Allan A. Swenson - Cultivating Carnivorous Plants-Book World Promotions (1976) PDF

Cultivating
Carnivorous
Plants
Allan A. Swenson
Cultivating
Carnivorous Plants
Allan A. Swenson
D O U B L E D A Y & C O M P A N Y , INC.
GARDEN CITY, NEW YORK
1977
Photos by the author
and Peter Jon Swenson
unless otherwise noted.
Illustrations by Donna R. Sabaka
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Swenson, Allan A
Cultivating carnivorous plants.
Bibliography: p. 152
Includes index.
I. Insectivorous plants. I. Title.
SB432.S9 635-9'33'i2i
I S B N 0-385-11148-7
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 75-3661

Copyright © 1977 by Allan A. Swenson
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
FIRST EDITION
W i l l i a m S. N o r t h r o p ( 1 9 0 1 - 1 9 7 1 ) , a self-taught
naturalist, horticulturist, botanist, biologist, philos-
opher, and friend, to w h o m I am truly indebted.
Acknowledgments
For twenty-plus years I have lived a m o n g carnivorous plants. D u r i n g

that time I have traveled extensively to study these plants, photograph
them, and interview scientists and amateur growers alike w h o share my
fascination with these botanical wonders.
In greenhouse, on windowsill, in office, studio, even in underground
artificial light experimental rooms, I have sought to unravel some of the
puzzles surrounding these strange plants and their astonishing habits.
T h e r e have been many long days and nights perched a m o n g these
plants.
I am grateful for and willingly acknowledge the help provided by my
entire family: my understanding wife, Sheila, and our sons Peter, D r e w ,
Boyd, and M e a d e , w h o have helped so many hours in the growing,
care, and study of these plants. Peter especially has aided immeas-
urably in the research phases.
M a n y others too contributed their thoughts and ideas as well as
knowledge to this book. In particular I must thank Mrs. W i l l i a m
Northrop, George and June T r e g e m b o , and the legions of teachers, stu-
dents, botanists, and other writers w h o have given their time, assist-
ance, and experience in the creation of this work. I am sincerely grate-
ful to all of them.
Contents
Introduction xi
The Culture and Care of Carnivorous Plants 1
Venus Flytraps 13
Sundews 32
Pitcher Plants 43
Huntsman's Horns, Sweet Trumpets, and Cobra Lilies 60
Butterworts and Bladderworts 76
Nepenthes 92
Microscopic Carnivores 101
Carnivorous Curiosities Among Smaller Families 105
Experiments with Carnivorous Plants 112
Organizations, Periodicals, and a World List of
Carnivorous Plants 132
Carnivorous Plants on Display 143
Periodic or Permanent Plant Displays 144
Leading Horticultural Libraries and Information Centers 146
Sources for Plants 150
Bibliography and Reading List 152
Index 157
Introduction
Scattered through the pages of history, in fable and folklore, strange

tales of wild and wicked plants abound. As the stories go, these terrify-
ing plants are capable of snatching animal victims and greedily devour-
ing them.
Do such carnivorous wonders of the plant world really exist? Are the
fantastic reports that periodically have seeped out from the jungles of
the A m a z o n , the hidden valleys of Indonesia, and the hot, dark heart of
\frica just legends? Do gigantic plants that thrive by eating animals
and birds at will still thrive in some remote, unexplored parts of our
planet?
I've always been curious about such things. After all, n o t long ago a
tribe of Stone A g e natives—the T a s a d a y — t h a t should n o t still exist was
discovered in a remote jungle of the Philippines. Perhaps there are
some plants, left-over relics of the long-gone dinosaur days, still lurking
somewhere.
After more than twenty years of traveling the world, corresponding,
researching, studying, and writing about carnivorous plants, I must give
a qualified " y e s " when asked if such strange plants really do exist today.
There are in fact many truly exotic and bizarre meat-eating plants lurk-
ing in distant corners of the globe. Some, n o t so very far away.
T h e largest known species can actually catch and devour birds, ro-
dents, and similar unsuspecting prey. N o t only can, they do. A m o n g the
nearly five hundred types of carnivorous plants already k n o w n , some
have an exceptional and surprising ability to lure, catch, and digest
their insect, animal, and fish dinners.
Fortunately for us all, despite my best efforts this past quarter cen-
tury, I have never found those man-eating " m o n s t e r " plants so popular
with science fiction writers.
Perhaps in other times, imaginative tellers of tall tales found eager
ears for their early versions of science fiction stories. T h e plants they de-
xii Introduction
scribed so vividly actually do exist—though n o t nearly as exaggerated as

the stories made them out to b e — q u i t e capable of snaring unwary in-
sects with sticky tentacles, swiftly snapping shut to trap a small fly or
m o t h or frog, or drowning their victims in their soupy broth.
F a c t is, in all my travels and years of study of this wide range of bo-
tanical wonders, I haven't m e t a carnivorous plant I didn't like. N o t
yet, anyway.
Even so talented a scientist as the famed naturalist Charles D a r w i n
was fascinated by these botanical wonders. A m o n g them, one stands
out. D a r w i n himself described the V e n u s flytrap, that can snap shut to
catch its insect meal in a split second, as " t h e most wonderful plant in
the world."
His experiments with the flytrap and others with similar carnivorous
habits remain the foundation for all future studies of these plants.
T h e r e are hundreds of plants that have this unique and amazing abil-
ity to lure, catch, and eat insects and small animals. Some can even
manage a small bird or two as part of their diet.
T o d a y , many of these fascinating plants can be domesticated. Y o u
too can marvel at their feats w h e n you grow them as house plants, in
terrariums or as conversation-provoking plant pets.
Actually, a n u m b e r of the larger carnivorous plants can be cultivated
quite easilv. Y o u r friends will be amazed at their versatility, not to men-
tion their agility. After all, h o w many times do they see an entire collec-
tion of plants merrily devouring gnats, flies, moths, mosquitoes, and
other forms of animal life.
W h e t h e r you just w a n t to k n o w a bit about these legendary meat-
eating plants or plan s o m e serious studies of their curious abilities, you
can enjoy hours, even years of pleasure with the most wonderful plants
in the world.
To help you with your studies or just plain fun gardening with these
captivating plants, I have gathered as much scientific and practical in-
formation as possible. F r o m my years of personal experience, research,
and interviews with others involved with carnivorous plants, I h o p e you
will find new horizons in our green growing world.
We have concentrated on those plants which are not only, for most
people, the most interesting, but which also are most easily grown.
S o m e types are difficult to obtain. O t h e r , highly unusual species just
don't respond well except under special and somewhat difficult-to-main-
tain conditions.
F o r those of you with inquisitive minds, we have also compiled
suggested study projects, from simple feeding tests to more complex sci-
ence projects. As you expand your own growing horizons and perfect
Introduction xiii
your horticultural skills, I hope you will add to the needed store of in-
formation on this fascinating field of carnivorous plants.
G o o d luck and good growing.
A L L A N A. SWENSON
Windrows Farm
Kennebunk, Maine
Cultivating
Carnivorous 'Plants
The Culture and Care
of Carnivorous Plants
W i t h few exceptions, carnivorous plants are rather easily grown. If y o u

pay attention to the proper growing m e d i u m , the light needs and hu-
midity requirements you can be successful with these wonders of the
plant world.
Unlike conventional house plants, carnivorous plants actually require
less care. For one thing, they d o n ' t w a n t or need fertilizer. T h a t solves a
c o m m o n problem most people have with house plants. For another,
thev have no need of insecticide sprays. T h a t ' s good news to organic
gardeners as well as anyone w h o has fought the battle of the bugs
around the house plants and in their gardens.
Obviously these carnivorous plants can't abide insecticides. They
need those insects. T h e y are the plants' nourishment.
Y o u see, you're far ahead already, since we eliminate some of the
problem areas of growing plants—fertilizer and pest control materials.
T h e other ingredients required by regular plants are m u c h more easily
provided.
As you read .through the various chapters about individual plants and
their families of relatives, you will pick up some basic culture tips. T h i s
chapter is designed to provide a basic understanding of the plant needs
in general and the best ways to provide the special requirements of car-
nivores to help them thrive and perform perfectly for you.
Containers
First step with carnivorous plants is the container. T r u e , m a n y can be
grown successfully as potted plants. B u t here's a warning. Because car-
2 Cultivating Carnivorous Plants
nivorous plants require lots of water to satisfy their needs for secreting
insect-attractant aromas, digestive fluids, and providing the pressures for
their snapping or closing, wrapping or folding actions, adequate mois-
ture is essential.
Luckily, terrariums have made a comeback. Carnivorous plants really
enjoy life in terrariums. B u t as these plants need mobile food, we can't
grow t h e m in totally closed terrariums. H o w would the insects enter?
So, we're limited a bit, b u t not m u c h .
Several years back you may have been limited in your container
choice to fish tanks and bowls, gallon jars, and other less-than-attractive
planting containers. T o d a y , with the b o o m in terrarium culture, you
have a far-ranging selection of containers. T h e y extend from beautiful
A Crystal Lite Greenhouse unit with twin-tube

fluorescent light fixture makes an ideal high-
humidity terrarium for a collection of carniv-
orous plants.
brandy snifters that will hold several plants to complete glass-topped

terrarium tables. Y o u can choose small T i n y Terras and G r o D o m e
planters for individual plants or grow complete collections in Crystal
L i t e indoor greenhouses.
W h i c h containers you select depends on your own personal prefer-
ences. Y o u naturally want to match the type containers to your decorat-
ing scheme. E y e appeal is important.
M o s t important to your carnivorous pets, however, is a container that
W h e n filled with moss, brandy snifters like these 32-ounce glasses

make excellent planters for carnivorous plants. That's a Venus flytrap
on the right; the other plant is a purple pitcher.
will insure the higher humidity they require. Glass planters usually
prove best. T h e y are easily cleaned, provide excellent viewing from all
angles, and do hold that important humidity around the plants. N e w
designs in plastic terrariums n o w provide even wider choices.
M a n y homes unfortunately are overheated, b u t as fuel costs go u p ,
temperatures will undoubtedly be lowered, which is to the good for
your carnivorous plants. M o s t of t h e m prefer temperatures from 6 5 0
to
75° F. S o m e tolerate a greater range of temperatures.
T h e hotter you k e e p your h o m e , the more moisture is drained for any
plants. A hot-air furnace is the most drying type of heating system.
That's why semi-enclosed terrariums are desired for growing these
unique plants with their special humidity requirements.
For years we have used a variety of growing units. We have seen and
photographed others. In all cases, the containers that assume t h a t vital,
sustained high humidity will prove the most successful.
Y o u can obtain containers in most garden centers, hardware stores,
florist shops, even in supermarkets and glassware stores. F r o m gallon
terrarium units to fifty-gallon fish tanks, from apothecary jars of various
sizes to expensive plantariums, there is a wide selection of suitable con-

tainers.
F o r the economy-minded, here are some suggestions to keep con-
tainer costs down so you can spend the savings for additional plants for
your collection.
Consider those plastic water and cocktail glasses sold in 5 & 10^
stores. Upside down over a standard plastic pot they provide a handy
and effective high humidity growing chamber.
Large p h o t o cubes from the p h o t o store are reasonable. W i t h the top
back in place, or moved slightly to let insects enter, you have a hand-
some smaller terrarium. C h e c k your local restaurants. T h e y usually
purchase olives, cherries, mayonnaise in large-mouth gallon jars. T h e y
are excellent for several plants.
L o o k for tall containers. M a n y of the most striking pitcher plants
grow 15 to 20 inches high. A d d a few inches for your planting material
and you need a container at least 24 inches tall. T r u e , you can and
should leave the top off containers periodically so that potential meals
can reach the plants. T h a t means, of course, you'll need to add water
more frequently, especially with pitcher plants so they can draw up the
liquid they need to digest insects inside their hollow pitchers.
We have seen many interesting and functional plus some quite at-
tractive improvised growing units. O n e c h a p simply collected old
wooden storm windows, repainted them, and then assembled them into
a giant terrarium with hinged top. A variation on that was a teacher w h o
took storm windows and nailed the tops together in A-frame style. T h e
two sides were plastic for easier care.
Plastic sheets, from rigid Plexiglas to the flexible Mylar, or polyeth-
ylene bag material can be well used. Just make the size frame you wish,
then staple or screw on the material and you have an adequate cham-
ber.
F i n d i n g suitable containers is easy. F o r more extensive collections,
you m i g h t even prefer a w i n d o w greenhouse unit which attaches right
to the house in place of a storm sash. Or, if you already have a green-
house you can, with addition of a misting or automatic watering sys-
tem, provide the desired growing conditions for your carnivorous plants.
Please don't get the idea that these plants are difficult to grow. T h e y
aren't. In fact, they are reasonably easy to grow from the bulbs, roots,
small plants, and rhizomes which are offered by various suppliers w h o
specialize in these oddities.
We emphasize the need for high humidity to help y o u realize that
attention to this key factor will p u t you well along the road to success
with these particular members of the green world.
This attractive, handy windowsill greenhouse measures only 5%
inches long, 3% inches wide, and 5 inches high. It provides suf-
ficient humidity for carnivorous plants like these flytraps, plus
openings for insects to enter.
This decorative glass bowl is an attractive home

to a family of blooming butterworts.
Planting Medium
N e x t basic consideration is your planting medium. T h r o u g h the
years, I have grown tens of thousands of these carnivorous plants, of all
sizes and varieties. W e ' v e also worked with others w h o have grown
m a n y types: as a hobby, for school projects, and as suppliers to thou-
sands of people w h o enjoy t h e m around the entire world.
Y e s , various combinations of peat moss and sand, vermiculite and
peat, perlite mixed with sand and acid soil can be used. But for years of
study, and periodic tests of new, potentially better mixes, we still come
back to sphagnum moss.
T h i s natural ingredient is a living moss found in every state across
the country. It thrives in bogs, along stream banks, in bays of lakes, in
swamps and roadside ditches. It is used and sold by florists and many
garden centers. T h e i r material is usually dried and supplied to them in
large bags or bales.
If you can't find sphagnum moss locally, most carnivorous plant
growers supply it with their bulbs and plants anyway. A good source is
the Plant Oddities C l u b , which has specialized in carnivorous plants for
years. T h e y provide it with their plants and sell it in small quantities by
mail order. Y o u ' l l find them listed in the sources at the end of this
book.
T h i s is the m i x we prefer, based on growing tens of thousands of
plants over the twenty-five years we have been involved with them.
For flytraps, sundews, butterworts, pitcher plants, and cobra lilies, we
use sphagnum moss alone. It has the capacity to hold water, yet is
spongy enough so roots can also breathe. It works well for all the plants
alone.
F o r terrarium plantings, we have found that variations also can pro-
vide satisfactory results.
If sphagnum moss isn't available, you can grow individual plants, or
groups of them for that matter, in the following planting m e d i u m or
variations of it. By variations, we suggest you try different amounts and
combinations of materials with a few plants. If it works for y o u — i f
your plants prosper—by all means plant others in it.
M i x one part builder's sand with one part peat. Place about an inch
of washed gravel on the b o t t o m of the terrarium or large container.
A d d several inches of the sand and peat mixture. T h e n , add another
inch or two of sphagnum moss. T h o s e plants that prefer the moss lo-
cale will set shallow roots anyway. T h e deeper-rooted pitchers will use
the sand and peat base to steady themselves as they attain their tall ma-
turity.
It is true that in their native habitat these carnivorous plants do grow

in various types of soil. M o s t are acid; that is, they are on the lower
numbered part of the pH scale. Since these plants do grow naturally in
acid soil, it stands to reason that you should also provide t h e m with a
basic natural ingredient, an acid soil.
W e l l , the acid soil you can obtain locally may be a far cry from the
native soil in which the plants originally were grown. T r y it if y o u wish,
but it will pay you to mix in good quantities of sphagnum moss with it
for insurance. S o m e soils that look just fine, you see, are composed of
too much clay and silt. Roots can't penetrate properly. A i r and water
can't m o v e well through it. Plant roots can actually drown in soil w h i c h
is overly wet too long.
So, back we c o m e to sphagnum moss. T r y other combinations, from
peat and sand to vermiculite and perlite. Experiment. B u t for insur-
ance, try always to use at least one third sphagnum moss in your plant-
ing medium. Y o u r plants will appreciate your thoughtfulness.
W h e n you plant a terrarium or any other house plant, carnivorous or
not, it helps to realize that some plants require different conditions
than others. Accomplished terrarium enthusiasts realize that they must
select compatible plants, those that prefer similar conditions of mois-
ture, heat, light, and humidity if they are to be successful.
Fortunately, carnivorous plants, generally speaking, prefer similar
conditions. S o m e may like a bit more light, others semi-shade. T h e y do,
however, prosper together since every plant has a range of tolerance for
growing conditions slightly different than w h a t it would ideally prefer.
For individual planting, it also is wise to use a gravel layer before
placing plants and sphagnum moss into the container. W e ' v e found it
helps to place the moss atop any other material, then m a k e a fist-size
depression in the center of the container. W r a p a handful or t w o of
moss around the roots and rhizomes of the larger plants. Insert this
mossed root ball into depression and top it with a tidy layer of
sphagnum. W a t e r well and keep the planting m e d i u m moist until the
plants have taken hold, set roots, and begun to grow.
For smaller plants, like butterworts, sundews, young pitcher plants,
place the plant on top of a handful of s p h a g n u m in your palm. T u c k
the plant into the moss, then place it where you wish in the container.
W i t h flytrap bulbs, wrap the moss around the bulb and set it into the
growing container, with the sprouting leaves just at the surface.
To assemble a total terrarium, add your gravel base first. Y o u may
wish to add some charcoal next, about a half inch, which may help ab-
sorb odors from excess water. B u t , if you overwater, which you shouldn't
do, the charcoal w o n ' t solve the problem of soggy roots.
Keep in mind that roots must breathe, despite the fact that these are
plants which grow naturally in or near bogs and swamps. T o o m u c h

water, like excess anything, can be harmful. Use c o m m o n sense. Also,
watch your plants' responses. If they look ill, pale, or spindly, they're
giving you a message. It says "I need better care."
Flytraps, sundews with the exception of intermedia, butterworts, and
the smaller parrot pitchers prefer a moist but n o t constantly soggy area.
Pitcher plants, including the illustrious cobra lily, must draw ample
moisture from the planting m e d i u m to supply that important digestive
fluid inside their hollow pitchers.
So, slant your terrarium planting to a c c o m m o d a t e the needs of these

different plants.
Place sundews, flytraps, and butterworts on the higher areas of the
terrarium. Plant the pitchers in the lower areas. In this way, those that
need extra moisture can get it easily.
Y o u can achieve the same results with a level planting by placing the
pitcher plants deeper in the medium. However, we and others have
found the slanting method does work better. It is to the advantage of
the plants because it caters to their needs.
O n c e your planting is completed, water well. Use clean stream or
brook water, or some obtained from pond or lake. Rain water is excel-
lent. So is well water, unless you are in a hard water area. Excess min-
eral content in water is detrimental.
If you must use tap water from city supplies that have been treated
with chlorine or other chemicals, let it stand for several days. T h a t
allows the chlorine to dissipate. A l t h o u g h distilled water has no impuri-
ties, it does lack the few useful minor elements which rain, well, or
stream water can provide. Of course, if the local streams are polluted,
avoid them. No sense adding phosphate detergent pollution or other
harmful materials that may damage your valuable plants.
Lighting
N e x t consideration for your plants is adequate light. Since carnivo-
rous plants range in their requirements from partial or semi-sun to
nearly full sun, don't decide to put them in a bright southern exposure
window. Y o u can fool yourself and harm t h e m . T h a t rule holds for
house plants and terrariums too.
Bright sun for many hours each day will pour through that southern
window. Sit in front of it and see h o w h o t it gets. If plants are inside of
glass or plastic, even an open container, the heat inside builds up. It be-
comes too h o t for plants. Y o u d o n ' t like it ultra h o t — n e i t h e r do your
plants.
A good rule of t h u m b is that plants enjoy temperature ranges w h i c h
are pleasant for us. East or west windows or a distance away from t h e
southern exposure window is better. A n o t h e r factor comes into play. In
fall and winter and at times in early spring, cold drafts b l o w through
those windows. Plants can stand some temperature extremes b u t icy
drafts should be avoided.
In greenhouses or larger indoor terrariums for which you provide sup-
plemental light, plants will thrive at 6o° to 8o° F. At higher tempera-
tures they tend to dry.
T h e r e are exotic tropical carnivorous plants, like nepenthes, that y o u
might assume prefer the hotter temperatures, bright sun, and other con-
ditions you equate with the equator. N o t quite so.
T r u e , those tropical plants can take a bit more heat. B u t remember,
many are native to the lower stories of those tropical forests, as others
are to the floor of N o r t h American forests and fields. T h e y are pro-
tected by taller trees, shrubs, vines. T h e same is true with flytraps, sun-
dews, and pitcher plants. M a n y are partially shielded by brush, grass,
wild flowers and weeds.
I will point out in other parts of the book that sunlight is an impor-
tant factor in helping plants attain their best colors. B u t sun light and
sun heat are different. So is the drying-out process caused by overheat-
ing plants.
Y o u r carnivorous plants will take on their best natural colors w h e n
given the natural sun that comes through those eastern and western ex-
posure windows 6 to 10 hours each day. If you can't provide the natural
light, you certainly can supplement it or even replace it artificially.
T h a t wasn't so true ten years ago.
T o d a y , the Dura-Test fluorescent bulbs, sold as Vita-Lites, Natur-
escent lights, Sylvania's Gro-Lux, and several others are efficient. T h e y
have been developed to duplicate as close as possible the plant growth
stimulating spectrum of light of the real sun. E v e n the newer Plant

Lites, which fit into regular sockets, provide a substitute sun for plants
in darker indoor areas at h o m e or school.
Some experiments with lights are suggested in our chapter of study
projects. In general, a twin-tube, 4-foot fluorescent fixture, suspended 18
inches over your plants, will produce satisfactory results indoors with
any other light source. R u n it 10 to 12 hours each day.
U n d e r this completely artificial light source, flytraps turn their typical
reddish color, sundews brighten, butterworts gain more yellow hues.
T h e pitcher plants reveal their potential for coloration of reds, violets,
and purples in their veins. Flowers especially show off more vividly un-
der these new type supplemental lights or even when they are used as
total sun substitutes.
Outside Growing
M a n y fanciers of carnivorous plants prefer to set their pets outside
during warm weather. S o m e even plant complete bog gardens featuring
carnivorous plants.
As long as you provide semi-shade so the sun does n o t bake your
charges, the plants should do quite well. We h a v e found that plants
placed pot and all into the soil in a bog or moist woodland location will
thrive all summer. Y o u can, by using sufficient sphagnum moss, plant
most sundews, pitchers, butterworts, and flytraps right into the ground.
Bladderworts can be placed into a slow-moving pond or beneath a dec-
orative fountain.
K e e p in mind that humidity may be less outdoors on long h o t days
and in times of drought. R e m e m b e r to water your plants periodically. A
daily sprinkling doesn't hurt.
C o m e fall, only a few of the carnivorous plants can tolerate northern
winters. T h e northern pitcher plant, s o m e sundews and the northern
butterwort varieties can overwinter.
M o s t other pitcher plants are natives originally to much more south-
em areas, the Carolinas and central California down to the G u l f coast.
T h e y must be returned to the cozy climate you provide t h e m indoors if
you w a n t their pleasant c o m p a n y in years to come.
O n c e back indoors remember that the winter may be the time of
needed rest for some of your plants. However, if you plan to keep them
growing, t h e question always arises: w h a t will they eat?
I realize you have a tidy h o m e and flies just aren't available indoors.
M a y b e a few slip in each summer, b u t c o m e winter they are all com-
pletely gone.
An outdoor planting of sundews, which require moist, sandy, acidic soil.
D o n ' t kid yourself. C h e c k an attic w i n d o w any warm fall, even win-

ter afternoon after a brief period of several sunny days. Y o u ' r e likely to
find a fly or two that had hidden in some tiny crevice, nook, or cranny.
He mistook that warm spell for a signal to wake up from his long win-
ter's nap.
Use a little pill bottle or jar to scoop h i m up. T h e n just p o p h i m into
a terrarium or feed h i m to a deserving plant.
Another little trick works well. Bananas, apples, and other fruits are
available all year long in stores. Just cut a few slices of banana or apple
and leave them in your open terrarium. I assure y o u it is n o t sponta-
neous generation. T h e r e is no such thing. B u t even on the coldest days
of winter, some fruit flies mysteriously may appear.
I've been told they hatch from eggs laid in banana skins and in turn
lay more eggs in well-ripened fruit around the house. In schools, of
course, you probably have access to those handy little fruit flies for sci-
ence study.
W e ' v e talked to carnivorous cultivators who have fed meal worm bits
to plants they t h o u g h t deserved a winter treat. M e a l worms and other
natural insect foods are readily available at pet and tropical fish stores.
As you apply some of these cultural tips to your plants, you'll get the
feel for tending them more helpfully week by week. ITiey certainly de-
r
serve your best efforts. W h a t other plants do you know that perform
such amazing, inspired feats?
Venus Flytraps
N o w you see it, n o w you don't. T h a t accurately describes the way the
world's most amazing plant lures, catches, and eats live insects.
O n e instant the unsuspecting fly or m o t h is hovering near the poised,
open V e n u s flytrap. Sweet aromas secreted by the trap lead the unwary
insect nearer. It lands while y o u watch and touches the tiny trigger
hairs, barely visible on the inside of the cocked trap. T h a t ' s all it takes.
If vou blink you can miss the action.
T h i s remarkable plant can and does snap shut in a fraction of a sec-
Close-up, side view of a cocked flytrap leaf. Just a tickle of its trigger hairs causes a trap to
snap.
ond. W e ' v e timed a mature trap closing in y of one second. T h e in-

20
sect seldom has a chance. Equally remarkable is the power of the plant
to seize and hold the victim.
Insects, as you probably k n o w , have great strength. C o m p a r e d to
man and higher animals, insects have astonishing strength. T i n y beetles
burrow through hardwood. T h e smallest, nearly invisible fly " t e e t h " can
penetrate horsehide. Y e t flies, moths, beetles, and many other types of
insects are no match for the grip of t h e flytrap when it is hungry.
T h e V e n u s flytrap rightly deserves the description given it by famed
naturalist Charles D a r w i n as " t h e most wonderful plant in the world."
O v e r the centuries, this remarkable insect-eating plant has n o t only cap-
tured insects b u t the attention of some of the more astute observers in
the entire field of botany and biology.
T h e first written mention of the V e n u s flytrap dates to about 1765
w h e n John Bartram discovered the marvelous plants while visiting the
American colonies. He collected specimens and sent t h e m off to Eng-
land for further study.
John Ellis, a leading botanist of that day, is credited with describing
and n a m i n g the plant. T h r o u g h the years many noted botanists, natu-
ralists, and scientists in various related fields have conducted studies of
this particular plant.
Carl Linnaeus, the acknowledged father of m o d e m biology, called
the flytrap a "miracle of nature." In correspondence with botanist John
Ellis in 1768, Linnaeus noted, " t h o u g h I have doubtless seen and ex-
amined no small n u m b e r of plants, I must confess I never m e t with so
wonderful a p h e n o m e n o n . "
As early as 1873, Sir John Scott Bourdon-Sanderson in England first
discovered electromotive properties in the leaf of dionaea, using speci-
mens that had been sent to the K e w Royal Botanical Gardens. Accord-
ing to h i m , " T h e r e is a definite electrical discharge that occurs in the
V e n u s flytrap w h e n the inner surface of the trap is stimulated. T h i s ac-
tion potential runs a course characteristic of animal nerve reaction."
T h a t was the first of many studies w h i c h verified the fact that this
strange plant does indeed have w h a t in plants can be compared to an
actual nervous system.
M u c h later, in this century, a N o r t h Carolina physicist, Dr. O t t o
Stuhlman, also studied this electrical property of the flytraps. Refer-
ences to his works are included in the bibliography for those of you
w h o wish to pursue this aspect of the plant's behavior.
Dr. Stuhlman traced the size of electrical charges that flash through
the plant. He reported that the forces holding the trap open can be at-
tributed to the action of an internal hydrostatic pressure. T h i s turgor
pressure causes the rapid closing of the trap. Measurements in his re-
V e n u s Flytraps 15
This artist's rendition of the Venus flytrap

shows a typical arrangement of traps, from
those just forming to those trapping or eating
insects. T h e flowers are borne on a slender
stalk, usually in May or June.
search reveal that the traps snap shut at the rate of 13 feet per second,
closing in less than a half second. His studies are based on repeated
tests which verify his and other earlier studies.
T h e phenomenon of the flytrap has provoked continued studies by
scientists as well as students. O n e of the more remarkable reports we
have seen recently was written by a tenth grade student in the Ran-
dolph School in Huntsville, A l a b a m a . Miss Linda D o n n e l l y carefully
researched the earlier studies by a wide range of specialists in various
scientific fields. We are indebted to her for permission to print some of
her activities and conclusions.
" T h e scientific problem of my project," she reports, "was to research
and investigate Dionaea muscipula and to find out if it were possible to
measure the electrical resistance of such a plant during t h e digestion of
an insect."
T h e first phase of her project was composed of preliminary research.

