the matrix is symmetric or it is invertible. The matrix is
either diagonal or upper triangular. Therefore the matrix is upper
triangular.
5. If Patrice is pretty then Queenie is tall. If Queenie is tall, then
neither Patrice is pretty nor Rochie is cute. Patrice is pretty,
then gasoline prices are up.
6. If albert is either fishing or biking, then it is not raining. Albert
is either fishing or cooking barbecue. However, he decided not to
34 CHAPTER 2. LOGIC

cook barbecue. Hence it is not true that either it is raining or

Albert is cooking barbecue.

2.4.2 Indirect Method of Proof

Sometimes, it is not easy to prove a valid argument using the direct method
of proof. As we have seen in the previous section, a valid argument may be
proven by assuming that all the premises are true and try to arrive at the
conclusion using the principle of demonstration. However, there are cases
where this method may be not so easy to do or an alternative method of
proof may be much simpler to perform. One such method is the indirect
method of proof . First, let us recall two of the laws previously discussed,

Contrapositive law. (p → q) ⇐⇒ (∼ q →∼ p)

Reductio ad absurdum. (p → q) ⇐⇒ ((p∧ ∼ q) → C)

where C is a contradiction.

By the contrapositive law, we could see that a conditional statement

may be proven to be true, if its contrapositive is shown to be likewise. In
reductio ad absurdum, if we assume the conclusion to be false while main-
taining that the hypothesis is true, and arrive at a contradiction, then the
conditional statement is true. These two methods are very much in used in
proving a lot of theorems.

To use the contrapositive law, we revise the principle of demonstration a

little bit. In the sequence s1 , s2 , . . . , sk , of the principle, the first statement
s1 will be the negation of the conclusion and the last statement sk will
be the negation of the hypothesis. Other conditions of the principle will
be maintained. If there are more than premise in the hypothesis, then a
negation of one of the premises will be sufficient as this will already negate
the whole hypothesis.
To use the reductio ad absurdum, we again revise the principle of demon-
stration. In the sequence s1 , s2 , . . . , sk , of the principle, the first statement
s1 will be the negation of the conclusion and the last statement sk will be a
contradiction. Other conditions of the principle will apply.

Hb 2.4.4.

1.
Prove:
2.4. ARGUMENTS 35

p ∨ (q → r)
q∨r
r→p
p

We have tested this argument for validity. We now use reductio ad

absurdum.

Proof:

Step Proposition Reason

1. ∼p Negation of conclusion
2. p ∨ (q → r) Given
3. q→r 2., Disjunctive syllogism
4. r→p Given
5. ∼r 1., and 4., Modus tollens
6. q∨r Given
7. q 5., and 6., Disjunctive syllogism
8. r 3., and 7., Modus ponens
9. r∧ ∼ r 8., and 5., Conjunction
10. C 9., Negation of the
Law of excluded middle

2.
Prove:

n→k
(n ∧ p) → k

It is easy to show that the above argument is valid. We now use the
contrapositive law.

Proof:
36 CHAPTER 2. LOGIC

Step Proposition Reason

1. (n ∧ p)∧ ∼ k Negation of conclusion

2. n ∧ (p∧ ∼ k) 1., Associativity of conjunction
3. n ∧ (∼ k ∧ p) 2., Commutativity of conjunction
4. (n∧ ∼ k) ∧ p 3., Associativity of conjunction
5. n∧ ∼ k 4., Simplification
6. n→k Given
7. (n∧ ∼ k) ⇔∼ (n → k) 5., 6., Negation of conditional

2.4.3 Some Challenging Examples

Sometimes the method we studied for testing for validity may not be too
easy to use for certain problems. Let us consider the following arguments.

Hb 2.4.5.

1. If 8 is irrational, then it is odd. If 8 is rational, then it is prime. Eight

is neither odd nor prime. Then 8 is imaginary.

