SOCIOLINGUISTIC

RINALDI ARBI

1879202021
1. LANGUAGE VARIATION

In terms of language variation that are based on its uses, the discussion is focused on the
ways in which speech reflects the contexts in which language is used and not the
characteristics of the speakers (Holmes, 2001:223). The language variation that is concerning
with the uses or functions can be called as style or register.

2. DIALECT, ISOLECT

According to Spolsky (1998:33) dialect is something that concerns variations which are
located regionally or socially. Dialect also means the language variation that comes from a
group of users that are relative in numbers, living in one particular place, region or area
(Chaer & Agustina, 1995:83). Since dialect is based on the place, region or area where the
users live, it is usually called as area dialect, regional dialect or geography dialect. The users
of a dialect have certain features that mark them as people who have the same dialect
although they have their own idiolect. People who use Javanese with dialect of Semarang
have their own particular features that are different from others who have the dialect of
Surabaya. But they can communicate well with each other because those dialects are
included in the same language, Javanese

3. LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY

Language is more than just the code: it also involves social practices of interpreting and
making meanings The way we teach language reflects the way we understand language What
is learned in the language classroom, and what students can learn, results from the teacher’s
understandings of language There is a fundamental relationship between language and
culture It is important to consider how language as code and language as social practice are
balanced in the curriculum

A. Understanding language

Language is at the heart of language teaching and learning and teachers need to constantly
reflect on what language is. This is because our understandings of language affect the ways
we teach languages. Language as code Traditionally, language is viewed as a code. In this
view, language is made up of words and a series of rules that connect words together. If
language is only viewed in this way, language learning just involves learning vocabulary and
the rules for constructing sentences. This understanding of language is, however, a very
narrow one. It sees language as fixed and finite and does not explore the complexities
involved in using language for communication.
 B. Language as social practice

An understanding of language as ‘open, dynamic, energetic, constantly evolving and

personal’ (Shohamy, 2007:5) encompasses the rich complexities of communication. This
expanded view oflanguage also makes educational experience more engaging for students.
Language is not a thingto be studied but a way of seeing, understanding and communicating
about the world and each language user uses his or her language(s) differently to do this.
People use language for purposeful.

communication and learning a new language involves learning how to use words, rules and
knowledge about language and its use in order to communicate with speakers of the
language. This understanding of language sees a language not simply as a body of
knowledge to be learnt but as a social practice in which to participate (Kramsch, 1994).
Language is something that people do in their daily lives and something they use to express,
create and interpret meanings and to establish and maintain social and interpersonal
relationships.

C. Language and culture

Understanding the nature of the relationship between language and culture is central to
the process of learning another language. In actual language use, it is not the case that it is
only the forms of language that convey meaning. It is language in its cultural context that
creates meaning: creating and interpreting meaning is done within a cultural framework. In
language learning classrooms, learners need to engage with the ways in which context affects
what is communicated and how Both the learner’s culture and the culture in which meaning
is created or communicated have an influence on the ways in which possible meanings are
understood.

This context is not a single culture as both the target language and culture and the learner’s
own language and culture are simultaneously present and can be simultaneously engaged.
Learning to communicate in an additional language involves developing an awareness of the
ways in which culture interrelates with language whenever it is used (Liddicoat,
Papademetre, Scarino, & Kohler, 2003).

D. Culture and society

Culture can be seen as practices or as information Culture plays a central role in the way
meanings are interpreted Cultures are characterised by variability and diversity The
intercultural is not the same as culture but is a process which goes beyond the idea of
‘knowing a culture’ Culture is fundamentally related to language.

E. Understanding culture

One way in which culture has often been understood is as a body of knowledge that
people have about a particular society. This body of knowledge can be seen in various ways:
as knowledge about cultural artefacts or works of art; as knowledge about places and
institutions; as knowledge about events and symbols; or as knowledge about ways of living.

It is also possible to consider this aspect of culture in terms of information and to teach the
culture as if it were a set of the learnable rules which can be mastered by students. When
translated into language teaching and learning, this knowledge-based view of culture often
takes the form of teaching information about another country, its people, its institutions, and
so on. Culture is not, however, simply a body of knowledge but rather a framework in which
people live their lives and communicate shared meanings with each other.

