NNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY AWKA

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE : GLS 411

COURSE TITLE: METAMORPHIC PETROLOGY

TOPIC: METAMORPHISM, METAMORPHIC FACIES AND

MINERAL PARAGENESIS

BY

NELSON ONYEBUCHI NWOBI

2009504474

MARCH, 2014
 ABSTRACT

Metamorphic rocks are rocks whose characters have been changed from its original form by processes
operating within the earth. These processes are physical and chemical in nature resulting in a change in
mineral makeup of the rock or relationship between the minerals or texture of the rock or both.
Temperature and pressure are the most important factors controlling the process of metamorphism.
Metamorphism may be local or regional in extent. With the concept of metamorphic facies, it is known
that certain mineral sets are at equilibrium under different conditions and thus can be predicted. This
paper work covers Metamorphism , types of metamorphism, agents of metamorphism, metamorphic
facies, metamorphic reactions and mineral paragenesis.
 METAMORPHISM

Metamorphism is the sum total of the processes that cause the mineralogical, chemical and structural
adjustments of rocks to physical and chemical conditions which have been imposed due to changes in
pressure and temperature or both without passing through a fluid phase. It is the solid state
recrystallisation of pre-existing rocks due to changes in temperature and pressure. Conditions of
metamorphism differ from the conditions under which the rocks in question were originally formed;
hence these rocks were never molten at any stage in their development. In metamorphism, heat and
pressure cause atomic bonds to break and atoms move and form new bonds with other atom; creating
new minerals with different chemical components or crystalline structure.

In metamorphism,

Cparent rock ≡ Cproduct ± Volatiles

Here volatiles may include CO, CO2, H2O, H2S and S in some places.

A metamorphic rock is one whose character has been changed from its original form by
processes operating within the earth. They may be derived from pre-existing rocks (igneous ,
sedimentary and even metamorphic). A metamorphosed rock can be remetamorphosed
through a process known as poly-metamorphism.

POLYMETAMORPHISM

PROGRADE RETROGRADE (DIAPHTORESIS)

In Prograde Metamorphism, the deeper one goes, the higher the grade of metamorphism;
rocks that get progressively deeper, get more metamporphosed. Example slate being converted
to phyllite and then to schist etc. It yields minerals of higher grade than the former phase
assemblage.

Retrograde metamorphism is the reverse or reconstitution in metamorphism from high grade

metamorphism to low grade metamorphism. It could be said to be a response in the change of
system probably reduction in temperature or pressure or both in metamorphism. Quoting Le
Chatelier’s principle; that a change in one of the variables that describe a system at equilibrium
produces a shift in the position of the equilibrium that counteracts the effect of this change. It
yields minerals of lower grade than the former phase assemblage.
 AGENTS OF METAMORPHISM

 Heat or Temperature
 Pressure
 Chemically active fluids

HEAT OR TEMPERATURE
Recrystalization occurs much more rapidly with temperature. Temperature increases with
depth beneath the earth.

The geothermal gradient is the rate of temperature change with depth.

Mathematically,

Geothermal gradient = change in temperature

o
change in depth C per km of depth, oc.km-1

SOURCES OF HEAT

 Radioactivity - The breakdown of radioactive isotopes present in rocks and the release
of its energy. The half life of some of the isotopes are very long & as a result they
breakdown slowly.
 Hot Magmatic bodies -Hot magmatic bodies Example batholiths
 Orogenic forces – mechanical generation of heat during orogenic movement. Example
frictional sliding of tectonic plates.
 Gravitational compression and impact – The heat generated from these sources are
transmitted by conduction, hydrothermal fluid and conventional current.

PRESSURE

This is given as force per unit area acting on rock.

P = F/A

This is the second most important factor controlling metamorphism. They may include

 Confying Pressure – Over burden or load pressure. It acts vertically and increases with
depth
 Fluid Pressure – This is the pressure exerted by fluids (CO2 and H2O) in the pore spaces
of rocks.
  Shearing/Differential Pressure – Important in determining the texture and fabric of
metamorphic rocks; that is the structural adjustment.
 Directed Pressure – Pressure due to tectonism

CHEMICALLY ACTIVE FLUID

Water and Carbon IV oxide act as effective catalyst and help chemical reactions and mechanical
adjustments. They operate in the intergranular spaces within the rock. The major sources of
water include

 Meteoric Water or Connate Water – Meteoric water are gotten from precipitation
(snow and rain) while Connate water are waters trapped in the pores of sedimentary
rocks as they are deposited.
 Juvenile Waters – Associated with Igneous bodies and common in contact
metamorphism.
 Water combined in hydrous minerals.

