Big Idea 1 Tradition and Change

The tension between tradition and modern ideas is among the most powerful topics in
contemporary African literature and society. This tension often arises when traditional
ways of life collide with foreign ideas. City and Countryside In Africa, European
colonialism was first and most firmly established in the cities. Many cities are direct
products of colonial rule, including Dakar, Senegal; Lagos, Nigeria; Cape Town, South
Africa; Brazzaville, Republic of the Congo; and Nairobi, Kenya. In rural areas, however,
modern influence has had less of an effect. Millions of people throughout Africa live
much as their ancestors did, in thatched dwellings without plumbing or electricity.
People in rural communities often farm or hunt by traditional methods, wear regional
clothing, and adhere to local customs and beliefs. Some people who live in the
countryside believe that the cities are corrupting traditional African values and customs.
A Cultural Debate An early response to colonial influence in African culture was the
Negritude movement. Negritude was started in the early 1930s by a group of French-
speaking African and Caribbean authors, led by poet Léopold Sédar Senghor (see
pages 78– 82). They rejected the notion of European superiority and asserted that
Africa already had a vibrant culture of its own. The name Negritude was chosen to
suggest a common heritage shared by all black people. English-speaking African
authors began to criticize the Negritude movement in the 1950s and 1960s. These
authors felt that Negritude idealized Africa and restricted the creative spirit. Authors
such as Nigerian novelist Chinua Achebe (see pages 92–101) have explored both the
positive and negative aspects of traditional African society. Achebe’s fiction illustrates
the problems faced by Africans who live amid conflicting cultural values.
Big Idea 2 The Price of Freedom
Many black Africans fought in the British and French armies during World War I, hoping
that their countries would be rewarded with independence when the war ended. These
hopes were not realized.
African Protests In the years following World War I, Africans became increasingly active
in politics and the fight for independence. Soldiers who had fought in the armies of
colonial countries had learned new ideas about freedom and nationalism. In Kenya, the
Young Kikuyu Association organized a protest against British rule in 1921, resulting in
the arrest of the group’s leader. When an angry crowd stormed the jail and demanded
his release, government authorities fired into the crowd and killed at least twenty
people. In the early 1950s,
the Kenyan nationalist movement known as Mau Mau began an armed resistance
against the British. By the time the Mau Mau rebels were defeated in 1956, more than
11,000 Kikuyu had been killed or put into detention camps. Among the victims were
members of the family of Kenyan author Ngugi wa Thiong’o (see pages 133–140).
Despite the Mau Mau defeat, the uprising did pave the way to Kenyan independence in
1963. Jomo Kenyatta, who had been jailed as a Mau Mau leader in 1953, became the
new nation’s first prime minister.

Fighting Apartheid In South Africa, black citizens formed the African National Congress
(ANC) in 1912. The ANC sought reform, but its efforts met with little success. By the
1950s, South African whites had established apartheid, a system of legalized
segregation. In 1960, police in Sharpeville fired on marchers protesting apartheid, killing
69 people. After Nelson Mandela was arrested in 1962, ANC members called for armed
resistance. Despite this, after Mandela was elected president of South Africa in 1994,
he asked Archbishop Desmond Tutu (see pages 103–106) to lead the Truth and
Reconciliation Commission, which sought to review apartheid atrocities without
resorting to violent retribution.
Big Idea 3 Living with Independence
The hopes and dreams of African nationalists had been directed toward winning
independence from Europe. However, for many countries, independence resulted in a
number of unexpected economic and social problems. Political Challenges African
nationalists had hoped that independence would lead to a stable political order based
on democracy. Unfortunately, some democratic governments gave way to military
regimes and one-party states. Many African authors have been forced to spend long
periods in exile because of their criticism of authoritarian governments. Wole Soyinka
(see pages 120–123), the first African to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, spent
several years in exile after being charged with treason by the military government of
Nigeria. In other countries, warring ethnic groups undermined the concept of
nationhood. These conflicts were not surprising, given that European governments had
often determined the boundaries of African nations with little regard for the ethnic
differences of African people. Ethnic conflicts often resulted in war and bloodshed.
During the early 1990s, conflict erupted between the Hutu and Tutsi peoples in the
central African states of Burundi and Rwanda. In 1994, a Hutu rampage left some
500,000 Tutsi dead in Rwanda. Economic and Health Problems I ndependence did not
bring economic prosperity to Africa. Most African nations still relied on exporting a single
crop or natural resource. The efforts to create modern economies were also frustrated
by high population growth. Additionally, droughts led to widespread starvation. As a
result of these problems, poverty continues to affect many Africans, especially in rural
areas. African cities have grown tremendously and are often surrounded by enormous
slums. This growth has overwhelmed sanitation and transportation systems, resulting in
pollution and massive traffic jams. Another problem Africa faces is the epidemic of
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). By the end of the twentieth century,
AIDS was the leading cause of death for Africans. The epidemic has resulted in
splintered families, devastated communities, and economic hardships across the
continent. Reading