2. If the function is even then a group is either cylic or not.

 2.4. ARGUMENTS 37

The sentential form of the first argument could be

i→d
∼i→p
∼ d∧ ∼ p
m

The conclusion in the first argument does not involve any of the elemen-
tary propositions in the hypothesis. Thus, assigning any truth value to the
conclusion may not seem to have any effect on the premises, and the usual
test of validity may not be useful. This may not be apparent at first, but we
may still assign truth values to the premises to test validity of the argument.
Bear in mind that if the hypothesis is false, regardless of the truth value of
the conclusion, the argument is still true. We take some cases.

Case 1. If ∼ d∧ ∼ p is true, then both d and p are false. If i → d is also true,

then i must be false. Consequently, ∼ i → p is false. This makes the
hypothesis false and the argument valid.

Case 2. If i → d is true, and d is true, then i can be anything. If we assume i

to be true, then ∼ i is false. Thus, p may be assigned the value true
if we want the premise ∼ i → p to be true. Consequently, ∼ d∧ ∼ p is
false. Again, this will make our hypothesis false and the argument is
valid.

Case 3. If i → d is true, and d is false, then i is false. Thus, ∼ i is true and

p must be true to make the premise ∼ i → p true. If p is true, then
∼ d∧ ∼ p is false. Hence the hypothesis is false and again, we have
shown the argument to be valid.

Any attempt to assign truth values to the elementary propositions in the

hypothesis will lead to any of the premises to be false. Hence, the argument
will always be valid, regardless of what truth value may be assigned to the
conclusion. In this case, we say that there is inconsistency since some of
the premises contradict each other.
38 CHAPTER 2. LOGIC

The second argument may be represented by the sentential form:

f
c∨ ∼ c

Again, the conclusion may not seem to have anything to do with the
premise. However, since the conclusion is always true by the law of ex-
cluded middle, then any hypothesis may preceed it. Thus, the argument is
valid.

It would be a challenge to prove the above arguments. So, relax!

Exercises 2.4.2.

True or False.

1. An argument p → q is valid if we can find an instance when q is

false and p is true.
2. Every argument is a tautology.
3. Every true proposition can be proven to be true.
4. The proposition (p ∨ q) → p is a tautology.
5. In an argument, if a conclusion is a tautology, then the conclusion
must be a tautology.
6. In an argument, if the premise is a tautology and the argument
is a tautology, then the conclusion is a tautology.
7. If the argument is valid and the premise is false, then the conclu-
sion is always true.
8. There are two methods of proving arguments: reductio ad absur-
dum and contrapositive.
9. (p1 ∧ p2 ∧ . . . ∧ pk ) ⇒ pk .
10. An argument may be tested to be valid even if the argument is
not.
Chapter 3

Sets

In Chapter 1, it was said that one of the undefined terms in mathematics is

the word ”set”. Intuitively, a set is a a well-defined collection or aggregate
of objects known as elements. By well-defined, it means that an object
can be explicitly determined whether or not it belongs to a given set. For
instance, when one talks of the set of countries found in North America, one
can easily say that the Philippines is not in the set, but the U. S. A. is in it.

Sets are usually represented by upper case letters, such as: A, B, C, Γ,

Ω, while the elements are represented by lower case letters such as: x, y, a,
σ, β. The statement:

x∈Γ

is read: “The object (element) x belongs to (is an element of) the set Γ”.
If for example, Γ is the set of letters in the word “conclusion”, then x may
be any of the letters, c, o, n, l, u, s, i.

3.1 Roster and Rule

There are two ways of writing the elements of a given set. These are: roster
or tabular method and rule method.

In the roster method, the names of the elements of the set are listed
down horizontally, in any order, only once and are separated by commas.
This list is now enclosed in braces.

39
40 CHAPTER 3. SETS

Hb 3.1.1.