LIMITS OF METAMORPHISM

 Lower Limit – This is very low temperature metamorphism. Lowest grade metamorphic rocks
are found in this limit like slate, phyllite.
 Upper Limit – Here appreciable melting if the rock may occur. The presence of migmatite define
the upper limit of metamorphism. (Migmatites are products of partial melting)

TYPES OF METAMORPHISM

METAMORPHISM

LOCAL REGIONAL

Thermal Regional Dynamo-thermal

Contact Regional Burial
Dynamic
Hydrothermal

LOCAL METAMORPHISM
This is a type of metamorphism with limited area extent in which the metamorphism may be
attributed to a localized cause such as magmatic intrusion, fault, meteorite impact etc. They
may include Thermal, Contact, Dynamic, Hydrothermal etc.
  Thermal Metamorphism – This is a term used for all types of rock transformation in
which heat is the dominating factor; in other words it embraces all types of
metamorphism
 Contact Metamorphism – This is a type of metamorphism of local extent that affects
the country rocks around magma bodies. It is caused by the heat transfer from the
intruded magma body into the country rocks. It usually does not accompany any
deformation. The zone surrounding the intrusion is the metamorphic or contact aureole.
The Hornfels are example.
 Dynamic Metamorphism – This a type of metamorphism due to mainly pressure;
directed pressure. Its effects on rocks breaks the rock into fragments. Dynamic
metamorphism can also be known as Cataclastic or Kinematic metamorphism. Example
of rocks here may include Mylonites, Fault Breccias
 Hydrothermal Metamorphism – This is a type of metamorphism of local extent. Here
rocks are altered at high temperatures and moderate pressures by hydrothermal fluids.
This is common in basaltic rocks. Rich ore deposits are often formed as a result of
hydrothermal metaqmorphism.
 Retrograde Metamorphism – This occurs where there used to be initially a high
temperature and high pressure metamorphism being re-metamorphosed by a lower
temperature and a lower pressure. Assemblage of the minerals change owing that
temperature and pressure affect minerals. This type of metamorphism can be local
though most times occur in a regional extent.

REGIONAL METAMORPHISM
This is a type of metamorphism which occurs over an area of wide extent usually up to 1002 km
– 1000 km. It is usually associated with large –scale tectonic processes such as ocean floor
spreading, crustal thickening related to plate collision, deep basin subsidence etc. There are
basically two types
 Regional Dynamothermal Metamorphism – It is a type of metamorphism of regional
extent that is related to orogenic belts (areas of mountain building). There is a
progressive change in metamorphic grade indicated by mineralogical changes. Dynamic
and thermal effects are combined in varying proportions and time scales. Temperatures
of 700oc – 800oc could be attained with a progressive increase in geothermal gradient.
The structures of the rocks are generally schistose with minerals such as mica.
 Regional Burial Metamorphism – This is a type of metamorphism of regional extent
that has no genetic relationship with orogenisis or magmatic intrusion. It is purely
related to burial of sediments. As the sediments gets deeply buried, the temperature
increases with depth but temperatures are much lower than as encountered during
 dynamothermal metamorphism; usually temperature from 400 oc – 450oc. Schistose
structures are produced locally or totally absent.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN REGIONAL AND LOCAL METAMORPHISM

REGIONAL LOCAL

The original source of heat is large and deep The original source of heat is small and expose
seated. as plutonic mass.

Pressure ranges from 2 kbar - 10 kbar and its Pressure ranges from 200 – 2000 bars and its
both confining pressure and directed pressure. only confining pressure.

Example of metamorphic rock is schist and Example of metamorphic rock is hornfels.

gneisses.

The rocks exhibit schistosity. The rocks exhibit hornfelsic texture.

Original rock may be deformed due to Not deformed because it involves only heat.
directional pressure.

OTHER TYPES OF METAMORPHISM

 Isochemical Metamorphism
 Allochemical Metamorphism
 Polymetamorphism
 Mono-cyclic and Polycyclic Polymetamorphism

Isochemical is one in which the chemical composition of the rock does not change appreciably.

Allochemical Metamorphism also known as Metasomatism. Here the products are usually
different from the parent rock by the addition of certain substances

Polymetamorphism referring to two or more metamorphic episode which has been

superimposed and has left a record in the rock.

CONCEPT OF METAMORPHIC FACIES

Metamorphic facies is a set of metamorphic mineral assemblages, repeatedly associated in

time and space and showing a regular relationship between mineral composition and bulk
chemical composition. No individual mineral is an index of a metamorphic facies.
The term facies have no textural connotations; independent of the modal contents of the
different minerals constituting the paragenesis. The mineral assemblages though restricted to
specific rock compositions are not restricted to any area and should occur in space and time,
that is should be widely distributed. Most of the reactions used to define the facies boundaries
have steep P – T slopes

Eskola (1920) distinguished eight facies namely

 Green Schist Facies

 Epidote – Amphibolite Facies
 Amphibolite Facies
 Pyroxene – Hornfels Facies
 Sanidinite Facies
 Granulite Facies
 Eclogite Facies
 Glaucophane – Schist Facies and later Zeolite Facies.