A b u d d i n g scientist, she d u g deeply into previous works and writings
about the plants. T h e second paper she wrote was the culmination of
two years' work on the plant. T h a t ' s dedication.
In her work Miss D o n n e l l y used an " e m o t i o n meter," a transistorized
electronic device from the E d m u n d Scientific C o m p a n y of Barrington,
N e w Jersey. T h e meter works by measuring the quantity of electrical re-
sistance produced by the subject and registering the a m o u n t on a scale.
It operates m u c h like a lie detector, the polygraph which measures the
electrical conductivity of the skin.
S h e secured t h e two wires to the midrib of the trap, that area com-
monly called the hinge of t h e trap. Adjusting the meter as prescribed in
its operating instructions, she fed the plant a fly while stimulating the
tactile trigger hairs until the trap began to close. She repeated the tests
and took readings at intervals after the initial stimulation.
C h a r t after chart, which she carefully d o c u m e n t e d , revealed the same
p h e n o m e n o n reported by more learned scientists.
"I c o n c l u d e d , " she reports, " t h a t the results tend to verify that there
is, indeed, a significant quantity of electrical resistance produced by a
V e n u s flytrap during the original stimulus and actual digestion of an
insect." She also added to the knowledge about this amazing plant.
" T h e y also seem to indicate that a variation in such a response could
be directly related to e n z y m e secretions and similar activity in the plant
during early digestion. T h i s hypothesis may be drawn from the fact
that for long intervals there were lapses in the m o v e m e n t of the needle
of the meter which were followed by periodic resumption of activity."
We trust she received a deserved A+ for her efforts. Her work dem-
onstrates w h a t can be d o n e with imagination and dedication by others
in exploring the mysteries of these carnivorous plants.
T h e r e are hundreds of plants that have developed remarkable insect-
catching ability. S o m e wrap sticky tentacles around their victims; others
drown their would-be meals in soupy broth.
B u t only the V e n u s flytrap has the astonishing ability to snap shut in
less than half a second, often faster, then steadily tighten its grip until
the insect is totally engulfed within the trap. N o t only does the flytrap
perform these fascinating feats, it thrives on its ability. T h i s peculiar
plant makes good use of the insects which it traps. T h e y b e c o m e , in
effect, the needed nutrients for the plant.
A l t h o u g h other carnivorous plants exist, few demonstrate the rapid
m o v e m e n t with which t h e flytrap catches dinner. W h i l e other types are
found throughout the world, the V e n u s flytrap is only found in its orig-
inal natural habitat within a hundred miles of W i l m i n g t o n , N o r t h Car-
olina.
V e n u s Flytraps IJ
A l m o s t everything about the flytrap stands in a class by itself. Per-

haps that is w h a t so impressed Charles D a r w i n . T h e many strange abili-
ties displayed by this plant certainly have made it the best k n o w n and
most popular of the carnivorous plants.
T h e flytrap is scientifically classified as Dionaea muscipula, and the
term is really quite appropriate. At least it translates reasonably well.
D i o n e is the mythological mother of V e n u s , t h e goddess of love. Mus-
cipula is from the family n a m e of the house fly, Mussidae. T h e pula
part is the diminutive form, my Latin linguists tell me.
Consequently, the loose translation revolves around love for flies, per-
haps. But then, w h o knows why and how our botanists arrive at the
terms they use.
T h e r e are various theories why the V e n u s flytrap exists wild only in
that certain area of the C a p e Fear River's m o u t h . O n e holds that the
particular area is favored by a unique microclimate and soil combina-
tion. T h e weather is favorable most of the year for plant growth, except
for the few needed months of winter dormancy or rest. A n d the acid,
silver sand soil has its own unique properties which are somewhat
different from other areas and soil types.
T h e boggy areas in which the plant was originally found and the
sandy soil are noticeably deficient in nitrogen and other nutrients usu-
ally required by most plants. Perhaps the flytrap's d e v e l o p m e n t was nat-
ural selection, adapting to the need for nutrients bv devising its strange
insect-digesting abilitv. We know it gets nitrogen from the insect's bod-
ily protein.
Another theory, perhaps a bit far out, has recurred at times. T h a t
theory holds that the entire area of the C a p e Fear River m o u t h was
once either a giant meteor crater or was bombarded by a meteorite
shower eons ago when the world was young. T h e meteorite pieces have
been found, so that part is true.
T h e r e are almost as manv theories as there are strange flytrap habits.
Personally, I subscribe to the microclimate thinking. B u t then, perhaps
the force of the meteorites had something basic to do with bringing up
deep subsoil or even mutating plants that existed when the balls of fire
struck the earth.
W h a t e v e r explanation you prefer, the fact remains: V e n u s flytraps
are found naturally nowhere else on earth. However, arguments that
they cannot be naturalized elsewhere aren't exactly true. T h e y can be
and have been in a few cases. For example, botanists and amateur horti-
culturists have succeeded in starting beds in South Jersey's pine barrens,
around some bogs in W i s c o n s i n , and also near the glades of Florida.
Studies on the V e n u s flytrap are being conducted now, as you read
this book. Perhaps you too will join the legions w h o have and are still
probing for the unlocked secrets of this plant. In that regard, from
many reports received through the years and our own efforts as well,
you'll find an entire chapter with suggested study projects on the vari-
ous plants.
At this point, perhaps, we should review the plant itself, its parts,
and some basics of h o w it works from w h a t has been learned to date.
T h e flytrap begins like most plants from seed. M o r e likely, any you
obtain from specialists, garden centers, science supply firms, or other
sources will be sold as bulbs.
A l t h o u g h most people believe a large bulb will produce the best and
biggest plants, that is n o t necessarily true. W e ' l l explain why later on.
T h e bulb, like most bulbs, is composed of layers or scales. T h e y sur-
round the central growing tip which is t h e flower stalk. It lies dormant
until the proper time of year. T h e n , within a few short weeks it's up
and blooming, pollinating and being pollinated.
T h e average-size b u l b ranges between the size of a kidney bean and
an acorn. However, even smaller bulbs the size of peas produce satis-
factory plants. Larger bulbs cost more, but grow at about the same rate
as the medium or smaller sizes.
Bulbs that have been preserved in cold storage have, in effect, been
thrown into an artificial dormancy. W h e n removed and planted they
seem to sprout more quickly. Unless of course, they have been kept
longer than a year or frozen in the process. N o r m a l storage temperature
is 36° to 4 0 F. Bulbs should not be frozen, since that can break down
0
their cell structure.

T h e larger bulbs, when available, may have side bulbs attached.
T h a t ' s one other method of reproduction. As the plants grow over the
years the bulbs expand. T h i s usually occurs lengthwise, rather than just
larger in diameter.
T h a t means it is easier to simply snap the larger bulbs in half or
thirds. Be careful to preserve some of those small, dark roots on each
portion. In this way you can obtain several bulbs from one large or
jumbo parent bulb. T h a t , of course, means more plants for you and
your carnivorous cultivating friends.
Flytrap bulbs, like most carnivorous plants, thrive in a growing me-
d i u m composed primarily of sphagnum moss. Y o u can use combina-
tions of peat moss and vermiculite with a bit of perlite mixed in for
good measure. A combination of acid soil and silver sand, half and half,
covered by a layer of sphagnum moss also works well as a growing me-
dium.
W h a t type sphagnum moss? W h e t h e r you have access to living
sphagnum near lakes, streams, or ponds, even drainage areas in your
area, or use the store-bought dried material, either serves equally well.
Venus Flytraps '9
One flytrap plant fits easily in a 2-inch pot.
T h e living moss greens up and grows, which can be a problem. It can

smother or overcrowd the plants unless tamped back in place periodi-
cally.
See the chapter cn culture and care for more growing tips. For t h e
time being, whether you plan a pot or small terrarium planting, you're
well advised to insist on sphagnum moss for the growing m e d i u m . It
has several advantages. It holds moisture well, yet does n o t pack or m a t
down. T h a t means roots can penetrate more easily. So can air. A n d ,
plant roots, like leaves, need a certain a m o u n t of air circulation to per-
form properly, even those small roots of the strange flytrap.
M o s t bulbs arrive, whether in store package or mail order, with tiny
dark roots. Some have been trimmed. T h e s e too will sprout and grow.
T h e rounded portion of the bulb is the base. T h e part with the leaves is
the top. T h a t may sound simple, b u t usually the leaves h a v e been
trimmed off too and the b u l b packed or shipped with just the stubs of
old leaves left.
Place the bulb with the top just at the surface of the sphagnum
moss. Firm the moss around each b u l b .
W a t e r well. B u t please don't use city tap water that is loaded with
chlorine and possibly fluoride. L e t that water stand a day or two.
Flytraps and other carnivorous plants can't stand chemicals in the

water. T h a t goes for hard water with high mineral content too.
Y o u ' r e better advised to use rain water, well or lake water, providing
the stream or lake is not polluted. Distilled water can be used, but good
old rain, well, or stream water does have some minor amounts of nutri-
ents in it which seem to benefit the plants.
It is best to cover the plant with a plastic cup or dome, unless you
prefer a terrarium planting. As it sprouts, the plant enjoys lots of hu-
midity. T h a t ' s true for most sprouting bulbs and plants.
W i t h i n several weeks the leaves will begin to form the first tiny traps.
Y o u can compare your plant's progress with the photographs of emerg-
ing traps in this chapter.
As the b u l b develops its leaves, you'll see them in various stages.
S o m e are just emerging, others are beginning to open, while the first up
will have begun to cock open to begin their insect-attracting work.
D e p e n d i n g on the warmth ( 6 5 to 7 5 ° F. is g o o d ) and humidity
0
(which should be constant and over 50 per cent if possible), the bulbs
will produce from 4 to 12 traps within 6 to 10 weeks from planting
time.
Occasionally a few traps turn brown or emerge with tall spindly
growth. It happens. T h e problem may be too m u c h heat, which can
occur when y o u place the planter in a full sun window and soak too
m u c h heat into the growing unit.
A n o t h e r problem can be too m u c h light, or conversely too little so
the plant struggles to get its fair share of sun. Usually, better-looking
traps form within the initial 8 to 10 weeks of growth.
All traps form at the end of each leaf. D u r i n g certain times of the
year, usually early spring in natural habitats or when using bulbs from
refrigerated storage, the first leaves will have flared ends with small
traps. D o n ' t worry. T h a t ' s a natural situation.
Larger traps develop on the leaves that appear a bit later. Of course,
as the plant begins to dine in style and flourish from that nourishment,
the traps just naturally b e c o m e larger as new leaves continue to sprout
from the bulbs.
As the trap forms you'll see the beginnings of the fingers which line
the edge of it. Eventually these fingers, technically called cilia, will be
almost a quarter inch long on the larger traps.
O n c e the trap begins to open fully you'll be able to see the tiny trig-
ger hairs. T h e r e are usually three per lobe, the lobe being one half of
the trap.
W h e n you look down at a trap it seems to be hinged in the middle.
In effect that midrib performs a vital function. It actually performs like
a hinge. W h e n fully open, the cocked trap resembles your hands if you
Venus Flytraps 21
Side views of the flytrap.
placed the heels of each palm together and opened your hands, w i t h
fingers extended and arched.
T h e open trap seems quite simple, until you think about the strange
functions all those little cells can perform. If you touch one of the trig-
ger hairs, nothing usually happens. If raindrops sprinkle down on the
traps, nothing happens. Y o u can prove that when you water the plants.
L o o k again at those fingers. T h e y are spaced from Vs to V4 inch
apart. T h a t means if a small insect accidently triggers the trap it can
most likely escape. In most cases, the smaller gnats and fruit flies only
touch one of the triggers. T h a t seems to be nature's plan. T h o s e small
insects just don't have sufficient food to be worth the plant's efforts to
snap shut on them.
However, here's where the fun begins. T a k e a pencil or small twig.
Gently touch two of these nearly invisible triggers. O r , o n e hair twice.
W h e n you do, the primitive nervous system gets the message: food at
hand! T r y a toothpick, held lightly. T h e trap will snap it right out of
your fingers and hold it.
W h e n a larger insect, a m o t h , butterfly, ant, beetle, or fly taps the
This series demonstrates the trig-
gering action of the flytrap. 1)
Cocked open. 2) W h e n stimulated
by an insect. 3) Final closure to
entrap the victim completely.
Even large moths landing on the enticing surface of the Venus flytrap are
potential meals for this plant. Note other traps still waiting, one with the
skeleton of a digested insect in it and another fully closed, digesting.
Venus Flytraps 23
trigger the reaction is the same. T h e trap snaps, fingers interlocking to

prevent the insect's escape. N o w watch the action when a fly or small
insect visits the cocked trap. O n c e the initial snap occurs, the insect be-
gins to struggle. After all, it must realize there's something terribly
wrong when a plant snaps shut on it. T h e more the insect struggles, the
more it stimulates the trigger hairs, and the enzyme-secreting glands
along the inner lobes. T h e greater the struggle, the tighter t h e trap
closes, steadily, bit by bit, until it is fully closed. T h e n , as if by some
primitive instinct, the fingers flex outward.
B u t it is too late for the victim. T h e trap has sealed its meal in an
airtight pocket. M o r e enzymes pour out to begin the digestive process,
drowning and digesting the insect.
Some scientists also point to the possibility, m o r e a probability, that
those enzymes and other secretions also have a tranquilizing or anes-
theticlike effect on the insect. Perhaps it is, they theorize, m u c h like the
bite of a spider which paralyzes its victim until it can be laced over the
webs.
For many years, credit for the digestive process was attributed to ac-
tion of the enzymes. T h a t seemed logical. After all, no other action
seemed to occur in the thousands upon thousands of flytraps we had
grown under a wide range of conditions.
O f t e n , when a seemingly logical answer has been provided, we drop
the matter and accept that conclusion. S o m e people don't. T h e y w a n t
to get the truth themselves, such as why the flytrap is so restricted in its
habitat.
A plausible explanation has been set down by Dr. B. W. W e l l of
North Carolina State University. His theory is that the plant was ren-
dered almost extinct by the cold glacial climate many thousands of
years ago. A few plants managed to survive on the C a p e Fear peninsula.
Since then it has had time to migrate less than a hundred miles from
that point.
O t h e r didn't fully believe that only enzymes accounted for the
flytrap's digestive process. A l t h o u g h we have not seen copies of the re-
search done at the University of Southern California's D e p a r t m e n t of
Bacteriology, it was, I understand, aimed at discovering the part that
bacteria play in the digestive process for insectivorous plants. In one re-
port by T h o m a s E m m e l on that subject, he notes that bacterial action
does play a role in digestion in consort with the enzymatic action
within the closed trap.
M o r e research should be conducted along these lines. There's no tell-
ing in advance w h a t may be revealed. R e m e m b e r that streptomycin and
penicillin were discovered from the most unlikely substances, the first
from soil, the latter from mold. Perhaps n e w efforts to probe the secrets
of the flytrap in all aspects of its mysterious processes might lead to

similar valuable discoveries. Stranger things have happened.
O n c e the insect has been trapped and the digestion completed, the
trap, from some internal secret signal, will reopen. It must k n o w that
dinner is done. Usually a trap can digest an insect in a week to ten
days. W h e n it reopens, you'll only find a husk, w h a t amounts to the in-
edible part of the insect. T h a t makes sense. After all, you leave the
bones when you eat a steak or c h o p , right? Rain, wind, or just watering
the plants will remove the few remains. T h a t same trap may eat several
After the trap reopens, only the husk of the victim is left, to be blown away
by the wind or washed away with the rain.
Venus Flytraps 35
additional insects before it begins to dry, turn brown, and die. T h a t
process is to be expected. E v e n if a trap doesn't ever catch an insect,
you'll find that the older traps die periodically, almost in programmed
sequence. Happily, others emerge from the b u l b to continue the
catching, eating, and nourishing process for the plant.
A strong, mature plant may have 6 to 15 traps of various sizes and
stages of maturity. We have seen plants still thriving after several years
of continual growth. T h e y have expanded to 20 or 30 traps. S o m e of
this can be attributed to the growth of the bulb, which elongates and
can be divided into several bulbs. In effect, there are w h a t amounts to
several bulbs producing that profusion of traps.
M a n y people, from students to advanced botanists, have tried repeat-
edly to produce plants with larger traps. T h e y have applied plant
growth hormones of various types, bombarded seeds and bulbs with ra-
dioactivity to achieve mutations. To date, no one has been successful in
his quest for a giant trap. We also have tried to achieve the same goal
in many ways, from special cultural efforts, including force feeding of
plump live flies, to variations in planting mix, fertilizer, organic soil nu-
trients, and lighting combinations. We also tested gibberellic acid and
similar growth stimulators.
T h e best results came when we placed plants in a large aquarium, as
a terrarium. T h e n , we maintained the humidity over 60 per cent, pro-
vided Vita-Lites 16 hours each clay, and introduced dozens of flies peri-
odically. T h e y were nice and healthy, too, direct from a neighboring
dairy farm. After a year the traps were close to 2 inches long. T h e light
helped turn the plants the typical bright red to darker scarlet you will
find when plants have full daily sunlight.
Y o u may be wondering why your traps aren't a bright red. A l t h o u g h
many plants will produce a profusion of traps, they may n o t produce
the desired bright red color on the inside of the lobes. T h e y do still per-
form their insect-catching process. A d e q u a t e light is the answer for the
desired red coloration. W e have used the Dura T e s t C o m p a n y ' s V i t a -
Lites and Natur-escent lights, both fluorescent types.
Over our experimental and propagation beds as well, we suspend
4-foot, twin-tube fluorescent fixtures. Sylvania G r o - L u x tubes work
well but must be closer to the plants. We hang our fixtures 10 inches
above the traps initially. W h e n bulbs have sprouted, and first traps
begun to form, we raise the lights to 18 and as high as 24 inches above
the plants. In all cases, we have achieved bright red traps on almost all
the plants. T h e y also seem healthier, b u t that may be our imagination
since they may just appear more attractive.
C a n you keep the plants alive and thriving year after year? T h a t ' s a
typical question. Y e s , you can. S o m e w o n ' t continue and may even die
T h e inner lobes of the trap* turn bright red when the plant is given bright
sunlight.
back. In fact, many people report that their plants live and perform
well for many months, then seem to brown and die. There's a logical
reason for this. T h e flvtrap is produced from a bulb. Like all bulb
plants, they need a period of dormancy to rest. It is part of their natural
cycle, similar to the cycle of tulips, daffodils, and other plants that grow
from bulbs.
Y o u can provide that resting period in several ways. First, cut back
on the water you provide. Traps will dry and new leaves fail to sprout.
C u t away old leaves and traps. T h e n , remove the bulbs, clean them,
and place them in a refrigerator. Best holding temperature is 3 6 to 0
40° F.
After 8 to 10 weeks, remove the bulbs and replant them. Y o u ' l l be
surprised h o w quickly they resprout and begin their life cycle again.
W e ' v e done this, using varying storage periods. M a x i m u m storage life is
a b o u t 18 months, but that may cost you some bulbs which soften and
die in storage. T h i s refrigeration can be compared to duplicating the
usual winter rest for plants.
V e n u s Flytraps 2j
In spring the flytrap sends up its flower stalk which bears several lovely white
blooms. (Courtesy Carolina Biological Supply Company)
Another way to rest bulbs is simply to reduce their water supply.

Allow the bulb to dry. T h e n trim off the top and let it rest in place. Be
sure to provide some moisture, since bulbs should not dehydrate com-
pletely. T h i s process is a duplicate of summer dormancy in nature when
dry weather or droughts would put the plants to rest. T h e summer dor-
mancy can be misunderstood. M a n y people see their plant just natu-
rally begin to turn brown and find no n e w leaves emerging. T h e y as-
sume the plant has died, so they dig it up and throw it out. T h a t ' s a
waste. In most cases, unless the plant has died from other causes such
as excess heat, dryness, overwatering, or even harmful chemicals in the
water, the b u l b is most likely still alive. D o n ' t discard it. T r y refrig-
eration and a resting period. In many, many cases bulbs will snap back,
alive as ever, when replanted.
Flytraps customarily b l o o m in M a y and June. If you have plants
growing that haven't bloomed, take heart. Plants sprouted from bulbs
kept in cold storage may have their cycle slightly altered the first year.
zS Cultivating Carnivorous Plants
W e ' v e seen them b l o o m in just a b o u t every m o n t h . T h a t ' s under-

standable. T h e y are just responding to their built-in signals and bloom-
ing within the period they usually would send up flowers after awaken-
ing from a winter's rest.
Flytrap flowers are surprisingly attractive for so "nasty" a plant.
Flower stalks emerge from the center of the bulb, normally one stalk
per b u l b unless it is a larger one in process of dividing into several
bulbs.
Y o u may h a v e just a few or up to ten flowers at the top of the 6- to
10-inch flower stalk. T h e y range in color from white to pinkish white,
as illustrated in the photos.
O n e by o n e they dry and seed pods form. Flytrap flowers are self-
pollinating, so let the pods dry until they are dark brown to black.
T h e n wait a bit longer until the seeds inside ripen and dry.
A l t h o u g h you can propagate flytraps in several ways, the most chal-
lenging is from seeds. C u t off the flower stalks and place them on a
piece of white typing paper or other white surface. T h e n , cut or snap
the pods open. T h e y ' r e small. T a k e your time so you don't lose your
seed crop. Y o u can store them in a plastic sandwich b a g in the refrig-
erator until ready to plant them. O r , sow them immediately.
Prepare a seed bed of chopped sphagnum moss, not too coarse or too
finely ground. R u n a few handfuls of moss through a blender set on
" c h o p " and you should obtain the right consistency. Place the sphag-
n u m moss over a layer of regular sphagnum moss in a tray, bowl, or
other container. Scatter the seeds lightly on the surface and then sprin-
kle a fine layer of the ground moss over them. Moisten thoroughly,
using a fine mist spray. T h e n , cover the tray or planter with a plastic
hood and place it under the propagating Vita-Lites. Sunlight on a win-
dowsill will be satisfactory too. G e r m i n a t i o n may be slow. O n e factor
that may cause failure is drying out during this critical germination
stage. M a k e certain your seedbed is moist at all times.
W i t h i n a m o n t h , or up to several months, seeds should begin to
sprout. L o o k carefully. Emerging from the seeds, you will see the
smallest traps believable, some less than Vk inch long. T h e y may be
tiny, and there may be dozens of them. B u t even these diminutive traps
can catch those minute fruit flies to begin their long life cycle right be-
fore your eyes.
If you prefer merely to enjoy the plants you grow from bulbs, you can
let them flower. However, when the V e n u s flytrap flowers you'll notice
that traps nearly disappear. T h e answer is simple, b u t often misun-
derstood. T h e bulb is spending a great a m o u n t of its stored-up strength
to flower and set seeds. To encourage more traps, simply cut off the
flower stalk and new traps will begin emerging.
Venus Flytraps 29
T h e r e are other easier ways to propagate this amusing plant. O n e of

the most reliable is b u l b division. After plants have thrived for several
years, the bulb just naturally gets larger, but n o t necessarily in diameter
the usual way. Instead it elongates horizontally. In effect, new bulbs
form almost as side bulbs. T h e s e can be simply snapped apart and
replanted to produce two or three, even up to five new plants from t h e
largest older bulbs. W h e n you do this, try to keep several roots on each
division.
Another way, admittedly more difficult, is vegetative reproduction of
bulb scales themselves. Y o u can peel these scales from even medium-
sized bulbs. T h e n immediately plant them in the same m e d i u m
suggested for the seedbed. A l t h o u g h this m e t h o d is n o t as successful as
bulb division, and may not produce more than half the n e w plants you
expect, it can be accomplished if you maintain the required high hu-
midity and warmth. S o m e horticulturists have tried heating cables in
the planting mix as you would for vegetable and flower propagation. It
seems to help, but statistically does n o t seem that significant for in-
creasing the quantity of n e w plants.
T h e final way to root n e w plants is similar to conventional leaf cut-
tings. R e m o v e several leaves from a healthy, sturdy plant right down to
the bulb. Be sure to leave a small portion of the whitish b u l b on the
leaf. T h e n , insert these leaves into moist sphagnum moss the same as
used for seed starting. K e e p these leaves sprinkled daily. If they dry o u t
you put too much stress on them and they can't set new roots well.
A misting system, sold by h o m e greenhouse firms and garden centers
for mist-propagating plants, is helpful. It keeps the leaves well mois-
tened so they can concentrate on rooting. Laying the leaves on the
moss with tips buried works well too.
For those of you w h o w a n t to grow and enjoy these plants, those are
the basics, right through simple to somewhat more complicated propa-
gation methods. A few more thoughts are in order now, before we con-
tinue into some fascinating technical studies and research for those of
you who want to expand your growing horizons with these plants.
Y o u can tickle the flytrap with finger, pen, toothpick, or other object
and it will snap shut. W h e n it opens again, you can m a k e it snap again,
and again. However, you'll notice that each snap is slower than the last.
W h e n you fool the trap, and it doesn't find an insect to digest, you
weaken it a bit. Plant cells, just like all cells, wear out. N e w ones can
form, but these unique plants need nourishment to generate n e w cells
and rebuild the turgor pressure in former cells. We r e c o m m e n d from
long experience that you control your urge to tickle the traps too often.
T h e y ' l l do better when they utilize their energy to catch real meals.
Traps will snap shut on a piece of hamburger. However, the quantity
of protein in a chuck of hamburger is often just too much for the indi-
vidual trap to digest. R e m e m b e r , you d o n ' t w a n t to kill your plant
through misplaced kindness, do you? For experimental purposes or peri-
odic demonstrations, go ahead, using the smallest sliver you can.
A l t h o u g h most of the growers w h o cultivate the V e n u s flytrap do so
for the fun of watching it lure and catch insects, some scientists have
really concentrated on learning more about the whys of the trap's
strange mechanism.
O n e experiment focused on discovering w h a t really makes the trap
snap. In a series of experiments, scientists connected tiny electrodes to
portions of mature traps. W i r e s ran to a laboratory oscilloscope. T h i s
device is utilized to record electrical impulses of direct or alternating
current. Is it possible that a plant actually generates electricity? So it
seems.
W h e n all was ready, the trap was tripped. Surprise! Imagine the awe
of the researchers when they actually recorded evidence of an electrical
discharge. T h e y saw the w a v e pulse right across the screen of the os-
cilloscope. In repeated tests electrical current was produced again and
again by different traps.
In continued studies, these investigators and others w h o expanded on
the original work learned that the flytrap indeed gives off a small, weak,
but nevertheless real electrical discharge when its trigger hairs are
touched. T h e y have theorized, and it would seem logically so, that it is
the electrical discharge which sends the signal to the cells, changing the
water or turgor pressure in the cells and causing them to act in unison.
T h e result is the amazinglv rapid snapping action.
To perhaps m a k e this more understandable, place your two hands
with the heels together as you would to demonstrate the shape of an
open flytrap. E x t e n d your fingers so your hands resemble the cocked
trap. N o w , think! T h e n snap your hands together with fingers in-
terlaced to simulate the rapid closing of the flytrap. W h a t happened
when you thought was: Electrical impulses ran from your brain to the
muscle control center of your brain for your hands; the impulses or-
dered the muscles to close your hands, which they did. T h a t , in perhaps
oversimplified terms, is the same principle that applies and occurs when
the flytrap snaps shut.
A strange plant indeed, with a proven primitive nervous system and
capable of generating electrical current.
O t h e r researchers are exploring different aspects of this plant's weird
habits. W h a t , they ask, are the properties of the insect attractant
secreted by the traps? W h a t is the chemical composition of this mate-
rial?
T h e y have good reason to ask. T h e y theorize that if they can learn
V e n u s Flytraps 31
the chemical composition of that insect attractant and artificially re-

create or synthesize it in the laboratory, they may be on the verge of a
breakthrough in biological insect control.
Consider, for a m o m e n t , the advantages of having just such an effec-
tive insect attractant. Y o u could place containers of it near farm fields
and h o m e gardens. Insects could be lured away from the valued crops
into special containers. O n c e inside, they could be destroyed electrically
or chemically. T h a t process could do away with large-scale spraying of
pesticides on food crops. T h o s e scientists are n o t just dreaming of blue-
sky discoveries. T h e y have rather practical applications in mind for de-
velopment once they discover the flytrap's alluring secret.
Undoubtedly there are other equally unusual experiments that have
been or are presently being undertaken with this plant. It certainly has
captured man's attention over the centuries. After considering all the
plants of the world, interviewing hundreds of scientists and individuals
on many horticultural subjects, I'm convinced that the flytrap retains
its justified place in the plant kingdom.
It is today and probably will remain what Charles D a r w i n said it was,
" t h e most wonderful plant in the w o r l d . "
Sundews
Glistening redly in the sun, tentacles aquiver, sundews seem too attrac-
tive to be carnivorous plants. T h e Drosera family is a large one, with
varieties found in all parts of the world.
Sundews, like flytraps, actively lure, catch, and eat live insects. In
fact, some of the larger sundews are capable of snaring far more insects
for their size than any other carnivorous plants. T h e tall southern
filiformis, for example, has a remarkably hearty appetite. We have
counted up to one hundred tiny insects securely glued to one of these
15-inch-tall plants. A m o n g carnivorous plants, sundews are probably the
greediest of them all.
Sundews range throughout the world. We have seen them and stud
ied them on several continents in a score of countries. To the best of
my knowledge, some varieties, and often several, grow wild in every
state. Fortunately for the timid-hearted, there are no really giant sun-
dews here, as exist in more exotic parts of the world. T h e hungriest of
all the sundews, with leaves almost 2 feet long, do grow in Africa.
T h e r e , with favorable humidity and long days of strong sun, sundews
are capable of catching a variety of small animals that venture too close
for their own good.
Sundews, all types, are considered active plants. T r u e , they don't
have the speed and agility of the notorious V e n u s flytrap. Still, they are
well equipped with hundreds of sticky tentacles. Even the smallest
varieties have ample sticky arms to wrap around their insect victims.
T h i s family of fascinating plants also captured the attention of
Charles D a r w i n . Since his original studies, which were extensive, many
others, from amateur naturalists to accomplished scientists, have
probed the secrets of the sundews. D u r i n g my twenty-plus years with
carnivorous plants, I've found these botanical oddities a constant source
of wonder. Every time you think you have solved a riddle, the plants
perplex you again.
Sundews 33
T h e tall sundew, Drosera filiformis, sprouts from bulbs

to form a dense tangle of sticky leaves.
M o s t sundews are fairly similar to each other. S o m e are so closely re-

lated that it is extremely difficult to tell them apart. Of course, natural
crossing further blurs the lines a m o n g relatives in this plant field.
Others are strikingly different, as y o u will learn in this chapter. O n e
variety, which we obtained less than a year ago, is astounding. It's a gi-
ant version of our familiar D. filiformis, which generates several dozen
15-inch tall arms. E a c h is covered by hundreds of sticky hairs. We
planted this specimen in one pot and carefully tended to its needs.
T h e n , we introduced a culture of drosophila, the c o m m o n fruit fly, into
the surroundings. W i t h i n one week it had eaten my entire colony of
fruit flies. Every leaf was covered. At that rate, it's as bad as buying
meat for a growing family. W h o can afford a colony of fruit flies each
week per plant? A n d now, we have several dozen growing merrily away.
Tall sundews have hearty appetites. For their size, they catch more insects
than any other carnivorous plant.
Even larger insects are held firm by the sundew.
W o r s e yet, what will happen if I cater to their hearty appetite? B u t

then, I've always been searching for that legendary giant a m o n g the car-
nivorous kingdom.
T h e most c o m m o n and popular sundews to date have been the
smaller types which grow so well in terrariums, pots, and mini-planters.
Even a m o n g these smaller ones you have a wide choice of varieties. Be-
fore discussing the distinctions, let's review the techniques and talents
of these sticky, tricky plants.
Generally, most sundews grow from seeds dropped or popped o u t by
the preceding year's plants. As they sprout, arms radiate from the cen-
ter in a rosette pattern. T h i s pattern holds true for all the sundews.
At the end of each arm, the small leaves form. T h e most c o m m o n ,
Drosera rotundifolia, features a round leaf. Others are pear shape, elon-
gated, oblate, or spatulate. To make those terms more understandable,
we've included sketches with the terms further along.
Rotundifolia leaves may be as small as Vs inch or as large as Vi inch.
You'll find the largest plants may have one to two dozen leaves per
plant. On each leaf are dozens of tiny, sticky hairs, m o r e appropriately
Typical growth of the rotundifolia sundew. (Courtesy Carolina Biological