1. M = {x, y, pencil, 1}

2. Σ = {0, a, b, 3}

3. Υ = {P roserf ina, Anna, Lawrence, John}

4. Z = {0, 1, −1, 2, −2, . . .}

There are cases though, when it is not possible to enumerate all the
elements of a set, or at least give an idea of what the other elements of the
set are by just listing some of the elements (such as in the case of Z). In
this case, we can use the rule method. Rule method may also be used for
sets with large number of elements, provided the elements have common
conditions that they satisfy.

In the rule method, we use what we call the set builder notation.
This notation looks like:

A = {x|p(x)}

The above may be read as: “The set A of all elements, say, x, such that
the statement P (x) is true.” p(x) is called the defining condition satisfied
by the elements of the set A. Given any object, y, if p(y) holds, then y ∈ A,
otherwise, we say that y is not in A. Essentially, p(x) enables us to decide
whether or not x is in A. Another way of using the rule method is by writing
the conditions without the braces. For example: “D = set of all integers
greater than 3”.

Hb 3.1.2.

1. B = {x ∈ Z|x > 3}

2. N = {(x, y)|x2 + y 2 = 9}

3. Σ=the set of all letters in the word “derivative”.

4. Υ = {w ∈ Z||w| < 5}

Note 3.1.1. The formulation of a defining condition does not automatically

guarantee the existence of a set. The following is a classical example.
3.2. SET RELATIONS 41

In Townsville, there lives a man, a barber named Joe,

who shaves those and only those men in Townsville who
do not shave themselves.
Let q(m) : Joe shaves the man m.

Suppose A = {m|q(m)}. Is A a set?

Ponder on this: Who shaves Barber Joe?

Exercises 3.1.1.
1. List the elements of the following sets:

(a) The set of all letters in the word “committee”.

(b) The set of even prime numbers
(c) The set of all positive divisors of 180.
(d) {r ∈ R|r2 − 3r + 2 = 0}
(e) {q ∈ Q|6q 2 − q = 1}

2. What are the elements of the collection of all dogs that can fly?

3. Express the set {y|y is a vowel in the Filipino alphabet} in roster

method.

4. Express the set {2, 3, 5, 7} using the rule method.

5. Show that this collection is not a set.

A = {S|S is a set and S ∈

/ S}.

This is known as one of Russell’s paradox

3.2 Set Relations

3.2.1 Null set, Universal set
Let N = {x ∈ R||x| < 0}. What can we say about N ? What are its ele-
ments? N is an example of a null set or an empty set. A null or empty
set, as its name implies does not contain anything. However, this is one set
that possesses a property that is uniquely its own. This property shall be
discussed later. The null set is usually represented by: ∅ or {} (the set {∅}
is not null).
42 CHAPTER 3. SETS

There are cases when the elements of the sets being considered at any
given time may belong to a bigger set. For example, the set of all letters
in the word ”Mississippi” and the set of all vowels in the English alphabet
are all elements of the set of English alphabet. Similarly, the elements of
{x ∈ R|x2 − 1 = 0} and {2, 3, 5, 7} are members of the set Z. These bigger
sets are known as universal sets. Intuitively, a universal set is a set of all
elements being considered at any given time. Usually, we denote a universal
set by U. The idea of a universal set is similar to that of universe of discourse
of a given propositional function. Notice that if A = {x ∈ U |p(x)}, then A
is precisely the truth set Tp of p(x).

3.2.2 Equal Sets, Subset, Superset

Consider the sets S and T where S = {1, −1} and T = {x ∈ R||x| = 1}.
What can you say about the elements of A and B?

Definition 3.2.1. Two sets A and B are said to be equal if every element
of A is found in B and every element of B is found in A. We denote this
relation by the A = B and read: ”A is equal to B.”

The sets S and T above are two equal sets.

The null set is equal to any of the following sets:

(a) The set of roosters that lay eggs.

(b) {r ∈ R|r2 + 1 = 0}

(c) The set of babies who are 75 years old.