F. Static and dynamic approaches to culture

In thinking about how to teach culture in the language classroom, it is useful to consider
how the ways in which culture is presented can be categorised One dimension is the axis of
culture as facts or as processes: that is, whether culture is seen as a static body of information
about characteristics of a society or as a dynamic system through whicha society constructs,
represents, enacts and understands itself. he second axis represents the way in which culture
is conceived in terms of educational content. It makes a distinction between artefacts and
institutions and practices: that is, whether culture is seen in terms of the things produced by a
society or as the things said and done by members of a society

4. STANDARD LANGUAGE

Standard language also termed as standard dialect, standardized dialect, standardized

dialect, or standardized dialect, is a particular variety of a language that has been given either
legal status, Choice of standard language is often connected to issues of prestige, is usually
assosciated to economically and culturally important regions, and is linked with
economically and culturally important regions, and is linked with economically important
groups (higher classes). It is said to be the most “correct” dialect of language. But the truly
definition is language that is supported by institutions. Such institutional support may include
government recognition or designation, presentation as being the “correct” form of a
language in schools; published grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks that set forth a
“correct” spoken and written form.Some of the features that indentify a standard language
include

• A recognized dictionary or group of dictionaries which embody a standardized

spelling and vocabulary
• A recognized grammar which records the forms, rules and structures of the
language, and which commends some forms and castigates others

• A standard system of pronouncation, which is considered “educated” or “proper”

speech by the speakers, and which is considered free from regional marking.

Non-standard language is the unofficial form of language , that is considered improper for
writing and for using officially. Like any dialect a non standard dialect a non standard
dialect may have an internally balanced system of grammar but it does not have the
 institional support or sanction that a standard dialect has. Standard language usually apply
for : Academic writing , Business letter, Job Application, E-mail, Whereas, Non Standard
Language usually apply for : Jornal entries, Personal letter, Narrative( Novel, Folk story,
etc), Email, Spoken ( Ex : Drama)

5. STYLE, REGISTER, BELIEF

A. STYLE

For the term register, according to Holmes (2001:246) it refers to the language of groups of
people with common interests or jobs, or the language used in situations associated with such
groups. The examples of different registers can be seen in the language used by journalist,
legalist, auctioneers, race-callers, sports commentator, airline pilots, criminals, financiers,
politicians, disc jockeys and also the language used in the courtroom and the classroom. One
example mentioned by Holmes (2001:247) in her book the language used by people who
describe a sporting event which can be distinguished easily from language used in other
contexts especially in the vocabulary. In cricket, people describe positions by using terms like
silly mid on, square leg, the

A. Frozen style. It is the most formal style used in formal situations and ceremonies
(Nababan, 1986:22). It is called frozen because the pattern has been set up firmly and
can never be changed by anyone. In written form, we can see this style in historical
documents, ratification, and other formal documents.
B. Formal style. It is the style used in formal speech, formal meeting, office
correspendence, lesson books for school, etc (Chaer & Agustina, 1995:93). Formal
style is basically similar to the frozen style that is only used in formal situations and
not in informal situations. The example of formal style as quoted by Marjohan
(1988:35) from Nababan (1987) is the first paragraph of the opening of the 1945
constitution of the Republic of Indonesia that was written in a formal or even in a
frozen style,
C. Consultative style. This is the style used in ordinary conversation held at school, in
meeting or conversation that leads to result and production (Nababan, 1986:22). It can
be said that this style is the most operational one.
D. Casual style. It is the style used to speak with friends, family or relatives, during the
leisure time, while exercising, etc (Chaer & Agustina, 1995:93). The casual style
markers in English mentioned in Marjohan’s book (1988:35) are:
E. Intimate style. This is the style used with people who have close relationships with the
speaker (Nababan, 1986:22). By using this style those people do not need to use
complete sentences with clear articulation, they just simply use short words. It happens
mainly because there is an understanding among those people.

4. REGISTER
 For the term register, according to Holmes (2001:246) it refers to the language of groups of
people with common interests or jobs, or the language used in situations associated with such
groups. The examples of different registers can be seen in the language used by journalist,
legalist, auctioneers, race-callers, sports commentator, airline pilots, criminals, financiers,
politicians, disc jockeys and also the language used in the courtroom and the classroom. One
example mentioned by Holmes (2001:247) in her book the language used by people who
describe a sporting event which can be distinguished easily from language used in other
contexts especially in the vocabulary. In cricket, people describe positions by using terms like
silly mid on, square leg, the covers and gully and describe deliveries by using terms like off-
break, googly and leg break