Supply Company)
k n o w n as tentacles. At the ends of these hairs are small black spots, the
glands which secrete the so-called dew. T h i s dew is in reality the sticky
substance which glues the unwitting insects tightly to the plant until
other tentacles can add their strength to ensnare the plant's meal.
W h e n an insect is attracted by the secretions from the aroma or at-
tractant glands, it may land ever so lightly on the glistening leaf. O o p s
— o n e foot gets stuck. It flutters its wings; they b e c o m e stuck. T h e
more it struggles the more the sundew is stimulated to secrete more
fluid as well as to begin releasing its digestive juices. F o o t by foot, wing
bv wing, the insects are engulfed and trapped by these tentacles on
each leaf.
The sticky glands and their secretions are clearly shown in this group of tall
sundews.
It doesn't really matter whether the sundew leaf is spatulate or pear

shape, oval or round. T h e y all have similar tentacles and glands which
respond in an identical way to catch their dinners. T h e s e lovely little
plants glisten beautifully at dawn, as though the morning sun was spar-
kling on the dew. S o m e dew. If you take a finger and apply it to a spar-
Note the holding power of the tall sundew's mucilage.
kling sundew, you'll feel and see the tacky substance stick to your
finger. Lift it away and strands of the substance stretch out as though
attempting to hold even your finger to the leaf.
Foreign sundews have similar habits, although their appearance may
be quite different. W e ' v e included some photos to demonstrate the
range of appearances in the exotic Drosera family. All, of course, thrive
on living diets of insects all the way up to small rodents, animals, and
birds.
Sundews 39
A tall sundew in bloom.
T h e r e are taller types, some with long stems on w h i c h the sticky

leaves waft in the breeze; there are other varieties in which every por-
tion of the leaf can catch the prey. T h e filiformis, of which several
varieties are native to the United States, possess the strongest appetites
of our domestic sundews. U n l i k e the typical sundew, these sprout from
small bulbs. In areas of southern N e w Jersey and the mid-Atlantic
states you can find them glistening along roadside ditches. T h e y prefer
the usual moist, boggy conditions, b u t also thrive in wet, sandy loca-
tions.
T h e s e bulbs can be kept in refrigerated storage, unlike the usual sun-
dew varieties which grow from slender roots. T h o s e must be kept alive
or they'll die from the cold. In spring, a few filiformis leaves begin to
(Left) T h e fly has just been captured. (Right) Note the flexing of the ten-
tacles as this sundew leaf digests its meal. (Courtesy Carolina Biological
Supply Company)
sprout. F o l l o w i n g these juvenile leaves, the larger ones appear. T h e y un-

furl m u c h like typical growth of ferns.
Filiformis is native along the eastern coast and in some midwestern
and western states. It grows 6 to 10 inches tall. Its giant, close relative,
with magenta rather than lavender flowers, matures up to 15 or 18
inches high. It has the same growth pattern, many leaves unfurling
from a somewhat larger bulb.
T h e conventional tall sundew arises from a b u l b the size of a pea.
T h e larger relative emerges from a b u l b the size of a hickory nut or
acom.
B o t h these filiformis varieties have thousands of sticky hairs along
each long, slender leaf. We have tested them under artificial light, at-
tempting to achieve greater coloration in the leaves. Unfortunately,
they remain the same vellowish to golden color as thev do in nature. In
their natural habitat these sundews are at best pinkish yellow to a
golden color. T h e taller version seldom seems to change from greenish
yellow or light yellow.
Sundews 41
Because both types have such sticky tentacles, you can actually place
live flies and small moths against the leaves and stick them fast. In
feeding trials, when we and others have deliberately attached dozens of
insects to these plants, they responded favorably. M o r e leaves unfurled
from bulbs until we produced a veritable bush effect from o n e plant.
No doubt its diet agreed with it.
Intermedia sundews, c o m m o n along the edges of w e t ditches and
bogs, are thirstier than their relatives. M o s t sundews thrive when grown
in a mixture of sand and sphagnum moss. S o m e actually grow in sphag-
n u m alone. W h e n it overgrows them, they flower, set seeds and replant
themselves, layer by layer, in the bog.
This cluster of sundew plants in a glass bowl shows a gnat's-eye view of the
hundreds of sticky tentacles.
^2 Cultivating Carnivorous Plants
Intermedias, on the other hand, require planting in containers with

constant water for their roots. T h e roots are slender, delicate-appearing.
T h e y probe into the m u d and sand to gain a roothold. D u r i n g rains that
fill these roadside ditches, intermedia can be completely swamped.
T h a t doesn't seem to bother them. As the water level subsides, there
they are, bold and sparkling, ready to snatch another insect who alights
on any leaf.
T h e rotundifolia, intermedia, and filiformis are probably the most
c o m m o n sundews available through science firms and plant specialists.
Several carnivorous plant growers offer other varieties so you can obtain
a wider range of these curiosities of nature.
Pitcher Plants
Pitcher plants may appear as lovely, colorful, s o m e w h a t curious speci-

mens, b u t they are as lethal to insects as the more aggressive V e n u s
flytraps or the tentacled sundews. It is difficult to determine whether
pitcher plants are really less advanced in their insect-trapping methods,
or just more devious in the way they catch their victims.
No d o u b t they have devised equally effective ways to lure those un-
suspecting insects to their patiently waiting, yawning mouths. W h e n
you have watched as many pitcher plants as we have, in fields, nurseries,
greenhouses, and in controlled experiments for years, you b e c o m e accus-
tomed to their ability to attract a vast hoard of insects. T h e y just keep
flying by and disappearing into those hungry, open mouths.
T h e open mouth is c o m m o n to the pitcher plants. So is the digestive
process. B u t there the similarity ends. Y o u can tell they are from t h e
same family easily enough. T h e differences they display in coloration,
shape, form, and size are w h a t m a k e pitcher plants such intriguing sub-
jects for study.
Pitcher plants, like sundews, are found in scattered parts of the world.
T h e United States is honored with a fine range of these particular car-
nivorous plants. Since all the varieties that have been found native to
America are easily cultivated, we'll focus first on these.
Perhaps the most popular is the so-called purple pitcher plant. It is
often called the northern pitcher plant, b u t its southern cousin is
closely related. G i v e n adequate sunlight, both turn dark red to almost
crimson purple.
Looking at one for the first time, you might be deceived. It seems
harmless enough—it is to you. It appears to be just a radiating cluster
of hollow stems, a bit bulbous on the b o t t o m , in w h i c h some rain has
collected.
H o w deceptive these carnivorous plants can be! In reality, the Sar-
racenia purpurea gibbosa and its southern cousin, S. purpurea venosa,
4-f Cultivating Carnivorous Plants
A typical purple pitcher plant, here growing in a clay pot. (Courtesy

Burgess Seed & Plant Company)
are passively poised for their prey. U n l i k e the flytrap and the many sun-
dews, the pitcher plants have no way of snapping out or wrapping
sticky fingers around their prey. So wait they must. During the cen-
turies these plants lay waiting, they perfected an ingenious method to
catch the insects they need to supplement the nutrients in the leached-
out, boggy soils in which they live. Each pitcher sprouts from the cen-
tral rhizome, supported by sturdy roots which hold it in the moist,
sandy, and moss-covered soil.
A r o u n d the m o u t h of each individual pitcher are hundreds of tiny
spines. T h e s e %-inch spines, even V4-inch l o n g on larger plants, line
the m o u t h and throat of the pitchers. Y o u might think they would
point up toward the sun. Instead they point d o w n . There's method in
this scheme of things.
Pitcher Plants 45
An insect's-eye view of the spine-lined mouth of the purple

pitcher plant.
As insects are attracted to the plants by secretions from insect attract-

ant glands, the moths and crickets, flies and beetles enter cautiously.
Inch bv inch thev follow the trail of spines inside the pitcher. T h e y
seek what seems to them to lie ahead. If any realize the danger, they
may turn to flee. T h a t ' s where the pitcher plant was smart as it evolved
over the years. T h o s e down-pointed spines are slightly flexible. Insects
may push them up a bit, but soon enough the spines push back.
Despite its efforts, the insect is flipped backward. It may try again as
some will do. No d o u b t there are the stronger ones that do escape.
M o r e likely, they either follow the trail of spines right into the soup or
are flipped backward into it when trying to escape. T h e soup we speak
of is the liquid brought up into the pitcher by the roots. E n z y m e s
secreted by glands inside the pitcher have digestive properties. Rain
Cultivating Carnivorous Plants
Inside the spiny mouth of the purple pitcher plant,
may dilute them temporarily, b u t the extra liquid serves to drown the
insects, too. Eventually the soft portions of the insects are broken down
by the digestive fluids of the plant, to b e c o m e its meal.
As the plant prospers on the nourishment provided by its insect diet,
it may also grow sufficiently large to capture small frogs, a stray cater-
pillar or two, even a salamander or other more exotic fare.
D u r i n g its growth cycle new pitchers emerge from the rhizome peri-
odically, in 6- to 1 0 - w e e k intervals, depending on the season and the
plant's luck in catching food. O l d e r pitchers turn brown, wither, and
eventually decay. "Hie new ones keep sprouting all season until the chill
of fall, when all foliage dies back.
A l t h o u g h there are slight differences between the northern and
southern versions of Sarracenia purpurea, both bear almost identical,
lovely, red velvetv flowers. Flower stalks spring up from M a r c h to June,
depending on h o w the season has progressed in the area in which the
plants are growing. W e ' v e seen the southern variety b l o o m in early
M a r c h in Georgia. T h e M a i n e and C a n a d i a n pitchers usually blossom
by June.
C h e c k i n g our historic sources, we find that there have been refer-
ences to pitcher plants by the earliest settlers. T h e y probably learned
about these plants from the Indians, since occasional records indicate
Pitcher Plants 47
The captured prey—here, a cricket—inside a purple pitcher leaf. (Cour-

tesy Carolina Biological Supply Company)
that Indians used some portions of the plants for folk medicine in early
Colonial days. In records from the 1600s we find that a C a n a d i a n , Dr.
Sarrazin, collected plants and sent them back to E u r o p e for study.
T h e s e early investigations by botanists led to the n a m i n g of the genus
Sarracenia in honor of their discoverer. In all likelihood the first pitcher
plants identified were purpureas, the northern pitcher plant, since that
is the main one found native in N o r t h America.
It was known in the early 1800s that insects were attracted to t h e tall
pitcher plant, Sarracenia flava, and seemed to be paralyzed by some un-
known substance in that plant. M o d e m scientists have hypothesized
that perhaps the aroma of the flowers or pitchers themselves not only
lured the insects, b u t also acted in some way to paralyze t h e m so they
would fall into the digestive fluids inside the pitchers.
Dr. Howard Miles of Mississippi State University is intently con-
cerned with chemical research. His team of scientists is analyzing vari-
ous plants for anti-tumor activity. S o m e plants, including the pitcher
plant, indicate promising activity, he reports. Betulinol and lupeol have
The red, velvety flowers of the purple pitcher tower over the plant.
been identified as having such capacity. Pursuing these findings, Dr.

Miles and his associates, including Naresh M o d y , Rodger Henson, and
Paul H e d i n , steam-distilled nearly 2 0 0 pounds of the S. flava plants to
obtain sufficient amounts of the chemical for continued research. Dr.
Miles did indeed identify the insect-paralyzing agent as an amine
k n o w n as coniine. It is, he notes, one of the volatile alkaloids of the
Pitcher Plants 49
Typical growing arrangement of the purple pitcher plant.
toxic hemlock plant. If the paralyzing agent proves as effective as initial

studies indicated when tested against fire ants, now migrating across the
southern states, new breakthroughs in insect control may be achieved.
W h e n you examine a purpurea pitcher plant closely, you'll find that
it and other related pitcher plants include a rhizome with fibrous roots;
some a few inches, others 6 to 10 inches long. All these plants send up
their pitchers in a more or less rosette pattern. This pattern is more ob-
vious in those that lie close to the ground. T h e pitchers themselves are
hollow. In the case of purpurea they display a large bulbous area in
which the digestive fluids blend with rains.
From seed, tiny cotyledons, the first primitive leaves, appear. They're
almost too small to spot in wild marsh conditions. In seedbeds, trays, or
pots you can see them emerge, followed shortly after by the more typi-
5° Cultivating Carnivorous Plants
cal hollow pitchers. If you are fortunate to find some in your locale, ex-
amine the surrounding area closely. Often you can find a scattering of
young plants around the parent, much like baby chicks surrounding
their mother hen.
During the insect-catching season these adult leaves perform their
functions well. By fall they are often replaced or intermingled with the
so-called winter leaf. It may have a mouth b u t seldom has the fully
open hollow pitcher. These leaves look more like wings with a mouth at
the end. W h e n cultivated indoors, you'll most likely be successful in
maintaining a continuing emergence and growth of the desired hollow
summer leaves.
Look inside these hollow insect-catching devices. In fact, remove one
and slit it with a knife to better view the secrets t h a t lie within. Across
the spine-lined mouth, which is the attraction zone, you may be able to
detect the nectar glands. They're responsible for luring the plant's po-
tential meals. There are fewer hairs or spines in the lower "throat" area.
Below that is a more waxy surface. I suspect that once the insect passes
the spines it is supposed to slide the rest of the way into the "soup."
By careful examination you may detect the glands which secrete the
digestive fluids and enzymes in the lower portions of the pitcher. Once
you have come to this point, the area to which the liquid usually finds
its level, you'll begin to see the insects in the various stages of decom-
position and digestion. Finally, the pitcher narrows to the short
stemlike portion which connects the pitcher to the rhizome.
This cross section of a pitcher plant leaf reveals the partly digested prey
and fly maggots too.
Pitcher Plants 5 1
Although many insects become the nourishment for these plants,

others do escape. There is an interesting sidelight here: some insects
purposely cohabit with the plant and join it in its catching fun.
Parrot Pitcher Plants

T h e parrot pitcher plant is well named. It also forms a rosette growth
pattern, with pitchers radiating from the central rhizome. Although it
is typically smaller and less conspicuous than the northern pitcher plant,
we have grown some which have measured 15 to 18 inches diameter
with individual pitchers 8 inches long.
This particular species is a sun-loving plant native to the bogs and
savannas of the southland. It grows well enough in domesticity as a
house plant, in terrariums, or in outdoor bogs during summer in north-
A close-up look into the mouth of the parrot pitcher plant.

ern states. But it does freeze out in winter and won't survive. At least, it
hasn't yet in our attempts to acclimate it to New Jersey and Maine con-
ditions.
W h e n you look at this oddity close up, the aptness of its name be-
comes apparent. T h e hollow pitchers which are its leaves extend to a
rounded hood with a bit of a crest down the center. At the tip of this
hood, which curls back to face the center of the plant, is what passes
for a beaklike point. U n d e r it is a small mouth which is almost per-
fectly round.
Another feature that sets the parrot apart is the multitude of translu-
cent spots on its hood. W i t h adequate sun these spots become more
pronounced and the reddish veins extend farther down the pitcher and
into the wing portion of the leaf.
Lacking the spine-lined mouth of the purpureas, the parrot, Sar-
racenia psittacina Michaux, has evolved a somewhat different, yet
equally effective, insect-confusing method of getting fed. T h e flared
hood is up, the mouth toward the center of the plant. As insects are at-
tracted into the tiny mouth by the aroma from the attractant glands,
they begin to feed on the nectar of the plant. If they suspect some-
thing awry, the insects may attempt to flee. But which way is out? N o t
up, although there's light showing through those translucent spots. It
may fly up, b u t merely hits its head and tumbles back into the pitcher.
How about the other three sides, left, right, and rear? T h e potential
prey finds the same problem. Its apparent escape route is blocked.
W h a t look like openings are just those same translucent spots again.
T h a t leaves onlv one way to escape, providing the insect still has
strength enough and the brain capacity to make the choice. Most likely
many insects keep trying to fly up and out until they tire and drop back
defeated.
T h e odds aren't much in the insect's favor. There's only one way out
of six directions. Probably it becomes disoriented in the process and
keeps banging its head against the same escape-proof inner wall of the
hood. There's also the factor t h a t more glands are placed lower in the
pitcher to lure unwitting insects deeper into the narrower part of the
pitcher. No wonder the parrot pitcher seems as well fed as its other rel-
atives! You might say it stacks the odds aginst its victims and outwits
t h e m or just wears t h e m down. Into the soup, that is.
T h e internal structure of this pitcher plant is basically similar to the
others. Glands lower in the pitcher secrete the enzymes and fluids to di-
gest the insects. It too grows from a central rhizome which can produce
4 to 15 pitchers depending how favorable the growing conditions are.
This species is usually smaller than the purpureas. It fits better into ter-
Pitcher Plants 53
rariums with other smaller types: the sundews, butterworts, and
flytraps.
Culture is almost identical to that of purpureas. It prefers slightly less
water around it, so the middle part of the terrarium is preferable.
W h e n planting them as individual specimens or as a group of its own
kind, follow the directions for purpureas, fust remember to give each a
bit more drainage in the pot or tray in which you plan to grow it.
Allow me an aside here, please, since an ingenious growing method
used by one carnivorous cultivator may save you time and work. After
he has planted his single or several specimens in one pot, he waters
them well and places the pot on a tray of gravel. T h e r e is always about
an inch of water in the trav. Over the potted plants he places one of
those wide-mouth glass gallon jars. (I hope he isn't seen too often en-
tering and leaving the bars where he obtains the former containers of
olives, cherries, and onions.) He assured me t h a t in his work, traveling
extensively week after week, this method provides insurance that the
plants will have adequate humidity while he is away. Judging from the
condition of the plants, it seems his system has some merit.
Parrot pitchers bear attractive red to crimson flowers on tall stalks, 8
to 15 inches high, each spring. Expect b u t one per plant, although
larger rhizomes may produce two flower stalks. T h e flowers resemble
those borne by purpureas, but about half the size. Although the colora-
tion we've seen may be caused by brighter southern sun, parrot flowers
have always seemed a deeper red, sometimes close to a reddish brown.
Occasionally petals remain greenish red, while sepals become darker
hued. Seed pods follow.
If you succeed in flowering several varieties of sarracenia at the same
time, you may earn a bonus. They do occasionally cross-pollinate. You
may discover the seeds will develop into a natural hybrid plant. For
fun, you can attempt to hybridize these plants yourself by hand. Details
are in the chapter on experiments.
Hooded Pitcher Plants

Hooded pitcher plants, Sarracenia minor, demonstrate a variation on
the parrots' insect snaring ploys. They have an upright growth habit,
but still emerge in the basic radiation pattern from the central rhizome.
Most of the pitchers with their monklike hoods also face inward toward
the center of the plant. Pitchers themselves may be 6 to 12 inches tall.
During the growing season, you'll find pitchers of various sizes. These
plants, like all others, continue to sprout new pitchers as older ones dry
and die.
mmmm—'
Hooded pitcher plants, Sarracenia minor, have mouths somewhat like the
parrot pitcher, but have the translucent spots typical of the cobra lily and
its upright growth.
T h e pitchers themselves are hollow, widening at the top into a

rounded hood with the m o u t h on the lower inside portion of the hood.
T h e s e plants also have translucent spots arranged across the entire hood
and a short distance down to w h a t might be considered the throat area,
just below the plant's m o u t h . W i t h strong sun, they'll change color,
ranging from darker green to green with reddish tinges to reddish
Pitcher Plants 55
This rear view of a hooded pitcher shows its distinc-

tive translucent spots.
brown. Some hoods seem to have more of the translucent spots than
others, but we haven't yet determined how or why.
W h e n insects are enticed into the m o u t h , they feed on the nectar
secreted by the inner cells of the hood, as they do with other pitchers.
T h e attractant glands are arrayed around the rim of the m o u t h and in-
side as well to encourage the dinner prospects to venture farther. O n c e
inside, the odds against escape are even worse than the parrot gives.
T h e mouth, remember, usuallv is lower, facing the ground. We assume
the insect's instinct tells it to fly up or to the sides, wherever the faint
light indicates there may be an avenue of escape. T o o bad for the in-
sect, because there is no passage from its little plant cave. Eventually, it
either falls into the digestive fluids in the lower portion of the pitcher
or unwittingly crawls its way down to a watery grave.
Each spring, delightful yellow flowers, usually one per plant, arise on
slender stalks. They are similar to the yellow-petaled flowers of the tall
huntsman's horn, Sarracenia flava, b u t slightly smaller. Petals are some-
what shorter, too.
W h e n you dissect the hooded pitcher, you'll find the same zones
common to all pitcher plants. Botanists we have visited emphasize that
there are normally five distinct zones, from the hood or mouth into
which the attractant glands first entice the insects, down to the final
base in which absorption of the digested protein and nutrients takes
place. It may be difficult for the untrained amateur to recognize these
distinct areas. In fact, they may really be sub zones, a different type of
pavement on t h e path the insect takes from entering until it becomes
the plant's nourishment.
However, in deference to the more technically minded, we have in-
cluded with these chapters outline sketches that will help you identify
the inner workings of the pitcher plants. These may be especially useful
if you plan study projects and need a guide to re-create accurate draw-
ings of these plants' innards.
Hooded pitchers will thrive with the same basic planting and care
given to their relatives. In fact, the following friend of the same family,
the miniature huntsman's horn, also is cultured in the same way.
Miniature Huntsman's Horn

This lovelv little plant, the miniature huntsman's horn, goes by the
scientific name of Sarracenia rubra. W h y rubra, I don't know. Seldom
does it attain the reddish hues which you might think it displays. W i t h
sufficient strong sun or ample artificial light it will become more
reddish across its top and partially down its pitcher. In most instances,
it remains overall green with fine reddish veins. We have subjected
these plants to 16 hours each day of Vita-Lites and Gro-Lux, but have
not achieved the darker red color we expected it to become.
This plant too emerges from a rhizome, which tends to elongate.
Propagation is easier bv breaking the rhizome in several spots and
replanting the pieces. Pitchers in various stages of growth should ma-
ture 6 to 12 inches tall. It is identified by the slender pitchers, veined
from halfway up with reddish veins more prominent and deeply colored
as they reach the top. It doesn't really have a hood as such. T h e top of
A Typical grouping of miniature huntsman's
horns.
The mouth of the miniature hunts-

man's horn may be smaller than
other pitcher relatives, but it's large
enough to catch its share of insects.
the plant is distinguished by a slightly flared flap. W i t h o u t translucent

spots to confuse the insects, and with an open mouth that seems hardly
sufficient to deter its prey's escape, you might wonder how this species
manages to survive.
Judging from numerous dissections of these plants it does quite well
at insect-catching. Perhaps the attractant is more powerful. Perhaps it is
easier for insects to enter, especially those that may be suspicious of the
other types. More likely, the glands that secrete the aromas to attract
insects are stronger further down the inside of the pitcher. Of course, it
does get narrower closer to the ground. T h a t too may make it more
difficult for insects once halfway down to turn around and head for
home. If you cut one open, you'll find a multitude of insects lodged at
various levels.
This cross section of a miniature huntsman's horn leaf shows its insect-
catching ability.
Each spring this delicate pitcher plant bears single red, velvety
flowers on individual stalks. Some wave several inches higher than the
pitchers grow.
Miniature huntsman's horns should be grown as hooded pitchers are.
They prefer sufficient moisture in the planting medium, b u t slightly
less than purpureas and parrots.
Pitcher Plants 59
The flowers of the miniature huntsman's horn appear

on tall single stalks. The blooms are smaller and lighter
in color than the deep red-purple pitcher flowers.
All of these pitcher plants enjoy such similar conditions that they are
easily grown together in terrariums. Remember, they do need room to
reach their full potential size. Select a large-enough display terrarium
for a group planting, with sufficient headroom so the taller types can
flower properly.
Each type has its own distinctive insect-alluring methods. Together
they make a fine display.
Huntsman's Horns,
Sweet Trumpets,
and Cobra Lilies
A m o n g the tallest, biggest, and most striking of the easily grown and
more readily available carnivorous plants are the huntsman's horns.
Huntsman's h o m s are actually the tallest varieties of the pitcher plants.
T h a t includes Sarracenia flava and its many offshoots, cousins, hybrid
relatives, and associated friends. T y p i c a l of this family are their tall,
straight, o p e n m o u t h e d growing habits. M a n y of the family have flaps
over the m o u t h to partially conceal the yawning hollow pitchers which
are one-way streets for the unsuspecting insects w h o enter in search of
the sweet nectar's aroma.
Huntsman's h o m hybrids offer variations in color and shape, size and
configuration. Y o u have a wide selection for complete terrariums from
the Sarracenia flava down to the miniature huntsman's h o m s , S. rubra
(discussed in the previous c h a p t e r ) . W h e n you begin counting the
many variations in this carnivorous group it's like going to a family re-
union. T h e y all look alike, b u t it is difficult to recall all the names and
places, never mind the true and accurate family relationships. Sar-
racenias are like that. E v e n the experts have trouble determining and
defining the exact names and ancestral heritage.
Perhaps one of the most unique of the taller carnivorous plants is n o t
even related to the Sarracenia familv. Botanists still debate its true ori-
gin and exact name. Y e t , the cobra lily, Darlingtonia californica, stands
tall as one of the most interesting of the insect-luring plants. At least it
does in N o r t h America, and ranks high a m o n g the more fascinating in
the world as well.
Huntsman's Horns, Sweet Trumpets, Cobra Lilies 61
The huntsman's horn, Sarracenia flava.