Remark 3.2.1.
If U 6= ∅ is a universal set and p(x) and q(x) are propositions over U, then
p(x) ⇔ q(x) iff Tp = Tq .
Thus, to show that A = {x|p(x)} and B = {x|q(x)} are equal, we may just
show that p(x) and q(x) are equivalent statements.

The equality relation satisfies the following.

Property 3.2.1. Properties of Equality

If A, B and C are sets, then
3.2. SET RELATIONS 43

(i) Reflexivity: A = A

(ii) Symmetry: If A = B, then B = A.

(iii) Transitivity: If A = B, and B = C, then A = C.

The set of roosters that lay eggs = ∅, and ∅ = {r ∈ R|x2 + 1 = 0}. Thus,
the set of roosters that lay eggs = {r ∈ R|r2 + 1 = 0}.

Hb 3.2.1. Suppose M = {x ∈ R||x| ≤ 5}, N = {x|x ∈ R and x ≤ 3}, and

J = {x|x ∈ R, 3 < x ≤ 5}. Since every element of these sets are found
in R, then R may be considered as the universal set for the sets M , N and
J. Also, we can see that every element in J is also in M . In the above
situation, we say that M , N and J are subsets of R. Similarly, J is a
subset of M .

Formally, we give the following definition:

Definition 3.2.2. Given any sets A and B, if every element of B is again

in A, then we say that B is a subset of A and A is a superset of B.
We symbolize this relation by: ”B ⊆ A”. This relationship is called set
inclusion.

Going back to the above example, we can write: M ⊆ R, N ⊆ R, J ⊆ R

and J ⊆ M . However, N * M since all real numbers less than −5 are in
N but not in M . In general, we can see that a set B * A if ∃x ∈ B s.t. x ∈
/ A.

Remark 3.2.2. Evidently, A = B iff A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.

If B ⊆ A, but B 6= A, then we say that B is a proper subset of A or

B is properly contained in A. In this case, we write B ⊂ A or B ( A.

As promised earlier, we shall now discuss a property that belongs solely

to the null set.

Theorem 3.2.1. ∅ ⊆ A for any set A.

Proof.
Suppose the theorem is not true, that is, ∅ * A for some set A. Then it
follows that there exists an element x of ∅, such that x ∈
/ A. This contradicts
the definition of ∅. Consequently, ∀A, ∅ ⊆ A. –TN –
44 CHAPTER 3. SETS

Corollary 3.2.1. The empty set is unique.

Hb 3.2.2.
Let
U =R
Z = the set of integers
K = {x|x3 = y for some y ∈ R}
J = {w|w = bac for a ∈ R}
M = {q|1/q ∈ Q}
V = {t ∈ Z|1/t ∈ Q+ }

1. J ⊆ Z
2. M ⊆ Q. What is the relationship between M and V ?
3. Z ⊂ K. Why?
4. What can you say about U and K?

Hb 3.2.3.

1. A ⊆ A for all set A, but A ∈

/A
2. Let P be the set of all people in the Philippines, N be the set of all
nations in Asia. Hence, Aurea Z. Rosal ∈ P and P ∈ N . Now, Aurea
Z. Rosal ∈
/ N , therefore, P " N .
3. ∅ ⊂ {∅} as well as ∅ ∈ {∅}.
4. Relative to the example above, let M be the set of all people who lives
in Manila, and K be the set of all people who lives in V. Mapa . Now,
every person who lives in V. Mapa, lives in Manila. Likewise, every
person who lives in Manila, lives in the Philippines. Hence, K ⊂ M
and M ⊂ P . Notice also that every person who lives in V. Mapa
lives in the Philippines. Thus, K ⊂ P . Consequently, the following
sequence of set inclusion is true: K ⊂ M ⊂ P .

Theorem 3.2.2. If A, B and C then:

1. A ⊆ B and B ⊆ if and only if A = B. This property is called anti-

symmetric property.
2. If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C. This property is called transitive
property.
3.2. SET RELATIONS 45

3.2.3 Power Set

The number of elements in a given set A is called is order or cardinality. We
symolize with |A|, n(A) or o(A). The set is finite if there exists a counting
number n = 0, 1, 2, . . . such that |A| = n. Otherwise, we say A is infinite. A
set with only one element is called a singleton.