CHARACTERISTICS OF METAMORPHIC FACIES

Any facies is recognized on the basis of mutually associated rocks collectively covering a wide
range. There is a relationship between the chemical and mineral composition in facies such that
given the chemical analysis, the prediction of a particular mineral assemblage is possible.

Minor variation in the chemistry of the original rock exist in each facies index assemblage.
Example – In a green schist facies, rocks having the composition of basalt could have one of the
following assemblages

 Ab + Chl +Act + Epd + Sph

 Ab + Chl + Epd +Sph
 Ab + Chl + Epd + Cal +Sph

The specific chemical composition of the basalt is now the determinant of which of the three
(3) assemblages above will develop and whether quartz will be present as minor constituents

- For a pellitic rock, the assemblage of the same facies will be

 Qtz + Musct + Chl (± Albite ± Epidote)
 Qtz + Musct + Chl ( ± Biotite ± Garnet )
 Qtz + Musct + Btt ( ± Garnet)
The T – P conditions will determine which of the three (3) assemblages will develop to establish
a thermodynamic equilibrium.

The concept shows an assemblage within a rock in its present condition as expressed in its
chemical composition. It does not express the original state of the rock. This is a limitation to
the concept.

Example – Rocks of one composition in a green schist facies are composed of actenolite;
Actenolite being present in one and absent in another. The original state can only be
reconstructed on the basis of chemical, textural and field data.

Considering wide range of chemical composition of rocks, and narrow ranges of P-T conditions;
within major and broad facies, a persistent mineral assemblage exist subunits or subfacies.

Example – In a green schist facies, we may have

 Qtz + Ab + Epd + Almandine as subfacies

This indicates the highest temperature range in the green schist facies.

In description it is necessary to mention the name of facies when referring to any subfacies.

Example

 Qtz + Biotite + Muscovite subfacies of the green schist facies metamorphism

 Qtz + Biotite + Garnet subfacies of the green schist facies metamorphism

METAMORPHIC REACTIONS AND MINERAL PARAGENESIS

Temperature and pressure are the most important factors controlling the process of
metamorphism. If carbonate and a hydroxyl bearing mineral takes part in a reaction, then CO 2
and H2O will be liberated. This indicates that a fluid phase is always present during
metamorphism. H2O acts as a catalyst during mineral reconstitution and it is responsible for co-
existing minerals in the thermodynamic equilibrium of one another. This association of co-
existing minerals is referred to as Mineral Paragenesis. A fluid phase co-existing with a mineral
paragenesis is important. During granulite facies metamorphism, H2O is absent; the important
volatile phase becomes CO2.

In regionally metamorphosed rocks or terrains, certain zones can be distinguished as

comprising reactions which had occurred within certain P – T field therefore they have defined
reaction boundary. Reaction boundary is the section defining the equilibrium between the left
hand side and right hand side of univariant reaction determined by pressure and temperature.
Low pressure is the most effective and extends to 250 – 300 kb/km depending on the density of
the reaction. Low pressure is usually hydrostatic, that is equal in all direction. Pore fluid is
assumed to be subjected to low pressure such that

PL = P F

Where PL = Low Pressure

PF = Pore Fluid

In response to rising temperature, various metamorphic reactions release H 2O and CO2

(volatiles) such that PF > PL
This condition is of low consequence as the minerals are in low equilibrium

PF = P S

Under granulite facies (dry phase)

PF < P S

In siliceous rocks the fluid phase is usually H2O during metamorphism such that

PF = PH2O

In carbonates the most important fluid phase is CO2

Example Calcite + Quartz ↔ Wollastonite + CO2

Here PF = PCO2

In some cases water becomes significant such that

PF = PCO2 + PH2O

For iron bearing minerals, concentration of oxygen is significant but this depends on the
presence of graphite. Besides hydrostatic pressure, directed pressure is often considered during
metamorphism. It could contribute to effective hydrostatic pressure.
 REFERENCES

Challis, G. A., 1965, High temperature contact metamorphism at the Red Hills ultramafic
intrusion—Wairu Valley—New Zealand: Journal Petrology, v. 6, no. 3, p. 395-419.

Eskola P., 1920. The mineral facies of rocks. Norsk. Geol. Tidsskr. 6 (1922), 143-194

Holdaway, M. J., 1965, Basic regional metamorphic rocks in part of the Klamath Mountains,
northern California: American Mineralogist, v. 50, p. 953-977.

Kornprobst, J., 2002. Metamorphic rocks and their geodynamic significance. Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London, 208pp.

Merriman R. J. and Frey M., 1999. Patterns of very low-grade metamorphism in metapelitic rocks. In,
Low-grade metamorphism, Frey M. and Robinson D. (eds.). Blackwell Scientific Publ.,
Oxford, 10-60.

Turner F.J., 1968. Metamorphic petrology, mineralogical and field aspects. McGraw-Hill, New
York, 403 pp.