(Courtesy Burgess Seed & Plant Com-
pany)
I've put all the taller carnivorous plants in this particular chapter for
a reason. For one thing, because they are tall they require extra space
for growing to their destined dimensions; for another, because their cul-
tural life shies are similar. And finally, because they have similar insect
attracting, catching, and eating habits. After all, when you've studied
several hundred thousand over the years, and observed so many more
from coast to coast and overseas, you just naturally develop patterns
with these carnivorous plant friends.
Common to all these taller carnivores is their trapping method. In-
sects are lured by nectar secreted by the plant glands near the m o u t h
and throat. Some species have minute hairs lining the upper portion of
the hollow stalks or trumpets. Others assist their would-be meals down
6z Cultivating Carnivorous Plants
the inside track by waxy surfaces. A few astound and confuse the in-
tended victims by coloration or devious and perplexing surfaces.
Among the taller-growing carnivorous plants native chiefly to North
America is the cobra lily. This plant is distinctly different and in a class
by itself. Maturing some 18 or more inches high, it represents its name
well. W i t h flared hood, forked reddish tongue, and twisted stalk sway-
ing in the breeze, this plant has gained new popularity in recent years.
T h e cobra lily, native to the bogs of mountains in Northern California,
Oregon, and other spots in America's Pacific Northwest justly deserves
its fame. Anyone who has seen pictures of the king cobra snake will re-
alize how this plant earned its name. Closer inspection reveals even
more fascinating information.
The cobra lily, with its forked tongue, resembles the snake
for which it is named. The plant's mouth is beneath the
tongue, and the hood is composed of translucent spots
which block an insect's attempts to fly straight up and out.
A group of huntman's horns growing in a marshy field.
All of the tall pitcher plants in the Sarracenia group grow from
rhizomes, much like an iris does. All prefer the semi-swampy conditions
which are found near bogs, stream borders, and coastal wetlands. All
have hollow pitchers into which insect meals are lured to provide the
nutrients required for satisfactory growth.
Some varieties have more colorful tops and hoods or lids. Others
even have variegations and more colorful veining such as is apparent in
the sweet trumpet, S. drummondii. In fact, some from careful observa-
tion seem to outdo their relatives in their ability to lure a higher pro-
portion of insects than surrounding species- Specialists conjecture, or
perhaps they just guess, that color is more appealing. Others believe the
factor is a more powerful attractant in some species than in others, even
though they may grow side by side.
Colorful reddish purple veins against a white back-

ground identify the sweet trumpet.
Let's see in detail h o w these plants go about their work. First, the in-
sect is attracted by the nectar secreted by the aroma glands below the
m o u t h of the huntsman's horn. As it flies nearer, it must obviously find
the scent alluring. W h y else would it trespass into dangerous grounds?
All sarracenias have similar mouths, wide open and leading to a hol-
low stem or stalk that becomes progressively narrow as it nears the base
from which it grows. A flap or liplike hood is more pronounced on
some species than on others, b u t occurs on all. T h a t ' s a family resem-
blance y o u can spot immediately. O n c e the insect enters the open
m o u t h it becomes aware of the additional attractants farther down in-
side the pitcher.
T h e r e are glands inside the area that can be considered the throat of
the pitcher or horn which lures the insect deeper and deeper. At a point
the insect may b e c o m e alarmed. S o m e may escape. T h e majority,
unthinking as they are, may wish to rest on the inner sides of the plant
stalk. Unfortunately for t h e m , the mid- to lower-inner surfaces are more
Diagram of a single huntsman's horn.
slippery. These lower waxy or greasy surfaces speed the final movement
of the insect prey into the digestive fluids within the stem. Glands lo-
cated in the lower-inner walls of the huntsman's horns secrete juices
which combine with moisture brought up from the roots or deposited
by rain to create a soupy broth within the pitcher. In this the unlucky
insect becomes a meal for the plant.
Huntsman's horns attract and eat a wide range of insects each week.
We've found flies, moths, crickets, grasshoppers, ants, and even small
frogs in various stages of digestion within the pitchers we have cut
apart.
At flowering time the huntsman's horns, cobra lilies, and their rela-
tives put on a colorful show. S. flava and most closelv related species, in-
cluding the natural hybrids, send up tall stalks which bear the most cu-
rious, large, and showy yellow flowers. In the world list at the end of
Huntsman's horn flowers (above) are a bright yellow; the cobra lily's are a
deep, dark red.
this book you'll find some examples of natural and man-made crosses
which result in some color changes of the plant trumpets and flowers as
well. In general, these plants bear flowers with large petals. T h e blooms
may be two or more inches across.
Seeds are fairly large and offer good opportunity to propagate these
plants from seeds. Follow the accepted sprouting method in mixtures of
sphagnum and peat with sand as described in the culture chapter. An-
other simple way to reproduce the various huntsman's horns, S. flava,
leucophylla, oreophila, alata, rubra, and minor plus their related
hybrids, is by rhizome cutting. As the plants grow they build strength
and growth in the underground rhizome which resembles that of your
typical iris. These rhizomes may be an inch thick and quite woody, so
cut carefully. Take a sharp knife and cut segments an inch or more
long, leaving bits of root on the pieces and stalks or stalk buds. After a
few weeks in moist sphagnum moss these active pieces should begin to
sprout new plants.
T h e first leaves to appear are termed juvenile leaves. This trait is
common to all the American species of pitcher plants. These leaves
don't open, b u t do help get the plant growing and established. In fact,
during fall, especially on young plants only a few years old, juvenile
leaves may be found which last through the winter. They are also
termed winter leaves. In spring the more desired hollow leaves or
pitchers grow. T h e real activity, that fascinating insect-catching ability,
is accomplished by these mature leaves, which are hollow. Some may be
only a few inches tall, on some species like the miniature huntsman's
horn, S. rubra.
As the pitchers of each variety mature they may in taller varieties
reach 2 feet high. T h e mouths on these plants are covered or partially
covered by flaps or hoodlike lids. Some mouths may be less than V4
inch in diameter, up to perhaps Vi inch wide. Others, in S. flava and
the sweet trumpet, S. drummondii, may be 1 to 3 inches across.
Despite these differences in size, shape, and coloration, all pitcher
plants have the same five zones inside their hollow pitchers. Since these
taller types have fewer hairs or spines lining their mouths and throats,
perhaps we should review the zones. T h e y are detailed in the earlier
chapter as they apply to the purple pitcher, hooded, and parrot species.
T h e first zone includes the opening plus the underside of the flap or
hood as well as the area just under the lip or rim of the pitcher. This is
the attraction zone. It contains the glands and, depending on variety,
stiff hairs. T h e glands secrete the aromas which lure the insects from
fields away to their imminent demise. T h e hairs, on those which bear
them, also contribute to directing the insects into and down into the
lower areas of the pitchers.
Huntsman's horns can reach from 18 inches to three

feet tall.
Botanists list zone two as similar, with fewer or no hairs, and gradu-
ally changing into zone three. This zone is characteristically lined with
a waxy surface. If an insect tries to gain a foothold here he is out of
luck. O t h e r carnivorous specialists refer to this as the sliding or slippery
zone.
Below this are usually the digestive glands, which secrete the en-
zymes to break down the insects' bodies to be absorbed by absorption
glands in the lower zones. T h e liquid inside the pitchers, brought up by
water-conducting tissues and also deposited by rain, usually remains
level to about zone three. You can examine the inside of a pitcher
merely by slitting it. That's another project for younger hobbyists. Just
An insect's view into the deep throat of the huntsman's horn.
cut the entire pitcher open, use pushpins to hold it open and then iden-
tify the different zones and their functions.
Actually, different species do vary in the size and complexity of their
catching and digestive abilities. But basically, the zones can be seen, es-
pecially by use of a hand magnifying glass.
Over the years we have learned that all these huntsman's horns do
thrive in sphagnum moss alone. However, since their original habitat is
a somewhat drier, acid, and sandy soil, you can utilize mixtures of these
materials in the bases of large growing terrariums and containers.
Sarracenia flava, the most common yellowish-green huntsman's horn,
is attractively ribbed toward the upper areas and the mouth. As you
begin to classify and collect the various species and hybrids you'll find
that colors do change. On some species reddish hues become apparent
and more pronounced, even blotches at the rear of the throat.
For strikingly lovely coloration, the sweet trumpet, S. drummondii, is
perhaps the most attractive of the huntsman's horns. Tallest of the
huntsman's horn family, sweet trumpets are distinguished by varie-
gated reddish to purplish necks, throats, and mouths, including their
flap over the mouths. They also have unusual translucent whitish areas
between the ribs and veins which make them especially appealing in a
combination terrarium planting. This is one type which bears red
blooms, rather than the more typical yellow or yellowish green. Al-
•jo Cultivating Carnivorous Plants
A potted group of sweet trumpets adds a color-

ful touch to a collection of huntsman's horns.
though for years this sweet trumpet has been living under the Latin
n a m e S. drummondii, botanists now wish to change it to S. leucophylla.
(Somehow, I like the sound of drummondii better.)
Among hybrids, the crosses between sweet trumpet and others often
yield the most striking coloration, both in foliage and flower. Perhaps
one of the most dramatic results came from our crossing sweet trumpet
with the common northern pitcher plant, S. purpurea. T h e offspring
have a more upright growing habit, the exceptional coloration of the
sweet trumpet parent, and they respond well to terrarium and individ-
ual cultivation.
T h e natural range of huntsman's horns is the southeastern part of
the United States.
Sarracenia flava ranges from Virginia through the Carolinas into
Georgia, Alabama, and Florida, in bogs, swamps, and moist areas of
semi-shaded woods and pinelands. T h e tall summer leaves may grow be-
This hybrid has the coloration, upright growth, and

top flap of the sweet trumpet and the open mouth
and spiny throat of the purple pitcher.
tween 18 and 30 inches tall. Flowers are bright yellow in good sun to
\ellowish-green in shaded glades.
S. alata, formerly known as sledgei, is more restricted in its range to
the southerly areas of Alabama and Mississippi, even into parts of
Texas, where bogs and low moist areas favor its growth. It is lower-
growing than flava and has more red coloration in the upper portions of
the pitchers. Flowers borne on single stalks are typically yellow-green.
S. oreophila occurs in Alabama and Georgia, with some in Florida,
too. It seems to prefer sandier soil b u t does well in acid bog soils which
were probably once peat moss. T h e leaves rise about 18 inches high, are
green, and the flowers typically yellow-green.
7- Cultivating Carnivorous Plants
Sarracenia rubra is the lowest-growing type of the upright pitchers. It

ranges through the Carolinas to Florida and west to Louisiana in bogs,
swamps, and roadside ditches. Although most pitcher plants have from
four to a dozen pitchers per rhizome, this smaller variety mav have sev-
eral dozen pitchers in various stages of maturity from one rhizome. It is
more usually a clump-growing plant, reaching 6 to 12 inches tall.
T h e top portions of rubra leaves are, as the n a m e indicates, reddish
to dark red in the sun, and its flowers are deeply red or maroon, smaller
but similar to the purple pitcher plant blooms.
Cobra Lily
Just as tall, b u t with much more eye appeal to people and to insects
as well, I suspect, the cobra lily can rightly be called a pitcher plant.
After careful study, botanist J. D. Drackenridge, who is credited with
its discovery, decided there were some striking differences between it
and other pitcher plants, so he christened this outstanding carnivore
Darlingtonia californica. However, after proudly bearing that name for
many years, it has been declared bv modern botanists to be invalid ac-
cording to the rules of botanical descriptions. T h u s , Darlingtonia
californica has become Chrysamphora californica. Perhaps the common
n a m e of cobra lily or cobra plant is more descriptive and appropriate.
Looking at this strange plant you can easily understand why the com-
mon name was so readily applied and accepted. T h e plant arises from a
rhizome with juvenile leaves much as pitcher plants do. True, it also
has the similar attracting and digesting zones inside its hollow pitchers.
There the similarity ends.
T h e top of each mature pitcher is flared into a hood which carries
over and around the front. Attached to this front section is a forked ap-
pendage, much like the forked tongue so typical of snakes. Beneath this
tongue is the somewhat hidden m o u t h , oval-shaped but just as hungry'
as the open yawning mouths of other pitcher plants.
T h e hood and part of the pitcher itself is covered with translucent
spots between the veins. T h e tongue itself is greenish red to dark ma-
roon.
As an insect is attracted to the plant it may light first on the tongue
or fly directly upward into the open mouth. T h e interior attractant
glands secrete their nectar to lure the victim lower where it can become
a meal. But sometimes insects have a change of heart. Flying upward is
no answer inside this carnivore. T h e hood covers the entire escape route
on almost ever)' side. Besides, flying up to the light just means a
Diagram of a single cobra lily. The reddish forked tongue of the cobra lily
lures insects, and also serves as a walkway
into the plant's mouth.
bumped head for the insect. Even- spot that seems an escape door or
window is securely closed. Eventually the insect drops exhausted into
the liquid to be digested in its turn.
Each summer the cobra plants send up several flower stalks. These
look similar to the Indian pipes you find on woodland walks, b u t are
greenish with some reddish coloration near the top. T h e blooms are an
attractive dark red, between the size of the large huntsman's h o m
flowers and those of the miniature huntsman's horns, about 1 to 2
inches across and velvety in texture.
Propagation can be accomplished from seed in a sphagnum moss
mixture sprouting tray or container. It is easier to take root or rhizome
cuttings, although with care you can often succeed With cuttings of
young, strong pitchers carefully kept moist in sphagnum moss with just
their tops sticking out.
Repotted from a parent plant, this cobra lily seems to stand watch over a
new brood of newly sprouted youngsters.
Cobra lilies are native originally to the mountains of northern Cali-

fornia and Oregon along the coast. They are conspicuously bog-loving
and require much greater humidity for successful cultivation in ter-
rariums or other containers. In fact, although they will grow as potted
specimens, it pays to surround them with glass or plastic hoods to pro-
vide that essential humidity these plants crave.
Huntsman s Horns, Sweet Trumpets, Cobra Lilies 75
This o-inch-tall clear terrarium lets you grow the exotic

cobra lily in a humid atmosphere and view the full range
of its growth, from juvenile plants to mature hoods and
flowers.
Huntsman's horns in all their myriad sizes, shapes, and colors—and

their most-likely distant cousin the cobra lily—offer unique specimens
for larger terrariums. Their height requires lots of growing room, b u t
grouped together in your collection, they'll provide hours of pleasure as
they exhibit their own individual life styles and insect-catching abilities.
Butterworts
and Bladderworts
Butterworts and bladderworts have the same hungry insect-eating

habits as other carnivorous plants.
Bladderworts, although mostly quite small, are primarily aquatic.
True, a few are terrestrial, but most live their catching and dining lives
in water. They appear quite active with their ability to seemingly vac-
uum tiny aquatic insects right into their digestive bladders, but since
they are so small, and less easily grown, we'll leave them to the last half
of this chapter.
Butterworts rate perhaps greater attention because they are quite eas-
ily cultivated. They fit into terrariums, bear lovelv flowers, and provide
yet another insect-catching method for observation. Being larger, they
also can provide extra color and display in a carnivorous collection.
Butterworts are members of the Pinguicula family. You can find
many roadside ditches and swamps across America in which butterworts
lurk, patiently watchful for small insects to alight on their sticky leaves.
They are primarily native to the Americas and range in size from a
dime to some species that may measure 6 inches across. There are some
35 species distributed across the Northern Hemisphere, even into Scan-
dinavia. From the tiniest Pinguicula vulgaris, with leaves smaller than a
child's thumbnail, to the larger types, P. lutea and P. caudata, you can
grow an array of butterworts quite easily. T h e largest may easily mature
up to 5 or 6 inches in diameter.
These odd little plants aren't really very active. But the} make up for
-
that fact in the strongly adhesive properties of their leaves. Like so

many plants, butterworts are well named, when you consider their true
Latin name, Pinguicula. It means somewhat fat. T h e leaves have a
waxy or greasy appearance and appear harmless enough. But the secre-
Butterworts and Bladderworts
Butterworts in their native habitat. (Courtesy Carolina Biological Supply

Company)
tions of the leaves on the surface and along the tiny hairs of the leaves
have surprising strength. W h e n unwary insects are attracted to these
oval or tongue-shaped leaves they may suspect no danger. But once they
place their tiny insect foot on the sticky leaves they may realize the di-
lemma. Trying to flee, the insect places its other feet on the sticky sur-
face. Poor pest. It learns soon enough that that lovely resting spot has
epoxy gluelike ability. T h e more the insect struggles, the more surface
it contacts.
Larger plants are more obvious in the manner in which the leaves ac-
tually roll to clinch the decision and capture its meal. Perhaps the leaf
really does slowly roll toward its potential meal. Some experts believe
the leaves are stimulated by insect activity into a faster growth pattern
that results in the leaf furling. More likely the insect, in its struggles to
escape, contacts more leaf surface and the sticky substance helps roll
the leaves around the victim.
This large butterwort (the quarter shows its relative size) can fill a
planter by itself.
T h e sticky, hair-lined leaves of the butterwort. Notice how the leaves furl
when insects are caught.
The leaf-furling habit.
Close-up look at the mucilage glands of the butterwort leaf.

So Cultivating Carnivorous Plants
Close observation reveals that the leaf has incurled margins. This
forms a shallow catching pan or surface which is covered with colorless
secretions. There are two types of glands distributed on the leaf surface.
T h e first is visible and appears stalked or hairlike. T h e second type is
composed of groups of smaller cells which, under a microscope, appear
as knobs on the leaf surface. This type secretes the digestive enzymes.
T h e first type is responsible for the sticky catching substance.
Although they appear passive, butterworts do demonstrate some
primitive nervous system understanding. Their ability to distinguish be-
tween rain, artificial stimulation and the real thing—insect m e a l s -
becomes obvious after you watch them in action. For example, when
you water these plants the leaves just don't curl inward. Even when you
stimulate the surface with a pencil point or other object, the leaves
remain basically in the same position. But let an insect land and the
plant gets the message that it's mealtime. Additional sticky material is
secreted to secure the insect tightly. As this process continues, the in-
sect's struggle stimulates release of digestive enzvme from that second,
less-conspicuous series of glands. W i t h i n about a week the nutrients are
absorbed from the insect to nourish the plant.
Even the smallest and medium-size butterworts catch a surprising
range of insects. Although we can't actually attribute special taste pref-
erences to these plants, gnats and fruit flies seem to be the most com-
mon insects in their diets. In fact, growing cultures of Drosophila (fruit
flies) in a terrarium with butterworts will keep them happy for months
to come. Fruit flies also are easily caught and utilized for food by the
many smaller sundews.
Although the curling of butterwort leaves is obvious after a day or so,
younger plants can accomplish the process in several hours. O n e aspir-
ing filmmaker set his Super 8 camera on stop action so it would take a
frame every 16 seconds. After some testing, he achieved an amazing re-
sult. W h e n the film was played back at regular speed he had photo-
graphically captured the action just as effectively as the butterwort leaf
had captured the insect.
Flowering is another attractive bonus from butterworts. T h e smaller
so-called swamp violet types bear single tinv violet and lavender flowers
on short stalks. T h e larger varieties bear blooms of violet and in some
species yellow which may be almost an inch or so long. T h e form is
much like the common wild violet found in woods and fields. There are
five sepals, two stamens, and a compound pistil on each flower.
There's another fascinating sidelight to the butterworts. Some, partic-
ularly t h e Pinguicula pumila, primuliflora, and planifolia, mav develop
baby plantlets right on the margins of their leaves, all by themselves.
Actually, almost all butterworts can be induced to reproduce vegeta-
Butterworts and Bladderworts Si
The butterwort blossom.
tively this way by cutting off the leaves and placing them in a propagat-
ing bed of sphagnum moss which is kept moist at all times. Just bury
the lower, cut portion of the leaf in the moss and within several weeks
new baby plants should begin to form.
You also can reproduce butterworts if you save seed and sow it over
damp sphagnum and peat moss, covered with plastic sheets. Germina-
tion may be rapid or require several weeks of real patience until they
sprout. T h e northern species, especially P. vulgaris and P. villosa, usu-
ally respond better if seed is stratified or put into near-freezing condi-
tions for several weeks. T h e southern species, since thev seldom face
natural freezing in their usual habitat, sprout without this extra step.
To culture butterworts, follow the methods for sundews. Soil, how-
ever, should be allowed to become a bit drier between waterings. You
can satisfy that requirement by growing butterworts separately or in a
slightly higher portion of the terrarium.
Another point: butterworts do also require a period of rest, although

they are not a bulb or rhizome type plant. You can allow them to dry
down a bit for a m o n t h to 6 weeks after they have flowered and set
seed. After the resting period, during which they should be only
sparsely watered, you can bring t h e m back into full growth bv applying
the usual waterings several times per week.
Under lights, the plants require semi-sun conditions and flower and
set seed best under double Gro-Lux or Dura-Test fluorescent tubes 18
inches above the plants.
T h e list of butterworts found in the worldwide carnivorous plant list
provides locations for the different species. However, it seems proper to
list some descriptive information on the more commonly available
types here for reference in your trips afield and for us,e in growing these
easier ones successfully.
Pinguicula villosa ranges across Canada and into Alaska in sphagnum
and peat moss bogs. It bears single lavender or bluish flowers per
plant. T h e leaves tend to be circular, rather than elongated or tongue-
shaped, about Vi to 1 inch long.
Pinguicula pumila is found in the Carolinas and southeastern states,
including Florida, in open pineland and sandy moist soils. T h e flowers
range from white to violet, some with yellowish tongues. T h e leaves are
oval and light green, from Vi to 2 inches long.
Pinguicula pumila Buswellii is similar except that it has yellow
flowers.
A common northern variety, Pinguicula vulgaris, inhabits bogs and
light soils from New York and the New England states across the
northern tier of Michigan to M o n t a n a , northern California, Washing-
ton, and Oregon, as well as in Canada. This butterwort has one or more
violet flowers, slightlv larger than tinv wood violet flower size. Leaves
are tongue-shaped, even to elliptical shape and normally light green.
T h e y may be an inch to 2 inches or slightly longer.
Pinguicula lutea is a butterwort found in the Carolinas and southern
states. It enjoys deep sandy soils and bogs as well as open pine woods
and is perhaps the most common of the butterworts. Flowers are bright
yellow on stalks 4 to 8 inches tall which can be seen above roadside
grasses. Leaves are distinctively yellow green and rounded, like a minia-
ture football that has been deflated with curled edges. T h e leaves can
be 1 to 3 inches long on mature plants. W e ' v e grown some plants 6
inches in diameter.
Pinguicula caerulea, planifolia, primuliflora, and ionantha are other
types found mainly in the southeastern states. T h e ionantha is mainly
native to Florida.
Although all butterworts have the same basic growth and culture re-
The southern butterwort, Pinguicula caerulea, is native to the great Green

Swamp of North Carolina but is also found in other parts of the South.
(Courtesy Longwood Gardens)
quirements, they do resemble each other to the untrained eye. Flower

color and size are more exact means of identification, b u t then that's
the province of more detailed botanical textbooks.
Going further afield for the fancier who aims for a captivating collec-
tion, the Pinguicula caudata from Mexico and Central America is excit-
ing. It lias large yellowish to reddish leaves with showy, purple flowers.
T h e subspecies P. mexicana is native to Mexico and may grow up to
4 inches or more in diameter. Most likely a variation on the caudata,
the leaves are usually almost round with a slight lip along the edges.
However, during various times of its growth the leaves may take on
different shapes. Size is the best identifying characteristic of these two
types. Mature plants can grow up to 8 inches across.
Bladderworts
Among carnivorous plants, perhaps the bladderworts, scientifically
the Utricularia family, have more types and styles than any of the
others. More than 200 species have been identified and named by bota-
This bladderwort has been lifted from the water to a plain

white surface to show its typical rosette growth pattern.
nists and specialists in all parts of the world. There are about 20 found
native to the United States.
Although these are mainly aquatic, their habits, especially among the
larger types, bear watching. For one thing, they have been called fish-
eating plants. Bladderworts look harmless enough, but can they do
tricks. In nature they are found in bogs, swamps, along still lakes and
waterways. You might never realize their insect-eating abilities unless
you took a close underwater look at them.
Bladderworts have characteristic threadlike growth and may be at-
tached to either the mud or the soil at the b o t t o m of the pond or
brook. Some are just free-floating. W e ' v e explored old cranberry bogs so
covered with these plants in spring and fall that there seems a slight
pink or lavender haze over the water from the thousands of tiny
blooms.
There are several types which thrive at the edge of ponds and bogs.
After rains they may be submerged for a time, b u t then they either
break loose to float freely or grow to the surface on a slender, threadlike
stalk. T h e flowers have two segments, usuallv called lips. Like the but-
terworts, these plants have a palate between the two lips. Stamens and
pistil are sheltered ins de the petals. Although the flowers are delicate,
;
without them the different species resemble just so much threadlike

algae floating on the water.
But there the difference ends. Beneath that surface is the action. And
what action! Although different species may be larger or smaller, with
bladders somewhat different in shape and position on the plants, they
share one common ability. Perhaps it should be called an u n c o m m o n
ability, since these plants do lure, catch, and eat insects. In fact, these
can rightly be called carnivorous. In addition to insects, they will eat
small crustaceans, worms, fish, diatoms, and protozoans.
Basically, all bladders are somewhat oval or egg-shaped. Earlv studies
reached the conclusion that the bladders were for flotation of the plants
on the water. T h a t was accepted until it was discovered that the blad-
ders provide a more insidious function. Thev are highly active traps n o t
filled with air for flotation, b u t with a vacuum. As tiny water insects or
animals touch certain parts of the bladders near the so-called mouth,
the trap or lid opens inward. W a t e r rushes in to fill the vacuum. In the
process the insect, water flea, or babv fish is swept right along. Once the
space occupied by the vacuum is filled, the trap or lid closes and diges-
tion of the imprisoned meal begins.
W e ' v e taken time to closely observe this mysteriously effective insect-
trapping mechanism. Once vou understand how it works, you too can
watch in fascination as these plants perform their wonders for you.
They are easily grown in gallon jars or fish tanks, so observation
through the clear glass sides is easy.
Naturally you'll need good eyesight since these trapping bladders are
sometimes nearly microscopic, the largest about half the size of a pencil
eraser. Persevere and vou'll be well rewarded.
T h e entrance to the trap or bladder is circular, on one side of the
bladder. T h e closing flap, or trapdoor if you prefer, is a sheet of plant
Flotation isn't the only function of the bladderwort bladders. They also
lure and eat insects.
tissue attached to the top of the bladder, much like a spring hinge,
opening into the bladder. This trapdoor hangs down from the top and
is held in place, scientists believe, by cell pressure and parts of the
plant. T h e surrounding portion of the bladder acts much like a door-
stop which helps seal the bladder until the vacuum is built and the trap
is cocked and ready for action.
Like the flytrap, bladderworts have trigger hairs. Unlike the flytrap,
these are on the outside of the trap, usually just below the entrance of
the door. They also help keep excess algae and material from entering
the interior of the bladder when it is triggered into activity.
Nectar glands are also located just outside the door; right at the
threshold, so to speak. As nature sets the stage, the trap or bladder sides
Butterworts and Bladderworts 8j
A closer look at the bladders. (Courtesy Carolina Biological Supply Com-

pany)
become concave. T h a t ' s when the fun begins. As tiny water fleas and
other microscopic potential meals approach, attracted to the secretions
of the nectar glands, they touch the triggering hairs outside the door.
W i t h a quick response these hairs telegraph the approach of an immi-
nent meal to the bladder. T h e doorstop gets the message and moves
sufficiently for the trapdoor to be released. It swings in and up.
T h e water carrying the unsuspecting insects or tiny animal life
rushes in. As it does, the trap itself fills, assumes a convex shape, and
the door is pushed closed. O t h e r tiny hairs or stalks inside the m o u t h of
the trap help prevent the insect's escape. Since the water pressure is
now equalized and the struggles of the victim further stimulate the
bladder to secrete digestive juices, t h e door remains shut until the meal
is done. T h e n , in nature's marvelous manner, special glands inside the
trap absorb the water inside the bladder. T h i s causes the v a c u u m which
again sets the door securely in place and prepares the bladder for its
next luring, catching, eating sequence.
An even closer look of the bladderwort leaf trap. (Courtesy Carolina Bio-
logical Supply Company)
It would seem to many that if there is a vacuum created inside the

bladder the water would push the door open. Actually, close scrutiny
has revealed that as the vacuum is formed when water inside is ab-
sorbed by the glands, the convex shape imparts an engineeringly sound
structure to hold that door in place. Only stimulation of the outer trig-
ger hairs can and does unlock the trapdoor again.
W h e n no meal is caught, the digestive process may take a day or sev-
eral. If no meal is swept inside, the inner glands simply go about their
business in cooperation with the intricate mechanism of the plant to
reset the trap. T h a t can be done as soon as 15 to 20 minutes after the
artificial triggering of the trap.
In spring, when tiny larvae, mosquito wigglers, and newly hatched
fish are present, the traps earn their keep. Even somewhat larger meals
may be sucked inside with just a piece of tail left outside the door.
Propping open of the door may cause the entire bladder to die, or, at
least, not perform its function properly.
ButteTworts and Bladderworts 89
D o n ' t worry about your plants. Each has many other bladders to take
over if a few pass on. After a bladder has been successful several times,
the remains of its meals become even more visible. Eventually these
skeletal parts fill up the bladder and it drops away from the plant stalk.
Others, naturally, grow to continue the process. Any individual plant
will have many, sometimes dozens, even up to hundreds of bladders of
various sizes. It's just nature's wav of replenishing the parts which make
up the needed mechanism for these inspired aquatic insect-eating
plants.
If you enjoy photography as well as growing plants, you can add to
the pleasure of both hobbies with a camera and telephoto lens. Actu-
ally, a macro lens or bellows attachment will let you focus quite closely,
about 4 inches or so away from the scene of action. But special lenses
permit you to magnify the tiny bladders to capture an insect's-eye view
of that m o m e n t of truth when the trap is snapped and the plant's
meals pop inside.
Since these are small carnivorous plants, a microscope comes in
handy. Bv bottom illumination and a bit of dye from school science
kits, you can follow the action just like on closed circuit T V .
Bladderwort varieties are available from several firms. Most, however,
don't ship except in spring and fall. If you want to find your own
plants, vou can usually spot areas of these amazing wonders in ponds or
water impoundments in spring and summer when their thousands of
flowers mark their presence. To collect them, take along some plastic
freezer containers or large, sturdv plastic bags. A fine unit is a gallon
plastic mayonnaise jar available from restaurants.
To grow these oddities successfully, we found it pays to p u t an inch
of fine gravel on the bottom of the tank. T h e n add another layer of
sand. Pond mud works, but too often muddies the water during move-
ment of the container during study. Float the plants in several inches
of water, allowing room for them to send up flowering stalks. These can
be several to 6 or 8 inches tall in season.
Next, give them sunny areas or good lighting from artificial sources
so that the plants can begin to form new bladders. D o n ' t worry if you
clip or break some of the plants in transplanting or setting up your
growing tank. New parts and, in fact, new plants can and often will
form quite rapidly even from those broken parts by vegetative repro-
duction.
Suppliers normally ship bladderworts in plastic containers so they
don't puncture in the mail. W h e n they grow and flower you can collect
seeds to sprout in wet sphagnum moss. As they grow, just remove the
moss and place the new plants in the desired tank.
Bladderworts also reproduce asexually or vegetatively by several
methods. O n e is by winter buds called turions. W h e n you obtain or

collect these and store at 4 0 to 4 5 F. these buds remain tight. W h e n
0 0
floating in water with sufficient sunlight and warmth, these buds will
unfurl to grow stalks, bladders, and complete plants. Some produce
what amounts to lateral buds between branches which can be cut with
a bit of stalk to sprout whole new plants.
W h e n you plan to search for these tiny carnivores afield, here are
some of the more common ones and where they are likely to be found.
Also consult the world plant list for locations of these and other carniv-
orous plants.
Utricularia purpurea ranges across most of the United States. You
can find it in lakes, slow streams, and roadside ditches. It is distin-
guished by several purple flowers on a single stem. In large groups the
area seems to have a purplish haze above the water during blooming sea-
son. This particular species has whorled branches circling the main
stem, much like spokes on a wheel.
T h e Utricularia inflata is native to coastal states between New Jersey
south to Florida in ponds, lakes, and slow water. It has several to a
dozen yellow flowers on one stem.
Utricularia olivacea is found in southern Florida in shallow ponds and
swamps. It seems to have only one or two vellow flowers per stalk with
alternate branching. This one is so tiny, it takes careful observation to
find it.
In northern areas, Utricularia vulgaris can be seen in the north-
eastern states across the country to Washington and Oregon. It also
likes ponds and roadside ditches. You'll identify it easily from the 10 to
20 yellow flowers on t h e stalks which rise from several inches to 8
inches high. Look for tiny bristles on leaf margins to complete your
identification.
Utricularia intermedia with its thin, flat, and somewhat serrated
leaves is found in ponds and ditches in the same area as the vulgaris. It
has several yellow flowers with spurs on the blooms almost as long as
the tinv flowers themselves.
Utricularia minor also inhabits still waters and bogs in the northern
tier of states. Similar to intermedia, it has several yellow flowers and
leaves that are thin, flat, and smooth except at the tip end. This type
has leaves and bladders on the same stem and branches. Intermedia
seems to have developed a division of labor. Some stems have leaves,
others the bladders. T h a t ' s a key distinguishing feature of this species.
W i t h 200-plus species and subspecies, it is impossible in the space
available to a t t e m p t describing them all. These are, from our experience,
the more readily found or purchased from the carnivorous plant firms
who specialize in the weird botanical genus.
Butterworts and Bladderworts 9'
This bladderwort, Ultricularia vulgaris, has a

fernlike growth.
If you prefer to stay with terrariums and forego the aquatic types of
carnivorous plants, two terrestrial species are suitable for the soggier part
of the container.
Utricularia cornuta is common to the eastern United States in peat
and sphagnum moss bogs, even in wet shorelines of ponds and streams.
It bears several small vellow flowers.on stalks a few inches tall.
Utricularia resupinata ranges throughout the Atlantic and Gulf coast
states. It is also found, for some reason, around the Great Lakes. It pre-
fers shores of ponds and ditches. Unfortunately, it only offers a single or
at best a few small purple flowers.
Utricularia subulata is common along streams, ponds, and boggy areas
of the Atlantic coast and in the southeastern states. It has small yellow
flowers on each stalk.
Butterworts and bladderworts are two more oddities that can add
new carnivorous dimensions to your collection. You certainly have a
wide-enough choice among these two types.
Nepenthes
Nepenthes, those insect-eating pitcher plants of the Old World, are in