Definition 3.2.3. If A is a set, then the set of all subsets of A is called the
power set of A. In symbols,

P(A)= {B|B ⊆ A}

Other symbol used is 2A .

Clearly, P(A) 6= ∅ since ∅ ⊆ A for any set A. Also A ⊆ A.

Hb 3.2.4. 1. P(∅) = {∅}

2. Let S = {1, 2}. Then

P(S) = {∅, S, {1}, {2}}

3. Let M = {a, b, c}. Then

P(M ) = {∅, M, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}}

Theorem 3.2.3. If A is a finite set of order n, then |P(A)| = 2n .

Proof.
n
X
Recall the binomial expansion, (a + b)n = n Ci (a
n−i i
b ), where n Ci =
i=0
Pn
n!
(n−i)!i! . For a = b = 1, then (1 + 1)n = (2)n = i=0 n Ci .

Let A be a set. If A = ∅, then |∅| = 0 and P (∅) = {∅}. So, |P (∅)| = 20 = 1.

So theorem is true for |A| = 0. Let |A| = n 6= 0. Then the subsets of A
are of orders 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1, n. Thus, |P (A)| = the sum of the number of
subsets of A for each given order i = 1, 2, P.n. . , n. But nthe number of subsets
of given order i is n Ci . Thus, |P (A)| = i=0 n Ci = 2 .
–TN –
46 CHAPTER 3. SETS

3.3 Set Operations

3.3.1 Complementation, Union, Intersection, Difference, Sym-
metric Difference, Cartesian Product
Given any subsets of some universal set, new sets may be formed using the
operations complementation, union, intersection, difference, sym-
metric difference and cartesian product
Definition 3.3.1. Given any universal set U and subset A, then the com-
plement of A (relative to U) is the set A0 defined as A0 = {x ∈ U|x ∈
/ A}.
Remark 3.3.1. Other notations for A0 are Ac , Ā
It is important that one must consider first the universal set before the
complement of any set may be given.
Hb 3.3.1. Let A = {0, 2, 4, 6, . . .}.

1. If U = N, then A0 = {1, 3, 5, 7, . . .}.

2. If U = Z, then A0 = {1, −1, 3, −2, 5, −3, 7, −4, 9, −5, . . .}

3. If U is any universal set, then U 0 = ∅ and ∅c = U.

Theorem 3.3.1. If p(x) is a proposition over a universal set U, then

T∼p = (Tp )0 .
Proof.
To prove that T∼p = (Tp )0 , we need to show that

T∼p ⊆ (Tp )0 and (Tp )0 ⊆ T∼p .

Let a ∈ T∼p . Then ∼ p(a) is true. Thus, p(a) is false. Consequently,

/ Tp . By definition, a ∈ (Tp )0 . Hence, T∼p ⊆ (Tp )0 .
a∈

Conversely, suppose a ∈ (Tp )0 Then a ∈ / Tp . Thus p(a) is false. Hence,

∼ p(a) is true. Therefore, a ∈ T∼p . Consequently, (Tp )0 ⊆ T∼p .

By Theorem 3.2.2, it follows that T∼p = (Tp )0 .

–TN –

Definition 3.3.2. Let A and B be sets. The union of A and B is the set
A ∪ B = {x|x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.
3.3. SET OPERATIONS 47

Remark 3.3.2. Because of the use of the connective “or”, A ∪ B has three
possibilities. If x ∈ A ∪ B, then

1. x ∈ A but not in B

2. x ∈ B but not in A

3. x ∈ A and x ∈ B.

Can you explain why this is so?

As a consequence, if p(x) and q(x) are propositions over some universe
U, then Tp∨q = Tp ∪ Tq .

Hb 3.3.2.