a class by themselves. They deserve to be. Early explorers of the islands
of the Indian Ocean, Asia, and in jungles of those faraway countries
with strange-sounding names were undoubtedly responsible for some of
the first stories of man-eating plants.
Most likely they had seen some of the wild and weird nepenthes in
action. T h a t shock might lead anyone's imagination astray. In old bot-
any books and documents, the first references to pitcher plants involves
the nepenthes. During the centuries since, naturalists and botanists
have classified approximately sixty species, all related to what they call
the family Nepenthaceae.
Today the art of classifying plants has reached a more advanced
stage. Many subspecies of the Nepenthes family have been described.
In all likelihood, some of these are simply natural crosses or hybrids
from species which grow near each other and have cross-pollinated.
Perhaps some have just evolved differently.
In any case, there is no mistaking these curiosities. Their typical
growth habit certainly marks them as strange specimens indeed. And
like many things from the Old W o r l d , especially from the remoter
parts of Asia, these plants retain their own mystique.
Some nepenthes appear to have a pitcherlike form. T h e majority bear
pitcherlike structures at the ends of regular leaves. T h e leaves them-
selves appear to be much like the typical lush, broad leaves of other
tropical foliage plants. T h e pitcher, of course, makes the difference.
T h a t ' s where the plants perform their carnivorous feats.
W i t h the upsurge of interest in plants over the past decade and focus
by many on the carnivorous types, nepenthes are becoming deservedly
more popular. T h e y are, however, still difficult to obtain for most
hobby collectors, although arboretums and dedicated specialists are hav-
ing success in obtaining different varieties for culture and display.
Nepenthes 93
Some varieties of the Asian pitcher plant, nepenthes.
We've included some illustrations of the more easily available and read-
ily grown varieties.
Among the sixty odd species native to tropical Asia, many are found
in the Philippines, Malagasy Republic, and Indonesia. T h e r e are varie-
ties in India, across parts of Australia and on other islands in between.
Borneo and some of the other more exotic-sounding lands of Asia
abound with the astounding carnivores.
Nepenthes are somewhat shrubby plants. T h e y creep or climb on sur-
rounding vegetation. You can, of course, grow t h e m individually in pots
or terrariums, providing you can supply the special conditions which
match as closely as possible their preferred environment. Most
nepenthes are jungle plants. T h a t doesn't necessarily mean they need
bright sun and torrid heat. After all, they thrive in the lower stories of
the rain forests and jungles, so filtered light or semi-sun will meet their
needs. Most species must, however, be provided with extra high humid-
ity. W h e n you examine them, that need becomes readily apparent.
94
High humidity and lots of moisture are required to supply sufficient
liquid to the pitchers through the tendrils which attach them to the
leaves. W i t h o u t that liquid, the plants just can't produce the attractant
fluids and digestive juices necessary to catch and eat their meals.
There are some species in this remarkable family of carnivores which
do require less moisture. T h a t ' s because they normally inhabit the
somewhat drier hillsides, mountain slopes, or sandier bogs in their na-
tive countries.
Climbing nepenthes, compared to the ground creeping types, per-
form that function with tendrils. These are elongations of the leaf,
which help the plant grow out and grasp supports so they can cling to
the more desired locations for their best growth.
Although there are many variations in the pitchers, in size, shape,
coloration, with modifications of mouth as well, all nepenthes bear a
strong family resemblance. T h e pitchers are developed at the end of the
tendril. Some tendrils may be short, others a foot or more in length.
T h e pitchers also vary in size, from an inch or so to over a foot long.
On individual plants you can find several sizes of pitchers in various
stages of growth and maturity. In this respect they are much like the
New W o r l d pitcher plants that sprout pitchers in continuing growth
cycles to replace older ones which mature, dry, and die.
Between species there are striking differences in shape and size. Some
may be long and narrow, with a wider top or bottom. Several are more
like long, hollow cylinders from a few inches to almost a foot long.
T h e y may have caps, hoods, or fringelike mouths. Others include
spinelike hairs around the entrance to the pitchers. Some of the largest
pitchers may grow to nearly 18 inches long, about 4 inches in diameter.
These larger varieties are the ones that most likely led to stories of
animal-consuming plants in those mysterious, faraway jungles. They
can, in fact, catch small birds, rodents, and animals, as well as the more
typical diet of insects. Remember, insects in the tropics are often quite
unusual. Many are much larger than their distant relatives living in
more temperate climates around the world. In consequence, I suspect,
the nepenthes have developed their larger pitchers in which to catch
their larger meals. Although there have been verified accounts of ro-
dents, birds, and small animals caught in the larger nepenthes pitchers,
most seasoned observers and professional botanists believe these plants
intend to attract and devour only insects as their staple diet. Birds or
small animals that have been found inside large pitchers more than
likely entered to go exploring and drowned, or were affected by the an-
esthetic effect of the plant secretions, or just didn't have the room to
flap their wings and fly out again from the restricted space inside the
pitcher.
Nepenthes 95
Most nepenthes trapping devices are formed at the end of long stemlike
portions of the leaves. Here are three examples (left to right): Nepenthes
x superba with an 8-inch pitcher, N. maxima with an SVi-inch pitcher, and
N. x dickinsoniana with a 10-inch pitcher. (Courtesy Longwood Gardens)
Despite the obvious and often strikingly different appearances among

the species, closer examination reveals they all have much in c o m m o n .
T h a t fact is emphasized in their insect luring and digesting apparatus.
First comes the mouth. T h a t ' s logical, since the plant must have an
opening through which unsuspecting insects are lured inside t h e
pitchers. This may be a relatively small opening leading to a more bul-
bous "stomach" area or base. Or, it may be surprisingly wide.
Nepenthes rafflesiana pitcher. Note the "teeth."

(Courtesy Longwood Gardens)
Generally the m o u t h has a lip or rim. It usually has a flap or hood,

which varies in size by species, of course. T h e rim or lip is composed of
the turned-out margin of the pitcher, usually with some particularly dis-
tinctive corrugated, spiny, or fringed edging. In some species the ridges
or fringes appear much like teeth. Again, these odd-looking plants cer-
tainly could stimulate the imaginations of those who first saw them,
leading to fables and folklore stories of monster plants. Gin and tonic
was a favorite formula in the tropics, and seeing these plants after ade-
quate amounts of gin and tonic could easily expand imaginations, espe-
cially when recounting tales back in jollv old England at the explorer's
favorite club or pub. After all, we all can improve a storv each time we
tell it to a new group, right?
Over the m o u t h , the flap, hood, or lid may range from tiny to so
large it overshadows the mouth. For your reference this appendage is
Nepenthes 97
called the operculum. T h e mouth, technically, is known as the peri-

stome.
Either just below, in, or on the lip (depending on the species) lies
the nectar gland. Some seem to have a large single gland. O t h e r bota-
nists report finding several.
T h e lip, whether fringed or smooth, offers no useful footholds for in-
sects attracted by the secretions of the nectar glands. Some topple over
the edge into the fluid contained within the pitcher. Others are lured
farther inside to taste the sweet nectar on the inner area of the rim.
Tough luck. There's seldom foothold inside. T h e last sound the insect
makes is "splash," as it drops into the soup below.
For insects with strong grips, these nepenthes have another method
to capture their prey. Just below the rim and nectar glands is a smooth,
waxy surface, called glaucous by botanists. Consider it a slide for life,
right to the digestive lower region of the pitcher. This so-called con-
ducting surface is the second basic trapping method of nepenthes.
Below this region is the area of detention. In some species there may
be tiny hairs which thwart the insect's escape. In others, overlapping
epidermal cells are found. This lower area is where digestion takes
place. As insects fall, slide, or flv into contact with these lower, nether
regions, the digestive cells which line the walls of the pitcher begin to
secrete more fluid. T h e greater the stimulation, the more they produce
the juices which begin the breakdown of the soft nitrogenous parts of
the insect bodies. On close examination, scientists learned years ago
that these digestive glands produce a weak acid as well as digestive or
proteolytic enzvmes. Bit bv bit the process continues. T h e products of
digestions are absorbed into the interior walls of the pitcher, nourishing
the plants.
These basic regions inside the various nepenthes species are generally
similar. There are variations, of course, as there are in all related plants.
But, whether you cut apart one of the almost thimble-sized pitchers of
the smallest type or dissect the giant variety, their basic luring,
catching, eating methods are alike. W h a t ' s more, they do work rather
efficiently.
There are some small insects, protozoa, and insect larvae too which
can exist inside these plants. They seem i m m u n e to the paralyzing
effects of the digestive fluids. In fact, studies of this seeming contra-
diction have revealed that these few organisms may be protected from
digestion by unique antienzyme elements in their own bodies.
Naturalists also have reported that a strange, primitive, and
monkeylike animal, the insect-eating tarsier, most likely lives in har-
mony with nepenthes. T h e plants lure and catch the insects; the tarsier
pops around periodically to pluck out t h e morsels it desires.
Perhaps one nepenthes variety has evolved a way to fight back.

Nepenthes bicalcarata has developed what looks like claws or hooks just
below the lid. In these, especially, observers have found the remains of
small animals, presumably small tarsiers which came to snatch a meal
b u t were themselves snatched as a meal bv the plant instead.
Depending on variety as well as soil and sun, nepenthes mav range in
color from dark, rich green to reddish or almost variegated color pat-
terns.
From talks with horticulturists in charge of arboretums as well as am-
ateur cultivators of carnivores, and through our own experience, we re-
alize that more varieties of nepenthes are becoming available todav.
T h e y do respond well to greenhouse and terrarium growing. Naturally,
their special needs must be respected to produce satisfactory results.
Nepenthes, except for the seldom available, drier habitat types,
Nepenthes x dickinsoniana. (Courtesy Longwood Gardens)

Nepenthes 99
require high humidity and ample moisture in the growing medium. A

mixture of peat and sphagnum moss will provide the best growing mix.
It holds moisture well, b u t also provides the adequate drainage which
these plants do seem to need. We should point out that few plants can
tolerate having their roots completely robbed of oxygen and air move-
ment in the planting mix.
To assure adequate drainage, nepenthes should be placed in clay pots.
T h e size depends on the variety, since some do mature to several feet
tall. Place gravel in the bottom of the pot, then add your sphagnum
moss. Since the plants do grow substantially, make certain to firm the
moss to prevent the plant from toppling over as it gains stature.
If you can provide high humidity, from a misting system in a green-
house, these plants can be grown in pots alone. Otherwise a large ter-
rarium will provide that satisfactory moisture. W h e n you consider that
the moisture to permit the functions of the pitchers must be
transported through the tendril which attaches the actual pitcher to the
leaf, you can appreciate why high humidity is vital.
Nepenthes can be propagated by seed. They flower in captivity and
seeds do form. Few beginners have had much success, since these plants
are generally more difficult to grow than most other types of carnivores.
However, seeds are becoming more available from firms t h a t special-
ize in carnivorous plants. O t h e r hobbyists offer seeds in exchange for
seeds or plants of other types of carnivores for their collections. The
Carnivorous Plant Newsletter and Plant Oddities Club both offer this
service to subscribers and members from time to time.
Plant nepenthes seed as you would the more easily grown pitcher
plants. Use sphagnum moss mix as described in the care and culture
chapter for your germinating medium. A soil heating cable or other bot-
tom warmth under the propagating tray or pots is helpful to speed
sprouting. We have found a 7 5 to 8 5 F. range works well. T h e moss
0 0
should be moist at all times, especially as the plants begin to emerge,

during those first few tender, critical weeks.
They also can be propagated from leaf cuttings. To do this, follow
the same procedure recommended for New W o r l d pitcher plants.
Nepenthes deserve more attention. As more species become available,
there will be greater opportunity to include these Far East oddities in
school and home studies. Usually reliable sources for these plants are
listed at the end of this book. Some firms have specimens available
most times. Others offer different species periodically.
Foreign suppliers, from Indonesia to India, have special problems.
Usually you must obtain import permits; they must get export permits.
Then there is the matter of plant inspection before plants can be
shipped. After all, plant inspection is necessary so that no insects which
lOO Cultivating Carnivorous Plants
mav be harmful to farm crops or shrubs and trees around your homes
enter this country. That's why it does take time to obtain the more ex-
otic species from lands far afield around the world.
If your curiosity is sufficient and and your patience and dedication at
their peak, you can continue collecting such novel wonders as
nepenthes year by year.
They may be nasty to their insect victims, but they do offer new hori-
zons of exploration in this wonderful world of carnivorous plants.
Nepenthes rafflesiana growing in a hang-

ing planter. (Courtesy Longwood Gar-
dens)
Microscopic Carnivores
Up to now, we've concentrated on those carnivorous plants that can

easilv be grown, cared for, and watched as they demonstrate their mar-
velous skills.
But there are others that most people never see and few know exist.
These too are quite carnivorous. Their strength is equal to the iron grip
of the flytrap or the octopuslike clutch of the tentacled sundews.
Consider for a m o m e n t how powerful plants really are. T h e most
slender root of a tree can work its way through the smallest crack in a
rock ledge. It grows cell by cell. Eventually it can establish a sturdy
roothold for that tree. You've seen this many times, trees jutting out
from seemingly impenetrable rock cliffs along roadsides. Even grass, es-
pecially those weed grasses, prove their power many times. You may as-
phalt a drive, onlv to find some plants still forcing their way through
what should be permanent impenetrable paving.
So it is not difficult to realize that some of the microscopic carnivo-
rous plants also may have amazing strength. For example, there are
many types of soil fungi in the plant kingdom. Admittedly they are
quite primitive. Some of these have evolved a carnivorous pattern as
the larger carnivorous plants have done. These fungi also have devel-
oped different ways to lure and catch their microscopic meals. Some
have sticky discs to which tiny soil bacteria and nearly microscopic
worms become stuck fast. Others have perfected nooses. Thev don't ac-
tually lasso their prey; instead, they beckon tiny soil eelworms, called
nematodes, with their own versions of aromas and secretions. At least,
that's how the agronomists and botanists we've talked with see it. As
the nearly invisible worms crawl through the noose or hoop, these fungi
sense they have a catch. T h e cells contract until they contact the un-
suspecting worm. T h u s , the fungi tightens the noose, effectively pre-
venting the prey's escape. W a t c h i n g this bizarre phenomenon requires
keen eyes, a high-power microscope, and hours of patience.
T w o of the smallest types of carnivorous plants belong to a group of

fungi called molds. You can often find t h e m in a bit of garden compost
or the decaying leaf mold from a forest floor. W h e n you place this sam-
ple under a microscope, there's lots to see. If lucky, you may have a por-
tion of these carnivorous fungi. Their diet can also be revealed with
proper magnification. Try 50 to 1 0 0 times at first. Once you locate the
appropriate loops and snares you can zero in at higher magnification for
a better picture of what is taking place.
Amoebas, nematodes, small crustaceans, and rotifers are all at work
in typical compost or rotting leaf humus. They are the diet of these
nearly microscopic carnivores. Nematodes seem to be the preferred
food. Nematodes are tiny worms, about /io > ]
n c n
long. Some are help-
ful; others, like the golden nematode and potato wort nematode, are
disaster when they invade farm fields. They stunt and kill the crops.
You may have seen cabbage, broccoli, or cauliflower plants that are
stunted, or dead. Chances are the root knot nematode has been at
work. Fortunately, carnivorous fungi don't seem to discriminate. They
eat all the nematodes they can catch.
O n e of the simple carnivorous fungi looks like a twig with tiny
globules sticking out along its sides. Biologists have called it a "lethal
lollipop." It is scientifically called Dactylla asthenopaga, quite a
mouthful to say for such a tiny, primitive plant. W h e n a nematode
comes wiggling along and touches the knobs, it sticks to them. T h e
more it squirms and wiggles the more its body touches the first and
eventually other knobs. Scientists who have studied these primitive
plants in action report that after the victim is effectively glued to the
knobs, spearlike filaments are inserted into the worm's body. These
serve to digest and absorb the "eel" dinner, leaving only the outer skin.
Another, even more ingenious fungus literally snares its meals.
Dactylaria gracilis is a mold which grows nooses along its length. They
may look like microscopic donuts, but these "donuts," of course, aren't
to be eaten. They do the eating of anv little nematodes or other crea-
tures that crawl or move through the hole in the middle of the
" d o n u t . " Each noose or snare has three cells which form the loop. They
are joined to the stalk by a one-celled stem.
T h e outside of the snare seems lacking in response. Nematodes mav
touch it and provoke no reaction. But when the worm pokes its head
through the noose, intending, I suppose, to crawl right through without
a worn,', then the fun begins. F u n for the plant, that is. W i t h i n a frac-
tion of a second these three little cells change drastically. They swell
several times in volume. In effect, this tightens the noose, putting a
powerful h a m m e r lock on the victim. As the victim struggles, prongs
similar to those of the lethal lollipop are extended into the worm's
Microscopic Carnivores 105
An eelworm caught by Dactylla asthenopaga (left) and D. gracilis.
body. They do the final job of absorbing and extracting the nutrients
from the worm for the plant.
Although these carnivores prosper within soil containing nematodes,
they can survive just on decaying organic matter. In this respect, they
and other carnivorous fungi are like the larger insect-eaters. They can
survive quite easily without a plentiful supply of insects or worms.
If your interests in carnivorous plants extend underground to those
microscopic forms, you can actually stimulate these little critters to per-
form for you. T h e loop fungus is especially cooperative. W i t h o u t nema-
todes in the soil, it merely grows steadily on without the loops. Or, at
least, only a few tentative feelers. However, when you obtain some
decaying organic matter or soil that contains nematodes, you can watch
the plant go to work. By looking over samples gathered in your travels
you can probably find some nematode soil, especially in gardens where
cabbage, cauliflower, and their relatives show symptoms of root knot
nematode damage. At this point, take the soil and mix it with a bit of
water, enough to moisten the soil. T h e n , combine the soil with the or-
ganic matter which contains your carnivorous fungi friends. Day by day,
through the microscope, you'll see the lethal loops begin to grow.
From then on, keep an eye open. As the nematodes wiggle about, you'll
eventually catch the action in the lens.
You can continue studies of these carnivorous fungi by cultivating
them and microscopic amoebae and nematodes in agar solutions in
petri dishes.
In a report printed in 1934, Charles Drechsler of the Bureau of

Plant Industry outlined some interesting studies. You too can conduct
similar tests. He noted that fungi on a natural substratum, their native
habitat, often only reveal typical plant growth. But, he points out, very
probably because nematodes and amoebae multiply actively and freely
in agar plate cultures, the unique activities involving these animals as
prey and the fungi can be more frequently seen. He identified two spe-
cies of testaceous rhizopods, Diffugia globulosa Duj. and Trinema
enchelys Ehrenb. These are both shelled protozoans, sluggish in move-
ment. N o t too sluggish to resent their entrapment by the fungi, of
course. T h e plants appear to just wait, b u t as the protozoans move
through the agar culture thev become caught by the plants. On closer
observation, the actual snaring can be seen, with the minute animals
penetrated by the plant during the digestive process. All this must be
viewed through the microscope, b u t in that normally unseen world the
prowess of the carnivorous plants is apparent. Those that catch and eat
animals are readily seen to increase in size. Probably in health, too,
when they are better fed.
During his extensive studies, as reported in the ]ournal of the Wash-
ington Academy of Sciences, Vol. 24, no. 9, Mr. Drechsler noted that
other minute plants also have the carnivorous habit. He mentions
trichothecium, dacty laria, arthrobotrys, dectylella, and monacrosporium
among the nematode-capturing species.
O t h e r scientists in field and lab have expanded on these studies. It
would seem that although most carnivorous plants exhibit their won-
ders aboveground, visible for all to see, nature's mysteries also abound
in the soil, well hidden from the naked eye.
As you expand your explorations of the weird world of carnivorous
plants, don't just look around. T h e r e may be just as many fascinating
surprises down below, right beneath your feet. True, a microscope may
be necessary. But on the trail of carnivorous plants, as we have been for
many years, new worlds of wonder can be found in the most unlikely
ways. And places too.
Carnivorous Curiosities
Among Smaller Families
There are a number of carnivorous plants that can't be classified with

any of the large groups. O n e of these is Cephalotus follicularis. T h e
rippled edge of its mouth with its hairy lining is rather nasty-looking.
N o t at all what you might expect from a plant that coaxes insects into
its grasp. T h e trapping technique is similar to the purple pitcher plant,
although they are not related. Another unusual attribute of this oddity
is the fact that it has two types of leaves. O n e type seems to function
only as a normal leaf. It is present for a large part of the year in its na-
tive habitat and may occur even after the few m o n t h s that the hollow,
insect-eating, and savage-looking leaves appear. Once these trapping
pitchers begin to grow the plant forms dense clusters, spreading out
into carpets of new plants.
Insects are lured into the poised mouths, then skid down the inward
pointing hairs until they reach the waxier inner regions. Digestion takes
place both by enzymes secreted by the digestive glands and bacterial ac-
tion in the broth contained within the hollow pitchers.
Cephalotus is seldom available except through swaps of plants with
collectors and fanciers. There's a reason for this: cephalotus is much
more difficult to grow for any length of time. It prefers peat and sphag-
num mixtures and ample moisture at all times. Most carnivorous enthu-
siasts find it difficult to keep for more than a year or two. Rarely do we
ever hear of success in getting this stubborn plant to flower and set
seeds. For those with time and patience, it deserves a place in the seri-
ous hobbyist's or specialist's collection. For beginners it is usually disap-
pointing.
Another somewhat rare and touchy carnivorous curiosity is the
heliamphora. It is known only in a native habitat on the remote M o u n t
io6 Cultivating Carnivorous Plants
Cephalotus follicularis is identified by the fluted edges on its pitchers and

its tall flower stalks. (Courtesy Longwood Gardens)
Drivoa in Venezuela. W e ' v e tried to reach the area several times on

trips to Caracas, but just couldn't contact the needed guide.
Heliamphora is distinguished by its wide funnel shape and has virtu-
ally no hood or flap. It too grows in mossy and boggy glades. Its funnels
may rise almost six inches or longer to await their meals atop a mossy
layer.
Although you might expect this plant would be flooded periodically
in the rain forest atmosphere, it compensates for this excess moisture. It
must, otherwise its meals would be washed away constantly. Instead of
the hood or cap or flap common to most pitcher plants and even the
nephenthes, the heliamphora has a vent or slit in the funnel. It works
like a b a t h t u b drain. W h e n too much rain enters it flows out the upper
drain, leaving the insect meals to be completely digested in the lower
reaches of the funnel.
Like other pitcher plants however, it does utilize a hairy upper zone
inside the funnels graduating to a narrower waxy surface deeper inside.
Blooms are attractive and delicate, rather showv white flowers on tall
reddish stems. A l t h o u g h it seldom has performed its customary bloom-
ing in captivity, this plant is b e c o m i n g more available from enthusiasts
who have imported small numbers. According to qualified h o b b y
growers and scientists at arboretums, heliamphora does respond to
sphagnum and peat moss growing m e d i u m with constant high humid-
ity.
T h r e e types of sundews are included in this chapter rather than w i t h
the seemingly related sundews in their o w n chapter. T h e s e are natives
of Australia and nearby areas; they are distinct from the others in
growth pattern, and also a bit more difficult to obtain, so only special-
ists may be interested in pursuing their cultivation.
Drosera binata, the horseshoe sundew, is native to Australia, N e w
South W a l e s , and N e w Zealand. Restrictive export requirements m a k e
it even more difficult to obtain the plants. Seeds are c o m i n g to t h e
United States and growers should soon have limited quantities of seeds
and plants for those w h o wish to observe these horseshoe shaped sun-
dews in action. Fortunately, this sundew is prolific. An Australian

friend looked at me curiously when I asked about this plant; he and
others in Australia look upon the plant more as a weed than as any-
thing of value.
This plant is usually short with a stem bearing the typical and char-
acteristic horseshoe stems. These are lined with red-tipped tentacles
which may remain greenish or pinkish if not given sufficient sun. As the
plant grows, the horseshoe stem with its insect-catching tentacles may
split several times until the top portion of the plant seems to be a maze
of upward-pointing miniature horseshoes. It flowers annuallv, bearing
white blooms on slender stalks. Culture of this sundew is the same as
for native American or other types. Moist sphagnum moss over a layer
of sand and peat is good. If it flowers, you can sow seeds. Otherwise, try
propagating bv root and leaf cuttings. It does have a better root struc-
ture than many of the small American sundews, so once you get it
started right it should grow on for years.
Drosera peltata, t h e so-called bracketed sundew, is another strange
sundew native to swamps and bogs of Australia. It has what appear as
bursts of leaves covered with the typical red-tipped tentacles. These
roundish leaves grow at various points along an upright stalk. To get a
better understanding of this oddity, consider how tvpical round sundew
leaves would look if you attached them even,' inch or so along a tall
filiformis sundew's upright leaf.
T h e D. peltata has a vinelike growth pattern, reaching 6 to 10 inches
tall. It bears white flowers in season. T h e plant is dormant during sum-
mer in its native Australia b u t begins new growth each autumn from its
underground tuber. W i t h luck, and you need it to grow this particular
carnivore, the plant will send up its new shoots and flower by spring.
After setting seed, in early summer, the vines droop and usually set
roots as those portions pi the stem touch the marshy ground again.
T h a t ' s much like the way black raspberries drop their branches to the
ground and set new roots to produce new plants. Another example
might be the spider plant t h a t sets new plants at the ends of stems
which can then be cut apart and repotted.
Also from that land of oddities that gave the world the duck-billed
platypus and other animals found nowhere else on Earth comes
Drosera schizandra, a sundew t h a t seems to grow only in North
Queensland and then in a restricted range near M o u n t Bartle Frese. It
has broad leaves with a visible notch in the center. T h e plants have
smooth, round leaves with the typical tentacles emerging also over them.
T h e y also grow in a radiating pattern much like the American sundews.
Before we leave Australia, there is one other carnivorous plant that
captures the imagination. N o t a sundew, although it may look that
Drosera schizandra
Byblis gigantea exudes sticky digestive fluids whenever an insect lands on its
long leaves. (Courtesy Longwood Gardens)
no Cultivating Carnivorous Plants
way, Byblis gigantea tops all the usual carnivorous plants in size. Grow-
ing from a woody base, it stands 2 feet tall or more and at first glance
looks much like a tall filiformis sundew that had suddenly sprouted far
bevond its normal size. T h e stalks are covered with drops of sticky fluid
on what amounts to tiny tentacles which secrete the juices. This plant
too can sparkle in the sun. In its native habitat Byblis gigantea looks
much like a large, leafless shrub. W h e n plentiful it even expands in a
hedgelike growth pattern. W h a t a plant to grow to keep stray cats and
dogs from trespassing on your property.
Although it dines on insects of various size, this plant has a larger ap-
petite, as you can well imagine. Its sheer size demands more nourish-
ment. Small frogs, lizards, even young birds have been found stuck fast
to the arms and branches of this hungry carnivore. In the few arbore-
tums in which it has been cultivated the plant has not yet reached the
size it achieves in its native land. However, the problem may be that we
have become accustomed to maintaining higher moisture than it
requires. In the wild, Byblis gigantea prefers fairly well-drained sandy
soil, according to Australian botanists. They have propagated it from
root cuttings and report that new plants are quite readily produced this
way. Byblis also seems to store moisture in its roots to tide it over the
drier times of the year.
In far-off Morocco and the dry soil of the hills of Portugal another
strange carnivorous plant awaits its meals. Drosophyllum is a genus sim-
ilar to the sundews, the drosera, but has none of its moist-soil-loving
nature. Drosophyllum is a low, shrubby plant which produces long
leaves bearing two different types of glands. O n e type is red and
stalked, looking much like miniature toadstools around the stem. T h e
other type is green and occurs right at the stem. Farmers have long
picked this and hung it in the house to catch flies, a logical use. W h e n
an insect alights the stalked glands exude a sticky mucilage which func-
tions as the catching mechanism. Although it appears that the tentacles
move, they really don't. Insects are literally drowned by the secretions
of the tall tentacles. T h e n the digestive glands, the green-colored ones
along the stalk, secrete their digestive fluids to absorb the desired nutri-
ents. A mosquito can be completely devoured in about 24 hours by this
remarkably effective digestive process. Only the skeletal remains will be
left to blow or wash away.
Drosophyllum is attractively colored by the reddish tentacles. Flowers
are a bright yellow. At maturity the drosophyllum, or, as it is called in
Portugal, slobbering pine, can grow well as a house plant, up to 18 to 24
inches tall. For culture, sources note that well-drained soil plus humid
air around the plant is necessary- for success. Although it grows well in
its native areas, plants are seldom available in the United States and
seed swaps are your best bet to obtain this carnivorous plant.
There are other carnivorous plants around the world, of course. Some
undoubtedly have yet to be discovered lurking in the jungles of the Am-
azon or darkest Africa. Strange mountain passes of South America, the
Orient, islands virtuallv unexplored in the South Pacific will probably
yield new discoveries in the years ahead.
We hope that you, once your appetite for pursuing these botanical
wonders is sufficiently whetted, may be among the plant explorers to
discover new exotics. As you do, your n a m e too may be added to the
Latin identification for the plant, to record in history your discovery.
Search on. T h e reading list included in this book is quite complete.
Libraries around the world no doubt hold more facts and figures. Once
you're caught by carnivorous plants, you'll find many exciting new
growing horizons across the world and friends to share your uncommon
interest in these most marvelous of nature's plant wonders.
Experiments with
Carnivorous Plants
You don't have to be a Charles Darwin or even a science student to

enjoy growing and experimenting with carnivorous plants. They'll per-
form all sorts of fascinating feats as you watch them luring and
catching insects.
In fact, every year across America and in many other countries
around the world, tens of thousands of people from teachers and stu-
dents to individual plant hobbyists, conduct an amazing range of tests
and experiments with plants. Carnivorous plants receive far greater at-
tention than most other plants. T h a t ' s easy to understand—they are
certainly among the world's most unique and fascinating plant won-
ders.
Perhaps you have never considered serious studv of carnivorous plants
and just prefer to enjoy watching them catch their meals. W e l l , why
not try some experiments? You'll most likely surprise yourself with the
discoveries you can make. After all, every new lesson learned helps ex-
pand your growing experiences and increases your own talents with
green growing things. Be inquisitive! There are new horizons to explore.
Carnivorous plants are a mystery to millions of people. Manv scien-
tists are still probing their secrets, trying to discover whv these plants
developed their amazing capacity to lure, catch, and digest insects. And,
how they actually do it. At some laboratories, researchers are actually
attempting to synthesize the insect attractant of flytraps and other car-
nivorous plants. They theorize that if they are able to learn the exact
chemical properties involved in the plant's insect-luring secretions thev
may be able to duplicate it chemically. T h a t could lead to a new break-
through in biological control of harmful insects on crops. Several
researchers we interviewed pointed out that by using small amounts of
that attractant at the edge of farm fields it may be possible to lure in-
sects into a closed chamber in which thev could be killed mechanically,
chemically, or perhaps electrically. T h a t development might eliminate
the need to spray insecticides on certain food crops. This may sound
like a long shot. Perhaps it is. But, in the field of horticultural and agri-
cultural sciences, stranger things have been attempted and accom-
plished.
T h e secrets of carnivorous plants offer exciting challenges; these
amazing plants hold real potential for new discoveries. Perhaps you may
be the one to unlock another mystery in the wonderful world of plants.
W h e t h e r you want to try just a few simple activities or really dig into
advanced botanical studies, one thing is certain. These insect-eating odd-
ities will have surprises in store for you.
For some twenty years I have been in touch with thousands of folks
around the world who share my interest in these botanical wonders.
We have swapped our knowledge by letter, phone, and in person. Dur-
ing my lectures and speeches in cities coast to coast, I've also inter-
viewed thousands of people from all walks of life who are or have been
involved in growing carnivorous plants of all types. Some of the most
interesting experiences have been with students and their teachers as
well as curious amateur plant enthusiasts. I can never tell where the
next unusual project or discovery will come from.
Hundreds of people over the years have suggested many types of ex-
periments, from simple feeding comparisons to far-ranging long-term
studies. Some projects are suitable for simple show and tell activities for
younger students. Others are more highly structured projects for high
school and college level Science Fair studies and reports.
Space won't permit listing the hundreds of projects we have reviewed
individually. Besides, half the fun is trying your own skill at experi-
ments with plants and arriving at amazing discoveries by yourself. So we
have put together in this chapter a broad range of suggested experi-
ments. Some are just simple fun. Others will teach you a bit more of
the little-known secrets of carnivorous plants, and the plant kingdom in
general. Other ideas and recommended study programs will require
more extensive knowledge or at least some dedicated work. How well
you achieve the results you want will depend on many factors, from
your previous experience to your ability to grow and apply experimental
methods.
O n e thing is certain. These projects and these plants will assuredly
put your powers of observation to the test. You'll most likely amaze
yourself with what you can accomplish. We have grouped all the
suggested fun and science study ideas in this chapter. As you develop
your own project, either using one mentioned here or your own varia-
ii 4 Cultivating Carnivorous Plants
Three easily grown plants—the Venus flytrap in the foreground, miniature

huntsman's horns in the left rear, and the purple or northern pitcher plant
in the right rear—are a good starter group for study of different insect-
catching techniques among carnivorous plants.
tions on it, you will find the details about the specific plants in the ap-
propriate chapters of this book.
In addition, to help you with research and background, we have pro-
vided a fairly comprehensive reading list at the end of this book. Most
libraries have useful information about many of the more common car-
nivorous plants in encyclopedias as well as botanical or horticultural
books. Many libraries also can obtain the more detailed and sometimes
technical references you may need for more advanced studies from their
corresponding and associated libraries in your state. We also have pro-
vided lists of leading botanical gardens and horticultural societies which

have helpful reference material available.
How much you dig into other sources depends of course on how ex-
tensive you wish to pursue your carnivorous plant investigations. Some
friends have actually written their master and doctorate degree theses
about insectivorous plants. That's a nice way to get a valued degree,
writing about your hobby! Something you may wish to think about
yourself, since a career in horticulture can be highly rewarding.
Career consideration aside, you may find not only fun, but awards
and prizes available as you develop your research science talents and
produce that first prize report for your local, regional, and even state
Science Fair. W h a t e v e r your goals, we hope that some of the ideas that
follow will be helpful as you expand your cultural horizons, in this fas-
cinating field of carnivorous plants.
Venus Fly Traps

PROJECT 1
T h e easiest study project with these snappy little plants is a simple

comparison of fed and unfed plants. We don't mean feeding ham-
burger, since, as you recall from the flytrap chapter, that will overtax
the plants' digestive powers and can harm or kill them.
Materials—2 growing containers, 12 flytrap bulbs, planting material.
You'll need two identical, or quite similar, growing containers.
Plant several bulbs in these two separate containers. Use glass fish
tanks, terrariums, or any suitable container that provides t h e proper
high level of humidity these plants require. It is best to plant about
four bulbs in each container so that you can observe differences more
easily. True, you can notice the difference between just two plants, b u t
several extras will provide a better chance of really graphic comparisons
at the end of the test period.
Cover one container so that no insects can enter it. In effect, create a
completely closed terrarium. As a closed chamber, the moisture will be
taken in by the plants, given off in the normal process of growth form
as condensation on the sides of t h e terrarium, and trickle back into the
sphagnum moss planting material. This cycle in a properly planted,
closed terrarium should be continuous and virtually self-sustaining.
Leave the second container open so that insects can be attracted in
by the plants. You can also actually "feed" t h e plants in this container.
Catch flies, small moths, mosquitoes, other tiny insects.
Use tweezers to carefully place t h e insect into a mature, open trap
n6 Cultivating Carnivorous Plants
that is cocked and ready for its meal. Remember to touch the two trig-
ger hairs so t h a t the trap snaps.
Live insects are best, since their struggles cause the trap to close fully
and stimulate the secretion of the digestive enzymes.
D o n ' t overfeed the traps in the open container. Just one or two in-
sects per plant are sufficient. You will need to add water periodically in
the open terrarium or planter, since moisture does evaporate and es-
cape.
Next, record when the plants snapped shut or were fed.
T h e n , watch t h e m each day and record the date each snapped trap
reopens.
W h e n the plant has its jaws flexed again, let it catch its meals or try
another feeding. At the end of a given time, one m o n t h or several, get
out your ruler.
Measure the size of traps that have been eating, the number of traps
on each of these plants, the condition of the plants. Compare those
nourished plants with those that lived on photosynthesis alone.
T h e n , jot down your findings and write your report.
PROJECT 2
Materials—12 flytrap bulbs, planting container and moss, stop watch,

movie camera.
Plant a dozen flytrap bulbs and allow them the required 8 to 10
weeks to mature and produce a nice display of hungry traps.
Get a stop watch and, if you wish, a h o m e movie camera. Set up the
camera and prepare the stop watch.
Next, take a pencil, piece of twig, tweezers, or other suitable tickler.
Gently brush the trigger hairs of a cocked trap.
You'll have to be quick with t h e stop watch, since a mature, well-
cocked trap with sufficient moisture in the cells can be mighty quick.
Next, try another open trap. W i t h practice, you can get the feel of
coordinating the watch and your triggering device.
T h e n , for comparison, let some of the plants dry out a bit. C u t down
on the water provided. T h e n repeat your experiments.
If you wish, measure the a m o u n t of water provided different plants.
T h e final testing can be done in just a few minutes once the plants are
mature and ready to snap.
Again, write down the figures and you have a completed experiment
that may just surprise you. H o w fast did these traps really snap shut?
Amazing, but seeing and timing the action is proof positive.
W h e n you use a movie camera, remember that you can achieve slow-
motion effects by increasing the speed at which you take the pictures.
Experiments mth Carnivorous Plants J 1
7
Then simply run the developed film at regular speed. O n e roll of 50
feet should be sufficient to record the results of the snapping action.
PROJECT 3
Materials—Microscope and slides, several flytrap bulbs, planting mix,

containers.
For this project, you can grow several flvtrap plants from bulbs to
maturity. W h e n thev have caught several flies, cut off the closed traps.
Remove one lobe or side of the trap and scrape some of the secretions
around the insect off the trap and place on a viewing slide. M o u n t the
cover over it and place under the microscope.
Then, look into a new world as you see the bacteria and accompa-
nying ingredients of the digestive process taken from the inside of the
trap.
You can take this study even further as some have already done.
Keep records of when a trap snaps. T h e n , examine the contents
through the microscope after the trap has been digesting the insect for
1 day, 2 days, 3 days, right up until the trap is ready to open naturally
at the completion of its digestive process. W h a t you find looking
through the microscope can be a real eve-opener.
In fact, several years ago, one student in California grew 100 flytrap
plants. He began a systematic studv of the digestive system, opening
traps and studying the contents and the process every few days. Result
—a $1,000 scholarship for his winning Science Fair project. He found
that the closed flytrap doesn't just rely on enzymes to digest the soft
protein parts of the insect. W h a t he learned was that the closed trap
functions much like a cow's rumen or multiple-pouched stomach.
Cows don't digest the grain and hay they eat. Microflora, millions of
tiny active bacteria in the rumen, break down the hay and grain which
in turn is utilized to nourish the cow. T h e great increase in bacteria
that takes place within the closed trap also seems to function in this
wav, helping break down protein of the captured insect so that the en-
zymes can then further digest the materials and the bacteria themselves
to nourish the plant.
Remember, this was not a scientist who devised the theory and con-
ducted the experiments. He was a high school student.
PROJECT 4
Materials—Several flytrap bulbs, containers, various planting mate-

rials including sphagnum moss, peat moss, acid soil, sand.
This project is quite easy to do and proves several points. Simply
plant t h e bulbs in the different planting mixtures. Provide the same

growing conditions: moisture, opportunity to catch insects, etc. You
can also grow them in completely controlled chambers to be more pre-
cise and avoid any distortions of results that might be cause by some
traps catching insects while others don't.
At the end of a 6- to 10-week period, notice which bulbs have pro-
duced sturdy, healthy, large plants. You can even trv combinations of
vermiculite and peat, sphagnum moss and sand, almost any planting
mix variation you want to evaluate.
For twenty years we have been periodically evaluating various grow-
ing mediums. O n e has consistently proved superior. This project will
tell you rather graphically which is best.
PROJECT 5
Materials—Bulbs, planting mix, containers.

We pointed out in the chapter about flytraps that force feeding of
hamburger and meat can be harmful. Granted, if you only give a trap
t h e tiniest sliver it mav be properly digested. Most people drop in what
amounts to relatively large chunks of meat for the size of the trap,
which can give the traps a bit of indigestion, and even kill them.
So, grow some plants. Let some lure and catch insects. Feed others
flies or gnats you catch. Feed others hamburger or bits of liver. Remem-
ber to mark the pots or containers so you have a clear record of which
plant was fed which meal.
W r i t e down the dates, t h e day-by-day developments, and summarize
your conclusions. Trv feeding a trap ants. T h e n describe what effect the
formic acid of the ant may have on the plant.
PROJECT 6
Materials—Large bulbs, planting containers, and moss.

Here's a propagating plan. As you develop your green t h u m b skills,
you can probably produce new plants by bulb division.
Take several large bulbs and snap them in half or in thirds. Plant the
divided parts and cultivate them carefully with sufficient humidity and
7 0 to 7 5 F. temperatures. Divide other bulbs by peeling off the vari-
0 0
ous layers. Plant them also.

W i t h luck and good care, vou should be able to produce new plants
by this simple method of bulb division.
PROJECT 7
Materials—Bulbs, containers, moss, fertilizer.

Another way to evaluate whether these unique plants need or can
use fertilizer is to try giving them some. So, plant several containers.
W h e n plants are almost mature, give several a teaspoon of liquid fer-
tilizer based on the amounts recommended for that particular fertilizer
for house plants. Give some plants a bit more or bit less. As a check,
don't fertilize your control plants.
You'll find out quickly how these plants respond to chemical or even
organic fertilizer. You can also achieve similar comparisons by trying
tests using insect control sprays.
PROJECT 8
Materials—Bulbs, containers, planting material, knife.

This can be a variation on the bulb division, since it is a propagating
technique. Remember, whenever you a t t e m p t any type of vegetative or
asexual propagation, moisture is vital. Covered planters, terrariums, or
just pots with plastic bags over t h e m will do, b u t you must maintain
the higher humidity to assist roots to form and the propagated cutting
to grow.
C u t off leaves from the mature plants; some with large traps, some
with smaller ones. Take half and dig the cut end in Rootone, the root-
stimulating hormone. It is available at garden supply stores. Leave the
other half of your cuttings alone.
Plant them all in the sphagnum moss. It helps to grind or shred the
moss a bit to keep moisture around the cut end which you simply insert
into the moss. Cover and await results.
This experiment is a bit touchy, since flytraps are difficult, in fact
sometimes almost impossible, to propagate the first few tries. But with
experience and perseverance, you'll get the feel of it and may be suc-
cessful.
You can devise many other projects, from growing seeds after your
plants have flowered to irradiating bulbs and seeds with various radioac-
tive materials. Be imaginative. Be inquisitive.
You'll never know what you can really do and discover until you put
your curiosity and talents to work and find out.
Sundews
Although not so active as the quick-snapping habits of the flytrap,
sundews offer opportunities for a variety of study activities.
PROJECT 1
Materials—One or two varieties of sundews, containers, planting ma-

terial.
Plant the sundews individually in the containers. N u m b e r them for

easy reference. Provide the same humidity, light, care.
T h e n , let them catch whichever insects they can. If you have access
to fruit flies, try planting sundews in covered containers and intro-
ducing several fruit flies.
If fruit flies are not available, cut a piece of banana and put bits on
the planting material near each plant to help attract fruit flies.
Keep watch over your plants. Record when and how many insects are
caught and what benefits the plants seem to obtain as they digest the
insects.
PROJECT 2
Materials—Several plants, containers, mix.

Plant several sundews in different containers. Give some as much
water as they can take. Keep the planting mix almost soggy. Give
others adequate water so the mixture is moist to the touch, not wet.
T h e remaining plants should be allowed to become drier, without, of
course, withholding so much water that you kill them.
T h e n , after a week or so, carefully examine the plants. W i t h a hand
lens closely study the amounts of "dew" secreted by the glands in the
tentacles of the various plants. Record your results.
You can take this study a few steps further. Continue to grow the
plants, maintaining the same culture conditions for each group.
Record t h e insect-catching ability of those kept soggy, those just
moist, those growing in drier conditions.
PROJECT 3
Materials—Plants, various soil mixtures, containers.

This project is basically the same as the soil mix comparisons for the
flytrap plants. You will, however, find that sundews do have a greater
tolerance for other planting materials. That's natural, since their native
habit range is worldwide. Find out what planting mixtures are best.
PROJECT 4
Materials—Several varieties of sundews, containers, planting mix,

hand magnifying glass.
Grow a variety of sundews: rotundifolia, intermedia, filiformis. Then,
count the tentacles on the arms. Next, either introduce fruit flies or en-
courage the native ones with bananas in the containers.
Day by day examine the plants. C o u n t the insects trapped. Each day,
re-examine the insects caught earlier to compare the progress of t h e var-

ious plants' digestive ability and speed.
There are many variations on this basic project, of course. Remem-
ber, however, that all plants should be cared for well with moisture in
the planting mix and humidity around t h e m adequate at all times, if
you are to achieve the results you want. After all, you don't respond as
well when you're not feeling up to par. Plants won't either.
PROJECT 5
Materials—Various sundews, containers, planting material.

Grow a variety of sundews just for fun. T h e n , on nice warm, sunny
days, place t h e m outdoors in your garden or a convenient location
around the home. Let them catch insects to their hearts' content.
Obtain an insect identification book or field guide to common insects
from the library. W a t c h your plants and try to identify the variety of
insects thev actually catch week after week.
We had a trav of tall sundews on the porch one year. O n e evening
they seemed all aglow. In fact, so were the flytrap plants. On closer ob-
servation we discovered that they were dining on the first fireflies of
the season that had begun emerging that week. A bit eerie, especially
the flytraps that had a dim glow from inside the traps. T h a t natural
phosphorescence lasted until the traps reopened again and the husks
of the fireflies were washed away by rain.
Pitcher Plants
These more passive plants won't provide the fact action of the flytrap
or even the sundews. But, you have a greater range of them for compar-
ative study and there are informative projects to be undertaken with
them.
PROJECT 1
Materials—One or several varieties of pitcher plants, containers,

planting mixture.
Grow the plants to maturity. That's the point when you'll have sev-
eral fullv grown pitchers, some half-grown, a few just emerging from
the rhizomes. Let them catch insects outdoors or in a terrarium in
which you introduce insects periodically.
W h e n plants have thrived for a m o n t h or so, remove the largest
pitchers, cutting them off right at the base. Next, take a sharp knife
a n d / o r single-edge razor blade and carefully slit the pitcher open. Use
pushpins or straight pins to hold the pitcher open on a board.
W h a t a sight! Try to identify the various insects. You'll probably be
amazed at what the pitcher has eaten in the few short weeks it has
been growing for you.
From this point, you can proceed with studies under the microscope
to better identify the insect bits and pieces and even the bacterial cul-
ture which exists to assist the plant in its digestive process.
PROJECT 2
Materials—Pitcher plants, containers, mix, sharp knife, hand lens or

magnifying glass.
Grow the plants for several months. T h e n cut off several mature
pitchers. Slit the pitchers open.
Study the various areas carefullv. From the spine-lined mouth of the
purpurea to the striking coloration of the sweet trumpet's mouth, fol-
low the insect's path along the various levels inside the pitcher.
N o t e the glands which secrete the aroma to attract the insects. Ob-
serve the glands which secrete the enzymes which help digest the in-
sect.
You can even carefully slice away portions of these areas for further
study under a microscope. Each part of the pitcher plant has a function
to perform.
As you find and study these areas and observe the cross sections
under lens or microscope, you can easily duplicate them on paper.
Sketch what you see. Add your comments.
PROJECT 3
Materials—Several pitcher plant varieties, containers, mix.

Grow a variety of pitcher plants. As thev grow, count the davs from
sprouting to maturity of the various pitchers of the different varieties.
T h e n , sketch the plants, comparing in your descriptive notes the varia-
tions in their insect luring and catching methods. Best varieties include
the northern or purple pitcher plant, miniature huntsman's horn,
hooded pitcher plant, sweet trumpet, tall huntsman's horn.
Once you have a variety of plants growing, you can continue your
studies right through flowering time.
PROJECT 4
Materials—Several varieties, containers, planting mix, small camel's-

hair paintbrush, small scissors.
Experiments mth Carnivorous Plants 123
Once you have grown and studied the different varieties, try your
hand at plant cross breeding or hybridizing. Many of these pitcher
plants will cross with each other naturally. In fact, we have found over
the years many natural hybrids in swamps and fields across the country.
You can duplicate nature at home or in the classroom. Once the
plants flower, get out your scissors. Remove the pollen-bearing stamens
from one variety while they are small so they don't begin to self-
pollinate.
T h e n , use the camel's-hair brush to remove pollen from the other va-
riety and transfer it to the pistils of the second variety from which you
have removed the stamens.
You may not succeed the first trv. But try again. It helps to have a
dozen or more of each plant to increase your chances of success.
Keep records when you complete each phase of this work. T h e n , as
seeds form and ripen watch the plants each week. W h e n the seeds are
dark and mature and ready to drop naturally, harvest your crop.
Next step is the most difficult, since it requires careful culture to ger-
minate the seeds. Use a ground or milled sphagnum moss and sterile
sand mixture, well moistened and covered bv a plastic bag or other con-
tainer to insure the needed high humidity.
W i t h care and luck, vou'll find the seeds begin to sprout in several
weeks. Some authorities have suggested placing the seeds in the refrig-
erator for several weeks before planting. We have had success either
way.
If your touch was right and the plants responded, vou'll have
achieved a most amazing result . . . a hybrid pitcher plant created by
your own talents. That's an accomplishment.
PROJECT 5
Materials—Several plants, any variety, containers, mix, sharp knife.

Pitcher plants also can be propagated by rhizome division and with
extra care by leaf cuttings. T h e northern or purple pitcher plant usually
works well. So does the tall huntsman's horn, S. flava.
Simply wash all soil or moss from the roots and rhizomes. T h e n , with
a sharp knife, cut the rhizome into pieces, being careful to leave roots
on each portion.
Then, replant the cut rhizomes and keep moist while they take hold
and begin to sprout new pitchers. We have found that the rhizome
pieces should be V2 to 1 inch long. T h a t means you can usually obtain
3 or 4 from a parent plant.
For leaf cuttings, simply remove the pitchers at the base and insert
in your moist planting mix. You can try dipping some in the root-
i2j Cultivating Carnivorous Plants
stimulating Rootone hormone powder according to the directions for

using that product.
For practical purposes, we and others who have tried leaf propagating
find about 25 to 50 per cent of the leaves, under adequate humidity and
moisture, can sprout and eventually begin producing new plants. But, it
does take care and luck. Rhizome propagating is easier.
Butterworts
Although these plants are rather passive, they do exhibit some action
when insects are caught on the stickv leaf surfaces. Some varieties tend
to curl their leaves when stimulated bv insects more than others. T h a t
factor, however, may be more a response to the moisture conditions and
general health of the individual plants than a variety differential.
PROJECT 1
Materials—Several butterworts, containers, mix.

Grow several butterworts and cover them. Leave the others open so
that they can catch insects. This study can be combined with similar
experiments using flytraps, sundews, pitcher plants, for simple observa-
tions and reports about the various plant habits.
PROJECT 2
Materials—Plants, containers, mix, hand lens.

Grow several butterworts and let them catch insects, or pop a few
fruit flies and small gnats on the leaves. Remember, these are smaller
plants and don't have the same appetites for larger insects as flytraps
and pitcher plants.
T h e n , use your hand lens and carefully examine the insects as they
are digested bit by bit. Record your observations. Keep a timetable of
how long it takes the leaves to reduce the original insect into its final
husk or skeleton stage. You might also consider using a ruler and meas-
uring those leaves of well-fed plants for comparison with those which
d o n ' t catch insects. Over a period of months you'll find some interesting
differences in color, size, and general health of the plant.
PROJECT 3
Materials—Plants, containers, microscope.

Take the earlier projects a few steps further.
Experiments with Carnivorous Plants
Remove a few leaves from the plants. Place t h e m under a micro-

scope. Observe and draw the areas you see, including the hairs, glands,
and any insects caught. You might also try slicing cross sections of the
leaf for even more detailed study.
PROJECT 4
Materials—Plants, containers, mix, fertilizer.

This can be combined with other carnivorous plant studies previously
suggested. Just mix up your small amounts of fertilizer in water and
compare the results when you apply it on the planting mix to those
plants that are not subjected to chemical- or organic-based fertilizer so-
lutions.
PROJECT 5
Materials—Several varieties, containers, mix.

Grow several of the different butterwort varieties. Keep a record of
how long it takes for each to mature, how they catch insects, the size of
mature plants, number of leaves, flowers, and other details. It is easy
and fun, and from that point you can continue into more complex stud-
ies if you like.
Bladderworts
These mainly aquatic types of carnivorous plants have their own spe-
cial techniques for catching their meals. In fact, they are sometimes so
effective that they catch tiny, just-hatched fish. We have at present sev-
eral gallon containers in which we're working on just such a fish-
catching study.
Unfortunately it is not completed so we can't guarantee how the
project will conclude. Besides, we're just a bit more partial and friendly
toward fish, having raised tropical fish for years. Insect-catching is one
thing. Sacrificing poor baby fish seems a bit more difficult to do, but
then again, many projects are needed in the interests of scientific ad-
vancement.
Since few firms offer bladderworts, you may find it necessary to
trudge along the edges of bogs and roadside ditches looking for these
floating carnivorous plants. T h e illustrations in the bladderwort chapter
provide you with a good guide to the general appearance of the plants.
They bear tiny yellow, bluish, or white flowers on slender stalks,
depending on variety.
In N e w Jersey you can often see thousands floating happily on the

water of flooded cranberry bogs. They are also quite common along
roadside drainage ditches in the South.
These plants are sometimes also available through scientific supply
companies such as N A S C O in Ft. Atkinson, Wisconsin, and Stansi-
Fisher of Clear Lake, Wisconsin. Schools, of course, have access to
them through their usual science supply sources.
PROJECT 1
Materials—Aquarium or gallon jars, plants, hand lens.

Grow several bladderworts for a few weeks in the same aquatic condi-
tions in which you find them in their native habitat. T h e n , as they
begin to thrive, remove several and place them on blotting paper or
paper towels.
Use the hand lens and, if you wish, a single-edge razor blade. Explore
their flotation devices and the tiny bladders along the stems.
W i t h the hand lens, try to spot the minute aquatic insects and larvae
which have been sucked into the bladders and are in the process of
being digested.
PROJECT 2
Materials—Bladderworts, containers, pond water.

Grow the plants by floating them in the aquarium or jars. Introduce
several cups of pond or stream water. W h e n you obtain it, try to scoop
up some of the nearly microscopic swimming insects. Most ponds have
a lively population wriggling and swimming about.
T h e n , keep a careful watch over a few weeks. If you have keen eyes,
you'll eventually be able to spot activity and compare the plants as they
begin their eating and grow more healthy, week by week.
W i t h a microscope, you might also try some peeks into the water and
at the bladders of the plants. Be careful and calm as you slice into the
bladders and open up these tiny compartments for study. It takes a
steady hand for such minute plants, but you'll find yourself looking into
an amazing world that you probably never knew existed.
PROJECT 3
Materials—Bladderworts, containers, tiny fish.

Begin bv floating bladderworts in your aquarium. T h e n , introduce
the tiny baby fish which you can scoop up with fine-mesh tropical fish
nets from the edge of ponds in spring. We call them pinheads, since
Experiments with Carnivorous Plants 12J
that's what they look like, just barely hatched and darting about. T h e
most obvious characteristic is their head and eyes.
Hopefully, within about 10 weeks, you'll have some large bladderwort
plants that have developed respectable-sized bladders. Keep a count of
the fish. N o t e each day, since some may die and float to the top or drop
to the bottom of the aquarium.
T h e reason to keep careful count is that you want to know when
some pinheads are missing. From that point, begin the count of the
bladders. Believe it or not, we and others have seen these tiny fish in-
side the bladders, sometimes with the tail tip still sticking out.
T h e sketch in the bladderwort chapter will show you what to look for
in the typical ready-to-trap bladder, and one that had an aquatic mini-
victim inside it.
Cobra Lilies
Strictly speaking, this n a m e is really a popularized description given
to the strangest of all native American pitcher plants. W i t h its flared
hood, reddish "tongue," and twisted pitchers, the plant does resemble a
cobra snake if you use your imagination a bit.
We have cultured them for many years. During the past several years
this plant has rapidly gained surprising popularity. Although it requires
high humidity to prevent the tender pitchers from drying and is there-
fore harder to care for, it offers excellent study opportunities.
PROJECT 1
Materials—Plants, container, planting mix, knife.

Grow several cobra lily plants. T h e n , when some of the tallest
pitchers are 15 or so inches high, remove them.
Carefully slice the entire pitcher open. Point out the translucent
spots, the tongue, the mouth, the insect lure glands, and of course the
various insects that have been caught by the plant. Add to your report
with sketches and descriptions of what you find and identify.
PROJECT 2
Materials—Plants, several containers, planting mix.

Start with immature plants and grow them for several months or at
least 6 weeks. T h e n , draw and describe all the parts, from juvenile
pitchers to all the appendages in the fully mature plant. Compare its
catching and eating habits, after watching it grow, with other types of
carnivorous plants.
PROJECT 3
Materials—Plants, containers, planting mix.

Try feeding tests and fertilizing tests, too. Follow the same proce-
dures as you would for the suggested project with various pitcher
plants.
If you wish, and time permits, continue your studies with propaga-
tion efforts. Again, follow the methods for cutting off and planting indi-
vidual pitchers. You'll find it is best to use the smaller to medium-size
pitchers.
Those which are fully mature tend to have less remaining strength
for setting roots, especially if they have already begun to dry out. T h a t
caution holds true for all pitcher plants.
W h e n you make stem, leaf, tip cuttings for propagation purposes of
any plant, the younger, tender, more succulent growth seems to have
the greater strength and ability to catch hold and set new roots to be
come a plant itself.
You might also consider trying fed and nonfed comparisons using
open and closed containers.
Or, simply foi viewing pleasure, try just one beautiful cobra lily
grown by itself in an attractive, tall, closed planter. Open it periodically
so t h e plant can lure in its meals. We have seen cobra lilies thriving
after several years, blooming year after year, in a 24-inch tall by
1 2 X 12-inch terrarium. It surely makes an amusing conversation piece on
the coffee table when friends come to visit.
Combinations
Any of the studies suggested for individual plants or combinations
can be accomplished in terrarium groupings too. In fact, most people
prefer to grow and watch their lively little plant friends at work in a
colorful display.
Here are some projects that can be successfully conducted when you
elect to grow and study a variety of carnivores.
PROJECT 1
Materials—Flytraps, sundews, butterworts, several pitcher plants, con-

tainer, and planting material.
Grow the plants together in a large fish tank or other sizable ter-
rarium so they all have sufficient room to reach mature size without
crowding. If the tank is low, select onlv those lower-growing types of
pitchers. Huntsman's horns, sweet trumpets, and cobras tend to
outgrow the usual 10- or 15-gallon tank. T h e result is curled tops as

they meet the roof of their terrarium home.
Keep careful watch over your charges. Each week, note which have
caught insects. Make a chart and list which seems to have t h e greatest
insect-catching ability.
If you wish to compare open and closed containers, do so. You'll
quickly find that those which can lure unwary insects to their snares
will prosper.
PROJECT 2
Materials—Collect them all.

For a fascinating hobby that will astound your friends, begin an ex-
tensive collection. You can plant them in large tanks, a greenhouse, or
individual terrariums and containers. Some friends have amassed beau-
tiful collections. Several hobbyists in Japan, the United States, and
Europe presently grow 50 to 150 different tvpes of carnivorous plants.
These plants do have a way of growing on you. But then, some peo-
ple raise hundreds of different cacti, others specialize in roses. O n e car-
nivorous collector in Japan has traveled the world, written ano* called
us from around the globe. Although we haven't had the opportunity of
seeing his collection firsthand, his photos prove his prowess in cultivat-
ing the largest collection of these plants we know of.
PROJECT 3
Materials—Various plants, containers, movie camera a n d / o r slide

camera.
Try your hand at photographing these marvels of nature. You already
may be accomplished with a camera; if not, read up on photographic
techniques. There are dozens of excellent books in vour library or avail-
able at your local photo store.
Some of the newest movie cameras have stop action or slow motion
capability. You simply set the camera for the number of frames desired
per minute and let it run. You'll need to insure adequate light, of
course. Every so many seconds the next few frames of the movie camera
film are exposed. Bit by bit, hour by hour vou can trace the growth and
movements of your lively botanical specimens.
Or, if you prefer to work with slides, try various shutter speeds and
exposure settings, as you trip the triggers of vour powerful little flytraps.
W i t h practice, you can achieve some striking results.
Again, there are opportunities for applying your photographic skills
to illustrate your study projects. Or, why not enter your astounding
photos in a local photographic contest?
Try close-up shots, too. This requires special attachments or lenses,

true, but with t h e fine cameras available today, you can focus in on
your carnivorous plants to obtain truly amazing, prize-winning photo-
graphic results.
PROJECT 4
Materials—Various plants, containers, artificial lights.