1. Let A = {w, a, s, h, i, n, g} and B = {c, l, e, a, s, i, n, g}. Then A ∪ B =

{w, a, s, h, i, n, g, c, l, e}.

2. Let D = {x ∈ R | |x − 5| < 7}. Let E = {x ∈ R | x2 − 3x + 2 > 0}.

First let us determine the elements of D and E. From algebra,
D = {x ∈ R| − 2 < x < 12} and E = {x ∈ R|x < 1 or x > 2}
Thus, D ∪ E = R.

3. Let R = {m ∈ Z+ |m divides 24} and T = {n ∈ Z|n is a prime factor

of 36}. Then R ∪ T = R. Can you explain why?

Theorem 3.3.2. Let A, B and C be any sets. Then:

1. A ⊆ A ∪ B.

2. A ∪ ∅ = A

3. If A ⊆ C, then A ∪ C = C

4. A ∪ B = B ∪ A

5. A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C.

Proof.

1. If x ∈ A, then by the law of addition, x ∈ A or x ∈ B. Consequently,

x ∈ A or B. By definition of union, x ∈ A ∪ B. Thus, A ⊆ A ∪ B.
48 CHAPTER 3. SETS

2. We need to show that A ⊆ A ∪ ∅ and A ∪ ∅ ⊆ A.

If x ∈ A ∪ ∅, then either x ∈ A or x ∈ ∅. But x ∈ / ∅, hence, x ∈ A.

Therefore, A ∪ ∅ ⊆ A. Now, from (1.), it follows that A ⊆ A ∪ ∅. Thus,
by Theorem 3.2.2, it follows that A = A ∪ ∅.

3. From (1), C ⊆ A∪C. We need to show that A∪C ⊆ C. Let x ∈ A∪C.

Thus, x ∈ A or x ∈ C. If x ∈ C, then we are done. If x ∈ A, then by
definition, x ∈ C. In any case, if x ∈ A ∪ C, then x ∈ C. Therefore
A ∪ C ⊆ C. Hence, A ∪ C = C.

4. The proof makes use of the definition of union and the commutativity
of disjunction.

5. Exercise

–TN –

Definition 3.3.3. Let A and B be sets. The intersection of A and B is

the set A ∩ B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.

We use the same sets we used in our illustrations of union of sets.

Hb 3.3.3.

1. Let A = {w, a, s, h, i, n, g} and B = {c, l, e, a, s, i, n, g}. Then A ∩ B =

{a, s, i, n, g}.

2. Let D = {x ∈ R | |x − 5| < 7} and E = {x ∈ R | x2 − 3x + 2 > 0}.

From above, D = {x ∈ R| − 2 < x < 12} and E = {x ∈ R|x < 1 or
x > 2}
Thus, D ∩ E = (−2, 1) ∪ (2, 12). Notice that the intersection is a union
of two sets.

3. Let R = {m ∈ Z+ |m divides 24} and T = {n ∈ Z|n is a prime factor

of 36}. Then R ∩ T = T . Can you explain why?

Theorem 3.3.3. Let A, B and C be any sets, then

1. A ∩ B ⊆ A

2. A ∩ B = B ∩ A

3. A ∩ ∅ = ∅
3.3. SET OPERATIONS 49

4. A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C.

5. (A ∩ B) ⊆ (A ∪ B).

6. (Distributive Law)

(a) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
(b) A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

Proof.

1. If x ∈ A ∩ B, then it follows that x ∈ A and x ∈ B. By the law

of simplification, it follow that x ∈ A. Thus, by definition of subset,
A ∩ B ⊆ A.

2. This is immediate from commutativity of conjunction.

3. From (1) A ∩ ∅ ⊆ ∅. But since A ∩ ∅ is a set, then it follows that

∅ ⊆ A ∩ ∅. Hence, A ∩ ∅ = ∅.

4. Exercise

5. Since A ∩ B ⊆ A, and A ⊆ A ∪ B, then from hypothetical syllogism,

A ∩ B ⊆ A ∪ B.