You can achieve startling results with plants when you experiment
with artificial light. Sunlight is preferred by these plants, naturally, but
scientists have captured many of the most valuable rays of the plant
growth light spectrum today in fluorescent and other types of bulbs.
You can put these to work as part of a plant illuminating project.
Rather than get involved in complex terms from foot-candles to pho-
totropism, we'll leave that in-depth research reading to you. Excellent
books on growing plants under artificial light are available at schools
and libraries everywhere.
W h a t we suggest is that you apply some of these techniques to your
carnivorous plant pets. Here are some ideas.
Suspend a twin-tube, 4-foot fluorescent reflector fixture over a plant
stand by chains or on pulleys. Use a metal tray or other container with
gravel in it on which you can place the potted plants. As an alternate,
place the plants in open terrariums or pots which can be kept ade-
quately moist daily. That's important, since even fluorescent lights give
off some heat, and you don't want plants to dry and lose their vital bug-
catching ability.
Make sure the fixture is properly grounded with a 3-prong plug. No
sense shocking yourself when watering plants.
As you start plants from bulbs, roots, or rhizomes, lower the fixture to
within 6 inches of the pots or trays. As plants grow you can raise the
fixture.
Depending on how extensive vou wish to make your studies, you can
obtain a photographic light meter to accurately measure the light inten-
sity in foot-candles. You can compare different light sources, from the
Sylvania Gro-Lux lights to the Dura-Lite developments; their Vita-Lite
and Natur-escent fluorescent tubes. Their newest Plant Lite is an indi-
vidual bulb that fits into conventional light sockets. You can set up sev-
eral of these for trials.
Consider testing carnivorous plant growth under different lengths of
lighting periods, 8 hours, 12 hours, 14 hours per day.
You'll leam many things from these illuminating experiments. Plants
will color up better, grow faster. For example, flytraps grown under
Dura-Test lights were gaining bright red color inside the traps within
10 weeks. Some at 16 weeks were scarlet to dark maroon. Traps with

less light remained pink or just green, although they did trap insects.
Newly planted bulbs grow to mature trapping plants in 8 weeks with
12 hours of artificial light per day. By 12 weeks most of 50 in one tray
were flowering, too.
A twin tube unit 18 inches over one sundew bed of 500 plants helped
turn them pinkish. Lowered to 6 inches over the plants, the Dura-Test
Vita-Lites encouraged all the plants to reach a much more intense red.
Held at 12 hours daily, they brought all plants into flower within 8
weeks of transplanting into the test beds.
There are dozens of other experiments with lights that can be
devised. T h e lessons you learn will help you continue even more suc-
cessfully with your carnivorous plant hobby for years to come.
Organizations,
Periodicals, and a
World List of
Carnivorous Plants
Back in the early 1960s the interest in carnivorous plants began to ex-
pand. Perhaps this was a natural outgrowth of the increasing interest in
all plants that developed as people began to w a n t more knowledge of
the wide range of plants they could grow in homes, offices, and schools.
It also can be attributed to the increasing awareness of these fascinat-
ing plants by naturalists and interested plant enthusiasts around the
globe. M o s t likely the increased interest was helped along by the many
different articles which have appeared in the recent decade focusing
closer attention on the wonderful and exciting world of these insect-eat-
ing marvels.
Hundreds of articles have appeared in specialized as well as the popu-
lar press. F r o m features in the Reader's Digest to True magazine, from
newspaper columns and school publications, stories and articles have
provided readers with heightened curiosity about the carnivores of the
plant kingdom. T h a t ' s only natural. T h e s e captivating plants do m a k e
news.
T w o organizations can be credited with m u c h of this long-needed
effort to provide information on carnivorous plants. T h e Plant Oddities
C l u b , through its worldwide membership, began in the 1960s from its
former offices in Basking Ridge, N e w Jersey, to generate enthusiasm for
exploring the mysteries of an ever-increasing range of carnivorous
Organizations, Periodicals, World List 133
plants. Searching through old and current periodicals, the Club, now in
Kennebunk, Maine, issues periodic bulletins to members accompanied
by reprints from many popular and scientific journals.
Another group that has earned well-deserved attention for its part in
building worldwide interest in carnivorous plants is the Carnivorous
Plant Newsletter. It was launched in the early 1970s by co-editors D. E.
Schnell of Statesville, North Carolina, and J. A. Mazrimas of Liver-
more, California. Together these two carnivorous plant enthusiasts
have also helped to organize a global fraternity of carnivorous cultiva-
tors. Their periodic Newsletter is packed with names of subscribers
from the far reaches of the planet.
Equally important, the brief but detailed articles provide new and ac-
curate information about carnivores. Descriptions of growing and
propagating methods, excellent photos and drawings by subscribers pro-
vide a steady supply of information.
In addition, these dedicated carnivorous collectors freely share their
knowledge and their plants. There is a C P N swap shop for seeds, cut-
tings, plants. This enables other enthusiasts to obtain those rare species
from growers in Japan, Europe, South America, and elsewhere in ex-
change for their own local types.
T h e Newsletter also provides details on subscribers' experiments,
from the simple to the far-advanced electronic methods for testing
plant responses.
But perhaps the greatest contribution of Mazrimas and Schnell has
been their compilation of the ongoing world list of carnivorous plants.
For several years they have spent untold dollars in postage corre-
sponding with scientists and carnivorous plant hobbyists obtaining in-
formation about the locations and cultivation of carnivorous plants
from the jungles of Brazil and Java, from the swamps of Canada and
the bayous of Louisiana.
Since this list is expanding constantly it has become an important liv-
ing thing itself. Updating is done periodically in the pages of the Ctrr-
nivorous Plant Newsletter. Subscriptions are available for $2 per year
within the continental United States, Canada, and Mexico; for $3 an-
nually overseas. You can get details from either D. E. Schnell, Rt. 4,
Box 27 5B in Statesville, North Carolina 28677 J p h A. Mazrimas,
or o s e
329 Helen W a y , Livermore, California 94550.

T h e Plant Oddities C l u b address is Box 94, Kennebunk, M a i n e
04043. T h e membership annual dues is $7, which includes the periodic
Club bulletins, reprints of scientific and technical articles, and timely
magazine and newspaper reports about carnivorous plants. In addition,
the Club offers swaps of carnivorous plants as well as discounts through
'34 Cultivating Carnivorous Plants
other growers for an increasingly wide range of plants from around the
country and overseas as well.
W i t h appreciation to Messrs. Schnell and Mazrimas for their untir-
ing efforts we have included in this book, with their permission, a cur-
rent list of t h e carnivorous plants found throughout the world. We
have also included additions from my own and other sources gathered
over the past few years, especially during preparation of this book.
As other carnivorous plant enthusiasts add to the needed store of
knowledge, undoubtedly more detail about plant sources, ranges, and
natural habitats will become available in the years ahead. We plan to
add that information each time this book is revised for future publica-
tion.
World List of Carnivorous Plants

SARRACENIA
S. x ahlesii-alata x rubra— S. formosa-minor x psittacina—
Alabama, Mississippi Georgia, Florida
S. data—Alabama, Mississippi, S. x gilpini-psittacina x rubra—
Louisiana, Texas Georgia, Florida, Alabama,
S. alata x psittacina—Alabama, Mississippi
Mississippi S. x harperi-flava x minor—North
S. areolata-alata x leucophylla— Carolina, South Carolina,
Alabama, Mississippi Georgia, Florida
S. catesbaei-flava x purpurea— S. leucophylla—Georgia, Florida,
Virginia, North Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi
South Carolina, Georgia, S. minor—North Carolina, South
Florida, Alabama Carolina, Georgia, Florida
S. chelsonii-purpurea x rubra— S. mitchelliana-leucophylla x
North Carolina, South purpurea—Georgia, Florida,
Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi
Alabama S. mooreana-flava x leucophylla—
S. x courtii-psittacina x Georgia, Florida, Alabama
purpurea—Georgia, Florida, S. oreophila—Georgia, Alabama
Alabama, Mississippi S. x popei-flava x rubra—North
S. x excellens-leucophylla x Carolina, South Carolina,
minor—Georgia, Florida Georgia, Florida, Alabama
S. exomata-slata x purpurea— S. psittacina—Georgia, Florida,
Alabama, Mississippi Alabama, Mississippi,
S. flava—Virginia, North Carolina, Louisiana
South Carolina, Georgia, S. purpurea—Eastern North
Florida, Alabama America
S. Hava x psittacina—Georgia, S. purpurea f. heterophylla—
Florida, Alabama Newfoundland, Nova Scotia,
Organizations, Periodicals, World List *35
Massachusetts, New Jersey P. crenatiloba—Mexico,
S. purpurea ssp. purpurea— Guatemala, Honduras, El
Northern Range to New Jersey Salvador, Panama
S. purpurea ssp. venosa—Southern P. crystallina—Cyprus
Range from New Jersey P. cyclosecta—Mexico
S. x readii-leucophylla x P. elongata—Venezuela, Colombia
rubra—Georgia, Florida, P. filifolia—Cuba
Alabama, Mississippi P. grandiflora—Ireland, Spain,
S. x rehderi-minor x rubra—North France, Switzerland
Carolina, South Carolina, P. grandiflora f. pallida—France
Georgia, Florida P. grandiflora ssp. rosea—France
S. rubra—North Carolina, South P. gypsicola—Mexico
Carolina, Georgia, Florida, P. heterophylla—Mexico
Alabama, Mississippi P. hirtiflora—Italy, Eastern
S. rubra ssp. jones II—RARE— Mediterranean
North Carolina, South P. hirtiflora f. pallida—Italy,
Carolina, Florida, Alabama, Eastern Mediterranean
Mississippi P. hirtiflora var. louis II—Italy,
S. swaniana-minor x purpurea— Eastern Mediterranean
North Carolina, South P. hirtiflora var. megaspilaea—
Carolina, Georgia, Florida Italy, Eastern Mediterranean
S. wrigleyana-leucophylla x P. x hybrida-alpina x vulgaris—
psittacina—Georgia, Florida, Russia, Finland, Austria
Alabama, Mississippi P. imitatrix—Mexico
P. involuta—Bolivia, Peru
PINGUICULA P. ionantha—Florida
P. acuminata—Mexico P. jackii—Cuba
P. agnata—Mexico P. jackii var. parviflora—Cuba
P. albida—Cuba P. kondoi—Mexico
P. alpina—Europe, Asia P. leptoceras—Switzerland,
P. antarctica—Chile, Argentina Austria, Italy, France
P. balcanica—Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, P. lignicola—Cuba
Albania, Greece P. lilacina—Mexico
P. balcanica var. P. longifolia—Spain, France, Italy
tenuilaciniata—Greece P. longifolia ssp.
P. benedica—Cuba caussensis—France
P. caerulea—North Carolina, P. longifolia ssp.
South Carolina, Georgia, lo ngifolia—France
Florida P. longifolia ssp.
P. calyptrata—Colombia, reichenbachiana—France, Italy
Ecuador P. lusitanica—Portugal, France,
P. caudata—Mexico, Central Great Britain, Northern
America Africa, Spain
P. casabitonana—Cuba P. lutea—Louisiana, Mississippi,
P. chilensis—Chile, Argentina Alabama, North Carolina,
P. colimensis—Mexico South Carolina, Georgia,
P. Corsica—Corsica Florida
P. macroceras—Japan, U.S.S.R., N. boschiana—Borneo

Northwestern North America N. burbidgeae—Borneo
P. macrophylla—Mexico N. burkeii—Philippines
P. moranensis—Mexico, N. carunculata—Sumatra
Guatemala, El Salvador N. cincta—Borneo
P. nevadensis—Spain N. clipeata—Borneo
P. oblongiloba—Mexico N. deaniana—Philippines
P. parvifolia—Mexico N. decurrens—Borneo
P. planifolia—Florida, Mississippi N. dunsiflora—Sumatra
P. primuliflora—Alabama, N. distillatoria—Ceylon
Georgia, Florida, Mississippi N. dubia—Sumatra
P. pumila—Texas, Louisiana, N. edwardsiana—Borneo
Alabama, North Carolina, N. ephippiata—Borneo
Georgia, Florida, Bahama N. fusca—Borneo
Islands N. geoffrayi—Indochina
P. ramosa—Japan N. globamphora—Philippines
P. x scullyi—grandiflora x N. gracilis—Borneo, Malaysia,
vulgaris—Ireland, France Sumatra, Celebes
P. vallisneriifolia—Spain N. gracillima—Malaysia
P. vallisneriifolia luc, N. gymanamphora—Sumatra,
brevifolia—Spain Borneo, Java
P. variegata—Siberia N. hirsuta—Borneo
P. villosa—Alaska, Canada, N. x hookeriana-rafflesiana x
Sweden, Norway, Finland, ampullaria—Borneo, Sumatra,
U.S.S.R. Malaysia
P. villosa f. albiflora—Northern N. insignis—New Guinea
Boreal region N. kampotiana—Indochina
P. villosa luc, ramosa—Northern
N. khasiana—Assam, India
Boreal region
N. klossii—New Guinea
P. vulgaris—Europe, Siberia,
N. leptochila—Borneo
American Boreal region
N. lowii—Borneo
P. vilgaris f. albida—Northern
N. macfarlanei—Malaysia
Boreal region
N. madagascariensis—Malagasy
P. vulgaris f. bicolor—Northern
Republic
Boreal region
N. maxima—Celebes, Borneo,
New Guinea
NEPENTHES N. merrilliana—Philippines
N. alata—Philippines N. mirabilis—Widespread
N. albo-marginata—Malaysia, distribution
Sumatra, Borneo N. mollis—Borneo
N. ampullaria—Malaysia, New N. muluensis—Borneo
Guinea, Borneo, Sumatra N. neglecta—Borneo
N. anamensis—Indochina N. neo-guineesis—New Guinea
N. belli—Philippines N. northiana—Borneo
N. bicalcarata—Borneo N. oblanceolata—New Guinea
N. bongso—Sumatra N. paniculata—New Guinea
N. papuana—New Guinea U. aurea—India to Australia,
N. pectinata—Sumatra Japan
N. pervillet—Seychelles 17. aureomaculata—Venezuela
N. petiolata—Philippines 17. australis—Tropical and South
N. philippinensis—Philippines Africa, Europe, Temperate
N. pilosa—Borneo Asia to Japan, Australia,
N. rafflesiana—Malaysia, Borneo, Tasmania, New Zealand
Sumatra U. baduleensis—Tropical Africa,
N. rajah—Borneo Malagasy Republic, India,
N. reinwardtiana—Malaysia, Philippines, Australia
Sumatra, Borneo U. benjaminiana—Guyana,
N. sanguinea—Malaya Surinam, Tropical Africa,
N. spathulata—Sumatra Malagasy Republic, Trinidad
N. spectabilis—Sumatra 17. bifida—India to Australia,
N. stenophylla—Borneo Japan
N. tentaculata—Borneo, Celebes U. bifiora—Eastern United States
N. thorelii—Cambodia 17. biloba—Indochina, Thailand,
N. tobaica—Sumatra Malaysia, Australia, New
N. tomoriana—Celebes Guinea
N. treubiana—New Guinea, U. blanchetii—Brazil
Sumatra U. bosminifera—Thailand
N. trichocarpa—Sumatra, Borneo, U. brachiata—India
Malaya U. bracteata—Angola, Zambia,
N. truncata—Philippines Zaire
N. veitchii—Borneo U. bremii—Europe
N. ventricosa—Philippines U. breviscapa—Cuba, Guyana,
N. vieillardi—New Caledonia Brazil
N. villosa—Borneo U. caerulea—India to Australia,
Japan
17. calycifida—Guyana, Venezuela,
UTRICULARIA
Surinam
17. adpressa—British Honduras, 17. campbelliana—Venezuela,
Venezuela, Guyana, Brazil, Guyana
Trinidad 17. canacorum—New Caledonia
U. albiflora—Australia U. capensis—Malagasy Republic,
U. alpina—South and Central South Africa
America, West Indies 17. capillifiora—Australia
U. amethystina—Florida to Brazil U. cearana—Brazil
U. andongensis—Guinea to U. chiribiquetensis—Colombia,
Zambia and Angola Venezuela
U. appendiculata—Cameroon to U. chrysantha—Australia, New
Mozambique and Malagasy Guinea
Republic U. cornuta—North America,
U. arenaria—Senegal to Ethiopia Bahama Islands, Cuba
to Southwest and South 17. cucullata—South America
Africa, Malagasy Republic, U. cymbantha—Zaire,
India Mozambique, Zambia,
1^8 Cultivating Carnivorous Plants
Botswana, Angola, South U. holtzei—Australia

Africa, Malagasy Republic U. hookeri—Australia
U. delphinoides—Indochina, U. humboldtii—Venezuela
Thailand Mount Roraima
U. dichotoma—Australia U. Hydrocarpa—Cuba to Brazil
U. dimorphantha—Japan U. incisa—Cuba
U. dunstani—Australia U. inflata—Eastern North
U. endresii—Central America America
U. erectiflora—British Honduras, U. inflexa—Tropical Africa,
Guyana, Venezuela, Brazil, Malagasy Republic, India
Nicaragua, Colombia U. intermedia—Europe, Asia,
U. evrardii—Indochina North America
U. exoleta—Africa to Australia, U. involvens—Malaysia
Japan, Spain, Portugal U. jamesoniana—Ecuador,
17. fibrosa—Eastern United States Guyana, Venezuela,
U. fimbriata—Colombia, Colombia, Antilles, Peru,
Venezuela Costa Rica, Panama
U. firmula—Tropical and U. juncea—Eastern United States,
Subtropical Africa, Malagasy West Indies, British
Republic Honduras, Trinidad, Northern
If. flaccida—Brazil, Paraguay, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela,
Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana
Argentina U. kamienskii—Australia
U. floridana—Florida, Georgia, U. kimberleyensis—Australia
North and South Carolina U. kumaonensis—Himalayas
U. foliosa—Florida to Argentina, U. laciniata—Brazil
Tropical Africa, Malagasy U. lasiocaulis—Australia
Republic, Galapagos Islands U. lateriflora—Australia
U. fulva—Australia U. laxa—Argentina, Paraguay,
U. geminiloba—Brazil Brazil
U. geminiscapa—Northeast U. leptoplectra—Australia
United States U. leptorhyncha—Australia
U. geoffrayi—Indochina, Thailand U. limosa—Australia
U. gibba—United States U. livida—Ethiopia to Cape
U. graminifolia—India to New Province, Malagasy Republic,
Guinea Mexico
U. guyanensis—Trinidad, British U. lloydii—South and Central
Honduras, Guyana America
U. hamiltoni—Australia U. longeciliata—Surinam, Guyana,
U. heterosepala—Philippines Venezuela, Colombia,
U. heterochroma—Venezuela Northern Brazil
17. hirta—India, Thailand, U. longifolia—Brazil
Indochina, Australia U. macrorhiza—Temperate North
U. hirtella—Central and South America, Temperate East Asia
America U. mannii—Bamenda Highlands,
U. hispida—British Honduras to Cameroon Mountain,
Northern Brazil, Trinidad Cameroon; Gulf of Guinea
U. menziesii—Western Australia Africa, Malagasy Republic
U. meyeri—Brazil U. protrusa—New Zealand
17. microcalyx—Tropical Africa U. pterocalycina—Australia
17. micropetala—Western Tropical 17. pubescens—Guyana,
Africa Venezuela, Colombia, Brazil,
U. minor—Europe, Asia, North Tropical Africa, India
America U. pulcherrima—Trinidad, Brazil
17. minutissima—India to Borneo, 17. punctata—India, Burma,
Australia, Japan, New Guinea Thailand, Borneo
17. monanthos—Australia, U. purpurea—North America,
Tasmania, New Zealand Cuba, British Honduras
17. muelleri—Northern Australia, U. purpureo-caerulea—Brazil
New Guinea U. pusilla—Central and South
17. multicaulis—China, Himalayas America, West Indies
17. myriocista—South America U. pygmaea—Australia
U. nana—Brazil, Guyana, U. quelchii—Venezuela, Guyana
Surinam, Venezuela U. radiata—North America
17. naviculata—Brazil, Venezuela U. reflexa—Senegal to Southwest
U. nelumbifolia—Brazil and South Africa, Malagasy
17. neottioides—Brazil, Colombia, Republic
Venezuela, Bolivia U. reniformis—Brazil
17. nephrophylla—Brazil U. resupinata—Eastern Canada
17. nigrescens—Brazil and Eastern United States to
17. novae-zelandiae—New Zealand British Honduras, Venezuela,
17. obtusa—West Indies, South Brazil
America, Tropical Africa U. reticulata—India, Ceylon
17. ochroleuca—Europe, U. rigida—Western Tropical
Northwestern America Africa
17. odontosepala—Malawi, 17. salwinensis—China
Zambia, Zaire 17. sandersoni—South Africa
U. odorata—Indochina U. sandwithii—Guyana, Surinam,
17. olivacea—Eastern United Venezuela
States, Cuba, Venezuela, 17. scandens—Tropical Africa,
Guyana, Brazil, Surinam Malagasy Republic, Tropical
U. oliverana—Venezuela, Asia, Australia
Amazonas (Northwestern U. schultesii—Colombia
Brazil), Colombia U. simplex—Australia
U. pentadactyla—Ethiopia to U. simulans—Florida to Brazil,
Malawi and Rhodesia Tropical Africa
U. pierrei—Indochina U. singeriana—Australia
U. platensis—Argentina, Uruguay U. spiralis—Tropical Africa
U. podadena—Southern 17. stanfieldii—Western Africa
Nyasaland, Northwestern 17. stellaris—Tropical and
Mozambique Southern Africa, Malagasy
U. praelonga—Brazil Republic, Tropical Asia,
17. prehensilis—Ethiopia to Australia
Rhodesia and Angola, South U. steyermarkii—Venezuela
U. striatula—Tropical Africa, D. andersoniana—Australia

India to New Guinea D. androsacea—Australia
17. stricticaulis—India D. anglica—Europe, North
17. subulate—Nova Scotia to American Boreal region, Japan
Argentina, Tropical Africa, D. arcturi—Australia, New
Malagasy Republic, Thailand, Zealand
Borneo, Portugal D. arenicola—Venezuela
U. tenuissima—Trinidad, D. ascendens—Brazil
Venezuela, Guyana, D. auriculata—Australia, New
Colombia, Northern Brazil Zealand
17. tetraloba—Western Africa D. banksii—Australia
17. trichophylla—Brazil, D. bequaertii—Central Africa
Venezuela, Guyana D. binata—Australia, New Zealand
17. tricolor—Brazil, Paraguay, D. brevifolia—North American
Colombia, Venezuela Boreal region
17. tridentate—Southern Brazil, D. bulbigena—Australia
Uruguay, Argentina D. bulbosa—Australia
U. triloba—South America D. burkeana—South Africa
U. troupinii—Tropical Africa D. burmanni—Asia, Tropical
17. tubulata—Australia Australia
U. uliginosa—India to Australia D. caledonica—New Caledonia
17. unifolia—South and Central D. calycina—Western Australia
America D. capensis—South Africa
17. violacea—Australia D. capillaris—North and Central
17. viscosa—Trinidad, Venezuela, America, Colombia, Brazil,
Guyana, Brazil, British Guiana, Venezuela
Honduras D. cayennensis—Guiana, Brazil
U. vitellina—Malaysia D. cendeensis—Venezuela
U. volubilis—Australia D. chiapensis—Mexico
U. vulgaris—North Temperate D. chrysolepis—Brazil
region including Europe, D. cistiflora—South Africa
Northern Africa, Temperate D. collinsiae—South Africa
Asia D. colombiana—Colombia
U. warmingii—South America D. communis—Brazil, Colombia
U. welwitschii—Katanga, Rwanda, D. compacta—Angola
and Burundi to Angola and D. congolana—Central Africa
South Africa, Malagasy D. Corsica—Corsica
Republic D. cuneifolia—South Africa
D. dichrosepala—Australia
D. dielsiana—South Africa
D. drummondii—Australia
DROSERA
D. elongata—Angola
D. acaulis—South Africa D. erythrorhiza—Australia
D. adelae—Australia D. ferruginea—Uruguay
D. affinis—Tropical Africa D. filicaulis—Western Australia
D. alba—South Africa D. filiformis f. filiformis—North
D. aliciae—South Africa American Boreal region
Organizations, Periodicals, World List 141
D. filiformis f. tracyi—Gulf States, D. montana var.

United States roraimae—Venezuela
D. finlaysoniana—Vietnam D. myriantha—Australia
D. flabellata—Western Australia D. x 'Nagamoto'-anglica x
D. flexicaulis—Tropical Africa spathulata—Japan
D. gigantea—Australia D. natalensis—South Africa
D. glabripes—South Africa D. neesii—Australia
D. glandulingera—Australia D. neo-caledonica—New
D. graminifolia—Brazil Caledonia
D. hamiltoni—Australia D. nitidula—Australia
D. heterophylla—Australia D. x obovata-rotundifolia x
D. Maris—South Africa anglica—Asia
D. hirtella—Brazil D. occidentalis—Western
D. huegelii—Australia Australia
D. humbertii—Malagasy Republic D. omissa—Australia
D. incisa—Cuba D. paleacea—Australia
D. x hybrida-filiformis x D. pallida—Australia
intermedia—New Jersey, D. parvifolia—Brazil
United States D. parvula—Australia
D. indica—Asia, Tropical D. pauciflora—South Africa
Australia, South Africa D. peltata—Australia, Japan,
D. insolita—Congo Taiwan
D. intermedia—Europe, North D. peltate var. foliosa—Southern
America, Guiana
Queensland, Australia
D. kaieteurensis—Guiana
D. peltata var. gracilis—Southern
D. katangensis—Central Africa
Queensland, Australia
D. leucantha-—Southeastern
D. peltata var. lunata—Japan,
States, United States
Taiwan
D. leucoblasta—Australia
D. penicillaris—Western Australia
D. linearis—North American
D. petiolaris—Australia
Boreal region
D. lovellae—Australia D. pilosa—Cameroon, Kenya,
D. macedonica—Macedonia Tanzania
D. macloviana—Falkland Islands D. planchonii—Australia
D. macrantha—Australia D. platypoda—Australia
D. macrophylla—Australia D. platystagma—Australia
D. madagascariensis—Malagasy D. prolifera—Queensland,
Republic, Tropical Africa Australia
D. maritima—Brazil D. pulchella—Australia
D. menziesii—Australia D. pusilla—Venezuela
D. metziana—India D. pycnoblasta—Australia
D. microphylla—Australia D. pygmaea—Australia, New
D. miniata—Australia Zealand
D. modesta—Australia D. ramellosa—Australia
D. montana—Brazil, Venezuela D. ramentacea—South Africa
D. montana var. D. regia—South Africa
robusta—Venezuela D. rosulata—Australia
H2 Cultivating Carnivorous Plants
D. rotundifolia—Northern D. stricticaulis—Australia
Hemisphere D. sulphurea—Australia
D. rotundifolia x intermedia— D. subhirtella—Australia
United States D. tenella—Argentina
D. rubiginosa—New Caledonia D. thysanosepala—Australia
D. schizandra—Australia D. tomentosa—Brazil
D. scorpioides—Australia D. trinervia—South Africa
D. sessilifolia—Brazil, Guiana D. umbellata—China
D. sewelliae—Australia D. uniflora—South America
D. spathulata—Australia, New D. villosa—Brazil
Zealand, Japan D. whittakerii—Australia
D. spiralis—Brazil D. whittakerii var.
D. squamosa—Australia praefolia—South Australia
D. stenopetala—New Zealand D. zonaria—Australia
D. stolonifera—Australia
Smalle Genera
HELIAMPHORA
H. heterodoxa—Mount Aldrovanda vesiculosa—Europe,

Ptari-Tepui, Venezuela India, Japan, Africa
H. macdonaldae—Mount Duida, Byblis gigantea—Australia
Venezuela Byblis Uniflora—Australia
H. minor—Mount Auyan-Tepui,
Venezuela Cephalotus follicularis—Australia
H. nutans—Mount Roraima, Chrysamphora californica—
Venezuela California, Oregon
H. tatei—Mount Duida,
Venezuela Dionaea muscipula—Eastern
H. tyleri—Mount Duida, United States
Venezuela Drosophyllum lusitanicum—Spain
Carnivorous Plants
on Display
W i t h the increased interest in carnivorous plants has come a welcome up-

surge in displays of these botanical curiosities at arboretums, botanical gar-
dens, colleges and universities. Some private collections also are available for
viewing upon written request to the individuals concerned.
There are most likely many other displays, some large, others small, at
various public and private gardens around the country. We have included
here those gardens and displays which have had and usually have a current
display of carnivorous plants. Before traveling long distances, it is best to
write to the curator or chief horticulturist to determine whether the display
is still on.
I am always anxious to obtain information about other display gardens,
collections, or even specimens of the more exotic carnivorous plants. Any
leads to help me obtain additional research publications, papers, and books,
will be most appreciated.
Periodic or Permanent
Plant Displays
Brooklyn Botanical Gardens, Prospect Park, Brooklyn, New York

Bronx Botanical Garden, also known as New York Botanical Garden,
Bronx, New York
California State University, Fullerton, California
California State University, Humboldt, California
University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California
Columbia Zoological Park and Botanical Garden, Columbia, South Carolina
Longwood Botanical Gardens, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania
Cornell University Arboretum, Ithaca, New York
Los Angeles State and County Arboretum, Arcadia, California
Missouri Botanical Gardens, Tower Grove Avenue, St. Louis, Missouri
Phipps Conservatory, Schenley Park, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
San Francisco Conservatory, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
State University of North Carolina, Raleigh, North Carolina
U. S. Department of Agriculture Research Station, Beltsville, Maryland
Denver Botanical Gardens, Denver, Colorado
IN CANADA
Montreal Botanic Garden, Sherbrook Street, Montreal, Quebec
IN IRELAND
National Botanic Gardens, Glasnevin, Eire
Periodic or Permanent Plant Displays
IN ENGLAND
Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, Scotland

Royal Botanic Gardens, also known as Kew Gardens, Surrey
University Botanic Gardens at Cambridge and Oxford
PRIVATE COLLECTIONS
Randall Schwartz, Box 283, Lenox Hill Station, New York, New York
Plant Oddities Club, Kennebunk, Maine
James Pietropaolo, Canandaigua, New York
Leading Horticultural
Libraries and
Information Centers
CALIFORNIA COLORADO
California Academy of Sciences Denver Botanic Gardens, Helen K.

Library Fowler Library
Golden Gate Park 909 York Street
San Francisco, 94118 Denver, 80206
California State Polytechnic DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA

College Library
3801 West Temple Avenue Dumbarton Oaks, Garden Library
Pomona, 91768 1703 32nd Street, NW
Washington, 20007
Forest History Society U.S. National Arboretum Library
Box 1581 U.S. National Arboretum
Santa Cruz, 95060 Washington, 20002
Los Angeles State and County FLORIDA

Arboretum Library
301 North Baldwin Avenue Fairchild Tropical Garden,
Arcadia, 91006 Montgomery Library
10901 Old Cutler Road
Miami, 33156
Rancho Santa Ana Botanic
Garden Library Hume Library
1500 North College Avenue University of Florida
Claremont, 9 1 7 1 1 Gainesville, 32601
Libraries and Information Centers 147
GEORGIA Old Sturbridge Village Library

Sturbridge, 01566
Callaway Gardens
Pine Mountain, 30822 University of Massachusetts,
Morrill Library
Amherst, 01002
ILLINOIS Wellesley College Library,
Chicago Horticultural Society Biological Sciences
Library Sage Hall, Wellesley College
116 S. Michigan Avenue Wellesley, 02181
Chicago, 60603
Worcester County Horticultural
Lake Forest Library Society
360 Deerpath Avenue 30 Elm Street
Lake Forest, 60045 Worcester, 01608
Morton Arboretum, Sterling

Morton Library
Lisle, 60532 MICHIGAN
Michigan Horticultural Society

T h e W h i t e House, Belle Isle
INDIANA Detroit, 48207
Purdue University,
Forestry-Horticulture Library
Lafayette, 47907 MINNESOTA
University of Minnesota, St. Paul

MARYLAND Campus Library
St. Paul, 55101
National Agricultural Library,
USDA
Intersection 1-495 and U.S. 1
MISSISSIPPI
Beltsville, 20705
Mississippi Agricultural
Experiment Station
MASSACHUSETTS Stoneville, 38776
Arnold Arboretum
The Arborway
Jamaica Plain, 02130 MISSOURI
Massachusetts Horticultural Missouri Botanical Garden Library

Society 2315 Tower Grove Avenue
300 Massachusetts Avenue St. Louis, 63110
Boston, 02115
National Council of State Garden
Oakes Ames Orchid Library C l u b , Inc.
22 Divinity Avenue, Room 109 4401 Magnolia Avenue
Cambridge, 02138 St. Louis, 63110
N E W HAMPSHIRE NORTH CAROLINA
University of N e w Hampshire North Carolina State University

Biological Sciences Library D. H. Hill Library
Kendall Hall Raleigh, 27607
Durham, 03824
University of North Carolina,
Botany Library
301 Coker Hall
Chapel Hill, 27514
N E W JERSEY
Rutgers University, College of

Agriculture and
Environmental Science
OHIO
New Brunswick, 08903
American Rose Society Lending
Library
4048 Roselea Place
N E W YORK Columbus, 43214
Cornell University, Albert R. Garden Center of Greater

Mann Library Cleveland Eleanor Squire
Ithaca, 14850 Library
11030 East Blvd.
Garden Center of Rochester
Cleveland, 44106
5 Castle Park
Rochester, 14620 Holden Arboretum Library
9500 Sperry Road, Kirtland, P.O.
Highland Park Herbarium Library
Mentor, 44060
Monroe County Parks
375 Westfall Road Kingwood Center Library
Rochester, 14620 Box 1186
Mansfield, 44903
Horticultural Society of New York,
Inc. Ohio Agricultural Research and
128 W e s t 58th Street Development Center Library
New York, 10019 Wooster, 44691
New York Botanical Garden Youngstown Garden Center

Library 123 McKinley Avenue
Bronx, New York 10458 Youngstown, 44509
N e w York State Agricultural

Experiment Station Library
Geneva, 14456
State University of New York,

OREGON
Walter C. Hinkle Memorial
Library Oregon State University Library
Alfred, 14802 Corvallis, 97331
Libraries and Information Centers 149
PENNSYLVANIA 149
Hunt Botanical Library VERMONT

Carnegie-Mellon University University of Vermont, Guy W.
Pittsburgh, 15213 Bailey Library
Longwood Gardens Library Burlington, 05401
Kennett Square, 19348
Morris Arboretum of the

University of Pennsylvania
9414 Meadowbrook Avenue WASHINGTON
Philadelphia 19118
University of Washington
Pennsylvania Horticultural Society Arboretum
325 Walnut Street Seattle, 98105
Philadelphia, 19106
Pennsylvania State University,

Agricultural and Biological
Sciences Library
University Park, 16802
WEST VIRGINIA
Temple University, Ambler
Campus Library Wheeling Garden Center Library
Meetinghouse Road Oglebay Park
Ambler 19002 Wheeling, 26003
SOUTH DAKOTA
South Dakota State University,

Lincoln Memorial Library
Brookings, 57006 ONTARIO, CANADA
Civic Garden Centre Library

TEXAS 777 Lawrence Avenue, E.
Don Mills, 404
Texas Research Foundation,
Lundell Rare Book Library, Royal Botanical Gardens
Suggs Library Box 399, Sta. A.
Renner, 75079 Hamilton, 20
Sources
for Plants
During my years of studying, growing, and propagating carnivorous plants, I

have contacted thousands of individuals around the globe. Many just grow a
few plants for their own pleasure. Some develop extensive collections. Few
have sufficient plants available to offer them for sale in quantity.
Several firms, however, have become deeply involved in the growing and
propagating of these oddities. They offer catalogs and price lists so that you
can order many of these botanical curiosities. Here's a current list of those
firms:
Armstrong Associates, Inc., Kennebunk, Maine 04043, has an illustrated,
informative catalog with many types, including Venus flytraps, sundews, but-
terworts, cobra lilies, and pitcher plants individually, as sets, and complete
terrarium kits. Catalog 25^
Insectivorous Botanical Gardens, 1918 Market Street, Wilmington, North
Carolina 28403, offers flytrap bulbs and a variety of sundews, butterworts,
and some pitcher plants. Catalog 25^
King's Park and Botanical Garden, Perth, Western Australia, 6005, often
has seeds of various Australian species of carnivorous plants.
Marcel Lecoufle, 5, rue de Paris, 94470 Boissy St. Leger, France, has a
catalog offering several species of American plants as well as the Asian
pitcher plants and some other exotics too.
Randall Schwartz, Box 283, Lenox Hill Station, New York, New York
10021, has been studying and breeding plants in recent years. He may have
some plants or seeds available from time to time.
Brown Bulb Ranch, Capitola, California, has flytraps and a few other
types available periodically, mostly seasonal.
Peter Paul's Nursery, Canandaigua, New York 14424, has offered carnivo-
rous plants for about twelve years. They have a catalog listing the various
types for 25^.
Harold Welch, 266 Kipp Street, Hackensack, New Jersey 07601, has
recently joined the suppliers of carnivores. His catalog is 25^.
Sources for Plants 151
Edmund Scientific Company, 101 East Gloucester Pike, Barrington, New

Jersey 08007, several plants individually and excellent kits. Their ex-
o r r e r s
tensive science supply catalog is free.

Plant Oddities Club, P.O. Box 94, Kennebunk, Maine 04043, has been
involved in detailed studv of carnivorous plants for many years. This organi-
zation offers free literature about membership and special member discounts
on carnivorous plants. Thev publish a unique, illustrated catalog each year,
available for 25^. T h e Plant Oddities Club also has a list of members
willing to swap carnivorous plants with others. It is available to members.
Vaughan's Seed Company, 5300 Katrine Avenue, Downers Grove, Illinois
60515, lists Venus flytraps and other carnivorous plants available to garden
centers and florists.
The Carnivorous Plant Newsletter, 329 Helen W a y , Livermore, Califor-
nia 94550, has source lists among subscribers who swap and exchange
plants.
Bibliography and
Reading List
During the past several years, carnivorous plants have gained much well-
deserved publicity and popularity. Many articles and information releases
from the Plant Oddities Club have appeared in newspapers and magazines
around the country. In addition, some stories about the club on the As-
sociated Press wire service also gave broad coverage to the topic of these bo-
tanical wonders. Articles in a variety of magazines by botanists as well as
professional writers have contributed to the renewed interest in these unu-
sual plants.
We have included in this book a combination reading list and bibliog-
raphy. I have written numerous articles myself and many other writers have
contributed to the information about these plants. Some have added to the
folklore as well. Among these sources are popular articles, technical bulle-
tins, and complete dissertations. We have tried to compile as extensive a list
as possible, including dates of publication of articles for easier reference
through your local libraries where possible.
Undoubtedly there are valuable references and material which I have
missed in my research for this particular book, although I have been collect-
ing information for twentv years. There are some sources which may be ex-
cellent, but they are published in foreign languages. (My French is rusty and
my Japanese nonexistent.) However, for those of you who wish to pursue all
avenues, I have listed publications in other tongues. The photographs in
some are worth seeing. Perhaps you also read the languages.
Bibliography
"Action Potentials Obtained From Venus Fly Trap" by C. Stuhlman and
E. Darden in Science, 1950
Bibliography and Reading List *53
"American Droseras in Sidney" by Stephan Clemensha, from Carnivorous
Plant Newsletter, reprinted by permission by Plant Oddities Club,
*974
"Butterworts and Bladderworts" by R. E. Stauffer in Journal of the New
York Botanical Gardens, 1950
Carnivorous Plants—Rare Plants That Eat Insects by Allan A. Swenson,
Plant Oddities Club, 1973
Carnivorous Plants Provide Fascinating Science Projects by Allan A. Swen-
son, Plant Oddities Club, 1974
Carnivorous Plant article in BioScience, March 1965
"Carnivorous Plants Bulletin" by Carolina Biological Supply Company,
1965
Carnivorous Plants and the Man-Eating Tree by Sophia Prior, Field Mu-
seum of Natural History, Chicago, 1939
"Carnivorous Plants of the Illawarra Area" by Brian Whitehead, Carnivo-
rous Plant Newsletter, reprinted by Plant Oddities Club, 1974
"Data on Sarracenia flava" by S. T. McDaniel as a Ph.D. dissertation, Flor-
ida State University, 1966
"Development of Dionaea muscipula" by Cornelia M. Smith in the Botani-
cal Gazette of 1929
"Distribution of the Venus Fly Trap" by W. C. Coker, Journal of the
Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, July 1928
"Do Plants Have Feelings?" by Margaret Ronan, Voice, March 1974
"Drosera in the Southeastern United States," a report by L. R. Shinners,
1962
"Drosera in Eastern North America" by F. E. Wynne, Bulletin of the Tor-
rey Botanical Club, 1944
"Evidence of the Hybrid Origin of Drosera anglica" by C. E. Wood, Jr.,
1955
"Flowers That Kill to Eat" by Michael A. Godfrey in National Wildlife,
August 1972, reprinted by permission by Plant Oddities Club, 1974
"Fly in the Sundew" by Terry Ashley and Joseph F. Gennaro, Jr., in Natu-
ral History magazine, December 1971
"Glittering Grabber" by Patricia Hollan in National Geographic School
Bulletin, November 1973
"Identity of Drosera brevifolia" by Carroll E. Wood, Jr., Journal of the Ar-
nold Arboretum, 1966
Illustrations of North American Pitcher Plants by Mary V. Walcott, with
associated notes by Edgar T. Wherry and Frank M. Jones, Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C., 1935
Insect Paralyzing Agents from the Pitcher Plant Sarracenia flava, by Dr. D.
Howard Miles, Mississippi State University, 1975
"Insect Trapping Plants" by Virgil N. Argo, National History magazine,
1964
"Life on the Sticky Sundew" by Thomas Eisner, Natural History magazine,
*974
*54 Bibliography and Reading List
"Man-Eating Trees," Willard N. Clute in American Botanist, April 1925

"Mechanics of Movement in Drosera rotundifolia" by J. D. Hooker in the
Torrey Botanical Blue Bulletin, 1917
Modified Floral Parts of Dionaea by Ted A. Minton and Dr. Donald B.
Jeffreys, a Plant Oddities Club reprint, 1974
"Natural Hybrids in the Genus Sarracenia" by Clyde R. Bell in the Jour-
nal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, 1952
"Nature's Switch, Plants That Eat Bugs" by R. Eliot Stauffer in Conser-
vation, August 1972 reprinted with permission by Plant Oddities Club,
!974
Nature's Wonders by Charles L. Sherman, Nelson Doubleday, 1956
"Physical Analvsis of Opening and Closing Movements of the Venus Fly
Trap" bv Otto Stuhlman in the Torrey Botanical Club Bulletin, 1948
"Pisciborous Plants" by G. E. Simms, in Bulletin of the U. S. Fish Com-
mission, No. 4 in 1884, a real oldie source.
"Pinguicula in the Southeastern United States" by R. K. Godfrey and C. E.
Wood, Jr., 1957
"Plants That Eat Animals," Science World, September 25, 1958
"Plants That Eat Insects" by Jean George, originally in Au Grand Air,
1962, reprinted in Reader's Digest, February 1963
Plants That Eat Insects by Allan Swenson, Terrarium Topics, 1974
"Plants That Eat Insects" by P. A. Zahl in National Geographic, 1961
"Potentials Developed in Venus Fly Trap Fundamental Action" by Otto
Stuhlman in the Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, 1950
"Reappraisal of Utricularia inflata and Utricularia radiata" by R. K. Godfrey
and G. W. Reinert in American Journal of Botany, 1962
"Sacrificed to a Man-Eating Plant" by B. H. William in American Weekly,
September 1920
"Some Aspects of the Ecological Life History of Sarracenia purpurea" by A.
J. Mandossian as a doctorate thesis at Michigan State University in
1965
"Synopsis of Pinguicula in the Southeastern U. S." by H. L. Stripling and
R. K. Godfrey in American Midland Naturalist, 1961
"The Memorv of the Venus Fly Trap" by Stephen E. Williams, originally
in the Carnivorous Plant Newsletter, 1973, reprinted with permission
by Plant Oddities Club, 1974
"The Only Known Fish-Eating Plants, Utricularia, the Bladderworts" by E.
Guger in Scientific Monthly, 1947
"The Genera of Sarraceniaceae and Droseraceae in the Southeastern United
States" by Carroll E. Wood, Jr., Journal of the Arnold Arboretum,
i960
Travels and Researches of a Naturalist in Borneo by Odoardo Beccari, Lon-
don, 1904
"Venus Fly Trap, the Plant That Eats Insects" by Maurice Franz, Organic
Gardening and Farming, 1972
"Venus Fly Trap" by Frank A. Montgomery, Jr., in Raleigh News and Ob-
server, December 25, 1952
Bibliography and Reading List *55
Other Books About Carnivorous Plants
Insect Eating Plants by Lynn and Grey Poole, T. Y. Crowell, 1962
Insectivorous Plants by Charles Darwin, John Murray, 1893, reprinted by
AMS Press, Inc. 1971
Carnivorous Plants by Randall Schwartz, Praeger Publishers, 1974
A Fly Trap on Venus by C. B. Woodcock, Privately published, 1960
The Carnivorous Plants by Francis E. Lloyd, Chronica Botanica Company,
1942
The World of Carnivorous Plants by James and Patricia Ann Pietropaolo,
R. J. Stoneridge, 1974
Index
Amoebas, 102, 103 flowers of, 73

Armstrong Associates, Inc., 150 insect-trapping method, 6 1 - 6 2 , 6 4 - 6 5 ,
Arthrobotrys, 104 7 -73
2
natural habitat, 62, 74

Bartram, John, 14 pitcher of, 72
Bladderworts (Utricularia family), 10, Columbia Zoological Park and Botanical
76, 84-91 Garden, 144
bladders of, 85-88 Containers, 1-4
compared to butterworts, 85 Cornell University Arboretum, 144
culture and care of, 89-90 Crystal Lite Greenhouse unit, 2
experiments with, 1 2 5 - 2 7 Culture and care of plants
insect-trapping method, 76, 85-88 containers, 1-4
natural habitat of, 84-85, 90-91 humidity requirements, 2-4
species of, 84-85, 90-91 lighting, 9 - 1 0
world list of, 137-40 outside growing, 10
Bourdon-Sanderson, Sir John Scott, 14 planting medium, 6-8
Bronx Botanical Garden, 144
Brooklyn Botanical Gardens, 144 Dactylaria, 104
Brown Bulb Ranch, 150 Dactylaria gracilia, 102
Bureau of Plant Industry, 104 Dactylla asthenopaga, 102, 103
Burgess Seed & Plant Company, 44, 61 Darlingtonia calif ornica, 60, 72
Butterworts (Pinguicula family), 5-8, Darwin, Charles, xii, 14, 17, 31, 32, 112
10, 53, 76-84, 9 1 , 150 Dectylella, 104
compared to bladderworts, 85 Denver Botanical Gardens, 144
culture of, 80-82, 83 Diffugia globulosa Duj., 104
experiments with, 1 2 4 - 2 5 , 128-32 Dionaea muscipula. See Venus flytraps
flowers of, 80 Displays, periodic or permanent, 144-45
insect-trapping method, 7 7 - 8 0 Donnelly, Linda, 1 5 - 1 6
natural habitat, 76, 82-83 Drackenridge, J. D., 72
world list of, 1 3 5 - 3 6 Drechsler, Charles, 104
Byblis (Byblis gigantea), 109, 110 Drosera binata, 107
Drosera filiformus, 33
California, University of (Berkeley), Drosera peltata, 108
144 Drosera rotundifolia, 35, 36
California State University (Fuller), Drosera schizandra, 108
144
Drosophyllum, 1 1 0 - 1 1
California State University
Dura-Lite Company, 130
( H u m b o l d t ) , 144
Dura Test Company, 25
Carnivorous Plant Newsletter, The, 99,
Dura-Test fluorescent lights, 9, 82
Carolina Biological Supply Company,
27, 36, 40, 47, 77, 87, 88 Edmund Scientific Company, 16, 151
Cephalotus (Cephalotus follicularis), Ellis, John, 14
105, 106 Emmel, Thomas, 23
Cobra lilies (Chrysamphora californica),
6, 8, 60, 62, 66, 7 2 - 7 5 , 150 G r o D o m e planter, 2
culture and care of, 7 3 - 7 4 Gro-Lux fluorescent lights, 9, 25, 26, 82,
experiments with, 1 2 7 - 2 8 130
158 Index
Hedin, Paul, 48 Moss, sphagnum, 6-7, 10, 18, 19, 28, 41

Heliamphora, 1 0 5 - 7 07, 69, 81, 99, 105, 107, 108
world list of, 142
Henson, Rodger, 48 N A S C O Company, 126
Hooded pitcher plants, 5 3 - 5 6 National Botanic Gardens (Ireland),
color of, 54-55 144
flowers of, 56 Natur-escent fluorescent lights, 9, 25,
insect-trapping method, 55-56 130
Humidity requirements, 2-4 Nematodes, 102, 103
Huntsman's horns, 60-72 Nepenthes (Nepenthaceae family),
culture and care of, 67, 69, 75 92-100
flowers of, 6 5 - 6 6 color of, 98
insect-trapping method, 6 1 - 6 2 , 64-65 culture and care of, 93-94, 98-100
miniature, 56-60, 1 1 4 insect-trapping method, 94-97
color of, 56 natural habitat, 93
insect-trapping method, 58 species of, 9 4 - 9 5 , 98
propagation of, 56 world list of, 136-37
natural habitat, 63, 7 0 - 7 2 Nepenthes bicalcarata, 98
pitcher of, 6 7 - 6 9 Nepenthes maxima, 95
tall, 47, 48, 56, 123 Nepenthes rafflesiana, 96, 100
variety of, 60, 67 Nepenthes x dickinsoniana, 95, 98
Nepenthes x superba, 95
Insectivorous Botanical Gardens, 150 North Carolina, State University of, 144
North Carolina, University of, 144
Journal of the Washington Academy of
Science, 104 Outside growing, 10
King's Park and Botanical Garden, 150 Parrot pitcher plants (Sarracenia
psittacina Michaux), 8, 5 1 - 5 3
Lecoufle, Marcel, 150 compared to the purple variety, 52, 53
Libraries and information centers, features of, 52
146-49 flowers of, 53
Lighting, 9 - 1 0 insect-trapping method, 52
Linnaeus, Carl, 14 natural habitat, 5 1 - 5 2
Longwood Botanical Gardens, 95, 98, Peter Paul's Nursery, 150
100, 106, 109, 144 Phipps Conservatory, 144
Los Angeles State and County Pietropaolo, James, 145
Arboretum, 144 Pinguicula caerulea, 82
Pinguicula caudata, 76, 83
Mazrimas, Joseph A., 133, 134 Pinguicula ionantha, 82
Microscopic carnivores, 1 0 1 - 4 Pinguicula lutea, 76, 82
culture of, 103-4 Pinguicula mexicana, 83
diet of, 102 Pinguicula planifolia, 80, 82
food-trapping method, 102-3 Pinguicula primuliflora, 80, 82
strength of, 101 Pinguicula pumila, 80, 82
types of, 102-4 Pinguicula pumila Burnetii, 82
Miles, Dr. Howard, 4 7 - 4 9 Pinguicula villosa, 81, 82
Miniature huntsman's horn (Sarracenia Pinguicula vulgaris 76, 81, 82
Pitcher plants (Sarracenia family), 6, 7,
rubra), 56-60, 1 1 4
9, 10, 4 3 - 5 9 , 107, 150
color of, 56
insect-trapping method, 58 culture and care of, 58-59
propagation of, 56 early writings about, 4 6 - 4 7
Mississippi State University, 47 experiments with, 1 2 1 - 2 4 , 128-32
Missouri Botanical Gardens, 144 hooded type
Mody, Naresh, 48 color of, 54-55
Monacrosporium, 104 flowers of, 56
Montreal Botanic Garden, 144 insect-trapping method, 5 5 - 5 6
Index '59
miniature huntsman's horn Sphagnum moss, 6-7, 10, 18, 19, 28,
color of, 56 4 1 , 67, 69, 81, 99, 105, 107, 108
insect-trapping method, 58 Stansi-Fisher Company, 126
propagation of, 56 Stuhlman, Dr. Otto, 1 4 - 1 5
natural habitat, 43 Sundews (Drosera family), 6 - 1 1 ,
parrot type 32-42, 43, 53, 101, 1 0 7 - 8 , 1 2 1 ,
compared to the purple variety, 52,
53 bracketed variety, 108
features of, 52 culture of, 4 1 - 4 2 , 108
flowers of, 53 diet of, 38
insect-trapping method, 52 experiments with, 1 1 9 - 2 1 , 128-32
natural habitat, 5 1 - 5 2 filiformia variety, 32, 33, 39-42, 120
purple (northern) variety, 4 3 - 4 9 , 52, horseshoe variety, 1 0 7 - 8
105, 1 1 4 , 123 intermedia variety, 8, 4 1 - 4 2 , 120
compared to the parrot type, 52, 53 natural habitat, 32, 107-8
insect-trapping method, 4 4 - 4 6 rotundifolia variety, 35-38, 42, 120
southern variety, 43-46 world list of, 140-42
tall huntsman's horn, 47, 48, 56, 123 Sweet trumpets (Sarracenia
world list of, 134-35 drummondii), 64
Planting medium, 6-8 coloration of, 6 9 - 7 0 , 71
Plant Lites, 10, 130 insect-trapping method, 6 1 - 6 2 , 64-65
Plant Oddities C l u b , 6, 99, 1 3 2 - 3 4 , Sylvania Company, 9, 25, 130
145, 1 5 1 , 152
Purple pitcher plants (Sarracenia Tall huntsman's horn (Sarracenia flavaj,
purpurea gibbosa), 4 3 - 4 9 , 52, 47, 48, 56, 123
105, 1 1 4 , 123 Tiny Terras planter, 2
compared to the parrot type, 52, 53 Trichothecium, 104
insect-trapping method, 4 4 - 4 6 Trinema enchelys Ehrenb., 104
True, 132
Randolph School, 15
Reader's Digest, 132 United States Department of
Reading list, 1 5 2 - 5 5 Agriculture Research Station, 144
Rotifers, 102 University Botanic Gardens at
Royal Botanic Garden (Scotland), 145 Cambridge ( E n g l a n d ) , 145
University Botanic Gardens at Oxford
Royal Botanic Gardens ( E n g l a n d ) , 14,
( E n g l a n d ) , 145
»45 Utricularia cornuta, 91
San Francisco Conservatory, 144 Utricularia inflata, 90
Sarracenia alata, 67, 71 Utricularia intermedia, 90
Sarracenia drummondii, 63, 67, 69, 70 Utricularia minor, go
Sarracenia flora, 47, 48, 56, 60, 6 1 , 65, Utricularia olivacea, 90
Utricularia purpurea, 90
67, 69, 7 0 - 7 1 , 123
Utricularia resupinata, 91
Sarracenia leucophylla, 67, 70
Utricularia subulata, 91
Sanacenia minor, 53, 54, 67
Utricularia vulgaris, 90
Sarracenia oreophila, 67, 71
Sarracenia psittacina Michaux, 52
Vaughan's Seed Company, 151
Sarracenia purpurea gibbosa, 4 3 - 4 4 , 46, V e n u s flytraps (Dionaea muscipula), xii,
70 5-10, 1 3 - 3 1 , 32, 43, 53, 101,
Sarracenia purpurea venosa, 4 3 - 4 4 , 46 1 1 2 , 1 1 4 , 1 2 1 , 150, 151
Sarracenia rubra, 56, 67, 72 blooming period, 27-28
Sarracenia sledgei, 71 bulb of 18-1 g
Sarrazin, Dr., 47 culture and care of, 18-20, 28-29
Schnell, D. E., 133, 134 digestive process, 23-25
Schwartz, Randall, 145, 150 early writings about, 14
Sources for plants, 1 5 0 - 5 1 electrical properties, 1 4 - 1 6 , 30
Southern California, University of, 23 experiments with, 1 1 5 - 1 9 , 128-32
160 Index
flowers of, 28 Vita-Lite fluorescent lights, 9, 16, 28,

insect-trapping method, 1 3 - 1 6 56, 130, 131
natural habitat, 1 6 - 1 7 , 23
resting period, 26-27 W e l c h , Harold, 150
scientific research with, 30-31 W e l l , Dr. B. W . , 23
Everything you always wanted to know about insectivores
—but were afraid to ask
• assembling a totally carnivorous terrarium

• Nepenthes
• the digestive systems of carnivorous plants
• Huntsman s Horns and Cobra Lilies
?
• propagation from bulbs, seeds, and leaf cuttings

• microscopic carnivores
• food supplies
• the "most wonderful plant in the world"—the Venus Flytrap
• carnivorous life cycles
• carnivorous curiosities among smaller plant families
• natural habitats

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Cultivating

Illustrations by Donna R. Sabaka

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 75-3661

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

For twenty-plus years I have lived a m o n g carnivorous plants. D u r i n g

Scattered through the pages of history, in fable and folklore, strange

scribed so vividly actually do exist—though n o t nearly as exaggerated as

W i t h few exceptions, carnivorous plants are rather easily grown. If y o u

A Crystal Lite Greenhouse unit with twin-tube

brandy snifters that will hold several plants to complete glass-topped

W h e n filled with moss, brandy snifters like these 32-ounce glasses

sizes to expensive plantariums, there is a wide selection of suitable con-

This decorative glass bowl is an attractive home

It is true that in their native habitat these carnivorous plants do grow

plants which grow naturally in or near bogs and swamps. T o o m u c h

So, slant your terrarium planting to a c c o m m o d a t e the needs of these

stimulating spectrum of light of the real sun. E v e n the newer Plant

D o n ' t kid yourself. C h e c k an attic w i n d o w any warm fall, even win-

ond. W e ' v e timed a mature trap closing in y of one second. T h e in-

This artist's rendition of the Venus flytrap

T h e first phase of her project was composed of preliminary research.

A l m o s t everything about the flytrap stands in a class by itself. Per-

their cell structure.

One flytrap plant fits easily in a 2-inch pot.

T h e living moss greens up and grows, which can be a problem. It can

Flytraps and other carnivorous plants can't stand chemicals in the

Side views of the flytrap.

trigger the reaction is the same. T h e trap snaps, fingers interlocking to

of the flytrap in all aspects of its mysterious processes might lead to

Another way to rest bulbs is simply to reduce their water supply.

W e ' v e seen them b l o o m in just a b o u t every m o n t h . T h a t ' s under-

T h e r e are other easier ways to propagate this amusing plant. O n e of

the chemical composition of that insect attractant and artificially re-

T h e tall sundew, Drosera filiformis, sprouts from bulbs

M o s t sundews are fairly similar to each other. S o m e are so closely re-

W o r s e yet, what will happen if I cater to their hearty appetite? B u t

Typical growth of the rotundifolia sundew. (Courtesy Carolina Biological

It doesn't really matter whether the sundew leaf is spatulate or pear

Note the holding power of the tall sundew's mucilage.

A tall sundew in bloom.

T h e r e are taller types, some with long stems on w h i c h the sticky

sprout. F o l l o w i n g these juvenile leaves, the larger ones appear. T h e y un-

Intermedias, on the other hand, require planting in containers with

Pitcher plants may appear as lovely, colorful, s o m e w h a t curious speci-

A typical purple pitcher plant, here growing in a clay pot. (Courtesy

An insect's-eye view of the spine-lined mouth of the purple

As insects are attracted to the plants by secretions from insect attract-

Inside the spiny mouth of the purple pitcher plant,

The captured prey—here, a cricket—inside a purple pitcher leaf. (Cour-

been identified as having such capacity. Pursuing these findings, Dr.

Typical growing arrangement of the purple pitcher plant.

toxic hemlock plant. If the paralyzing agent proves as effective as initial

Although many insects become the nourishment for these plants,

Parrot Pitcher Plants

A close-up look into the mouth of the parrot pitcher plant.

Hooded Pitcher Plants

T h e pitchers themselves are hollow, widening at the top into a