6. To be done in class.

–TN –

Hb 3.3.4.

1. Let K = {x| x is a letter in the word “development” } and L = {y| y

is a letter in the word “considerate” }. Let U = K ∪ L. Then

(a) U = {d, e, v, l, o, p, m, n, t, c, s, i, r, a}
(b) K ∩ L = {d, e, o, n, t}
(c) K 0 = {c, s, i, r, a}
(d) L0 = {v, l, m, p}
(e) (K ∩ L)0 = {v, l, p, m, c, s, i, r, a}
(f ) K 0 ∪ L0 = {c, s, i, r, a, v, l, m, p}
(g) What can you say about (K ∩ L)0 and K 0 ∪ L0 ?
50 CHAPTER 3. SETS

Theorem 3.3.4. De Morgan’s Theorem for Sets.

Let A and B be sets. Then

1. (A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∩ B 0

2. (A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∪ B 0

The first identity shall be proven here. The other one is left for you to
do.

Proof.
To show (A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∩ B 0 , we show that (A ∪ B)0 ⊆ A0 ∩ B 0 and
A ∩ B 0 ⊆ (A ∪ B)0 .
0

Let x ∈ (A ∪ B)0 . Then x is not in A ∪ B, that is, it is not true that

x ∈ A or x ∈ B. By de Morgan’s law for propositions, it follows that x is not
A and x is not in B. Thus, x ∈ A0 and x ∈ B 0 . By definition of intersection
of sets, x ∈ A0 ∩ B 0 . Therefore, (A ∪ B)0 ⊆ A0 ∩ B 0 .

Conversely, let ∈ A0 ∩ B 0 . Then x ∈ A0 and x ∈ B 0 . Consequently, x ∈

/A
and x ∈ / B. By de Morgan’s law for propositions, it is not the case that
either x is in A or x is in B. Hence, by definition of union of sets, x is not
in A ∪ B. Thus, x ∈ (A ∪ B)0 by definition of complement of set. Therefore,
A0 ∩ B 0 ⊆ (A ∪ B)0 .

Thus, (A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∩ B 0 .
–TN –

Definition 3.3.4. If A is a set, the order or cardinality of A is the number

of elements in A. In symbols, we write |A|, n(A) or o(A).
We say A is finite if there exists an n ∈ N0 such that |A| = n. Other-
wise, we say A is infinite.

Hb 3.3.5.

1. The empty set ∅ is finite since |∅| = 0.

2. A = {1, −4, 5} is finite with |A| = 3.

3. What is the order of B = {x ∈ R| x2 − 3x + 2 < 0}? Is B finite or

infinite?
3.3. SET OPERATIONS 51

4. Z is infinite and |Z|= ℵ0 , read as “aleph null” or “aleph zero” or

“aleph naught”.

5. R is also infinite and |R| = ℵ1 = 2ℵ0 , read as ”aleph one”. Other

symbol is c and i1 , read as “beth one”. The symbol c stands for
continuum, which is also the other name for R.

Definition 3.3.5. Let A and B be sets, the difference of A and B is the

set

A − B = {x ∈ A|x ∈
/ B}.

A − B is also known as the complement of B relative to A. Other

symbols used are A \ B and A r B.

Notice that if A = U, for some universal set U then U − B = {x ∈ U|x ∈

/
{
B}, which is precisely the set B . Note that ∅ − B = ∅ and B − ∅ = B.

Hb 3.3.6.

1. Let A = {−21, 32, −19, 0, 11, 12} and B = {52, 0, 34, −12, −21, 13, 12},
then A − B = {32, −19, 11} and B − A = {52, 34, −12, 13}.
Clearly, A − B 6= B − A.

2. If A ∩ B = ∅ (i.e, A and B are disjoint ), then A − B = A and

B − A = B.

Theorem 3.3.5. Counting Principle for Finite Sets.

Let A and B be finite sets, then

|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B|

Exercises 3.3.1. I. Describe the following finite sets by listing their ele-
ments.

1. The set of all integers whose absolute value is less than or equal
to 5.
2. The set of all integers whose distance from 5 is less than or equal
to 8.
3. The set of all integral divisors of 105.
4. The set of all positive integral divisors of 105.
5. The set of all living mathematicians 200 years old and above.
52 CHAPTER 3. SETS

II. Determine the elements of the following sets.

1. A = {x ∈ R| x2 − 2x − 15 ≥ 0}
2. The set of all real numbers x greater than 2 and satisfies
x2 − 2x − 15 ≤ 0
3. S = {n ∈ Z| n2 + 3n − 12 < −2} ∪ {n ∈ Z| |n| > 2}.
4. B = {w ∈ R| |x| > 5 but |x − 5| < 6}.

Suppose S = {−4, −3, −1, 0, 5, 6, 10}, T = {−5, −4, −2, 0, 1, 6, 8}. Then
S ∪ T = {−5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 5, 6, 8, 10}, S ∩ T = {−4, 0, 6} and (S ∪
T ) r (S ∩ T ) = {−5, −3, −2, −1, 1, 5, 8, 10}. The set (S ∪ T ) r (S ∩ T ) is
called the symmetric difference of S and T .

Definition 3.3.6. Let A and B be sets, then the set A4B := (A∪B)r(A∩B)
is called the symmetric difference of A and B.

Remarks 3.3.1.
Since A ∪ B = B ∪ A and A ∩ B = B ∩ A, then (A ∪ B) r (A ∩ B) =
(B ∪ A) r (B ∩ A). Consequently, A4B = B4A or symmetric difference is
commutative.

Theorem 3.3.6. A4B = (A r B) ∪ (B r A), i.e., (A ∪ B) r (A ∩ B) =

(A r B) ∪ (B r A)

Recall in College Algebra, the Cartesian plane is a representation of the

points in a plane. Each point P is identified with an ordered pair (x, y)
where x and y are both real numbers and are called coordinates of the point
P . In Algebra, we say (x, y) ∈ R2 . We now discuss the more generalized
idea of the Cartesian product of sets.

Definition 3.3.7. If A and B are nonempty sets, Cartesian product of A

with B is the set

A × B := {(x, y)|x ∈ A and y ∈ B}.

The element (x, y) is called an ordered pair and x and y are coordinates of
(x, y). In general, if A1 , A2 , . . . An are nonempty sets, then the Cartesian
product

A1 × A2 × . . . × An := {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )|xi ∈ Ai for each i = 1, 2, . . . , n}.

 3.3. SET OPERATIONS 53

The elements of product are called n−tuples.

If A = B, then we write A × B as A2 . If Ai = A for all i, then

An := A1 × A2 × . . . × An .

Hb 3.3.7.
Let A = {a, b} and B = {1, 2, 3}, then

1. A × B = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3)}
2. B × A = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, c)}
3. A2 = {(a, a), (a, b), (b, b), (b, a)}

Clearly, A × B 6= B × A, thus Cartesian product is not commutative.

Definition 3.3.8. Let S and T be nonempty sets. A relation ρ from S to T

is a nonempty subset of S × T . If S = T , then we simply say, ρ is a relation
on S. If (x, y) ∈ ρ, then we say that x is ρ-related to y. We also write xρy
to represent the ordered pair.

From example above, |A × B| = 6. It follows that there exists 63 possible

relations from A to B and similarly from B to A (explain why).

Hb 3.3.8. The following are some of the relations from A = {a, b} to B =

{1, 2, 3}

1. ρ = {(a, 2), (a, 3)}

2. β = {(b, 1), (b, 3), (a, 2), (a, 1)}

Hb 3.3.9. The following are relations in R

1. β = {(x, y)|x2 + 4y 2 = 9}
2. f = {(x, y)|y = 2x + 3}

Do you recognize β and f from your College Algebra?