6. BILINGUALISM

• Bilingualism is the ability of a person or community member to use effective two

languages.
• The first decent study, a well-designed study that showed positive results for
bilingualism was published in 1962.
• Peal and Lambert conducted a study in Montreal comparing French-English
bilingual children with French monolingual children.
• They wanted to design the study properly and show that bilingualism was not
damaging children.
• They predicted that if they designed this study carefully, bilingual children would
perform the same as monolingual children on non-verbal tasks, but worse than
monolingual children on verbal tasks.
• Contrary to the initial predictions, what they found was that bilingual children were
just better on everything.
• So it was the first time there were positive effects of bilingualism in that study was
reasonably well-controlled – not perfectly, but reasonably.
• Through the 1990s the Bialystok group and other researchers started looking at
bilingual consequences for children inspired by the Peal and Lambert research in
order to see the conditions under which the Peal and Lambert results could be
replicated, to see if it could be shown in different groups and other conditions.
• These studies showed that on both linguistic and cognitive tests bilingual children
consistently showed these kinds of benefits over monolingual children

A. 6 categories for learning language

1. Simultaneous acquisition occurs when, for example, a child learns several languages
Simultaneously within social environment. Also called Compound Bilingual.
2. Successive acquisition means. That different languages are learned at different stages
during different phases of life. Called Coordinate Bilingual when the two languages
are equally used/ important or Subordinate Bilingual when one language (Usually the
mother/ Native Tongue) dominates the daily life.
3. Natural acquisition means that a language is learned without formal instruction.
4. Guided acquisition means that the knowledge of a language is acquired by means of
instructions (e.g learning at school)
 5. Symmetric acquisition means that several languages are equally mastered with a
similar proficiency.
6. Asymmetric acquisition means that one language the other

B. Advantages of bilingualism

1. Access to a larger worldWhen you learn a language you also learn the culture. Being able
to speak two languages means you are able to speak to people in a different cultural and
linguistic contex.Bilinguals can use the right executive function of the brain more regulary
in bilinguals wich makes it become more effcient.

2.Better ability to focus

The part of the brain called the executive function, which is use for staying focused has
proven to be stronger in bilinguals. Every time a bilingual speaks, both language are
actually active, and the brain has to work to suppress one language while the other is being
used. That mechanism employs the executive function of the brain more regularly in
bilinguals which makes it become more efficient.

3. Learning another language stretches your mind intellectually. When you learn another
language you have to focus on the structure of sentences. You have to recognise sound
patterns and make inference

4.Better at multitasking

Bilingual kids can switch from one activity to another faster and are better at doing multiple
taks at once than monolinguals, that is thnaks to the executive function of the brain, which
gives bilinguals better cognitive control over information that allows them to switch task.

5. More job opportunities

Fluency in more one language can open many does

C. Disadvantanges of bilingualism

The dominance of one language over the other. To speak one language more than the other,
making one of language dominant.

Prejudice : Bilinguals are not really as celebrated as we though they always were. Most of the
people thought of them as special, however,some people think of them as weird or strange
individuals. Immigrants,especially look different and are somehow still affiliated with their
culture. They posses a strange accent that gives them off and characterizes them as different.
Language Flunecy Delay: Most times, speech delay is often confused with language
delay.According to reserch, it has been discovered that speech delay is not as result of
bilingualism, however sice an individual is trying to learn or master two languages, he or she
( especially children) may take a longer time being fluent in these languages resulting in
language fluency delay. Monolingual children are usually compared with their monolingual
age group, without considering the fact that they have to learn twice the vocabullary of their
monolingual peers.In extreme cases,some children speak at all. However if your child is in this
category , don’t panic just yet, he should be able to speak in time.

7. PIDGIN, CREOLE

Originally thought of as incomplete, broken, corrupt, not worthy of serious attention. Pidgins
still are marginal: in origin (makeshift, reduced in structure), in attitudes toward them (low
prestige); in our knowledge of them.
Some quick definitions:

A. Pidgin language (origin in Engl. word `business’?) is nobody’s native language; may
arise when two speakers of different languages with no common language try to have a
makeshift conversation. Lexicon usually comes from one language, structure often
from the other. Because of colonialism, slavery etc. the prestige of Pidgin languages is
very low. Many pidgins are `contact vernaculars’, may only exist for one speech event.
Creole (orig. person of European descent born and raised in a tropical colony) is a
language that was originally a pidgin but has become nativized, i.e. a community of
speakers claims it as their first language. Next used to designate the language(s) of
people of Caribbean and African descent in colonial and ex-colonial countries
(Jamaica, Haiti, Mauritius, Réunion, Hawaii, Pitcairn, etc.)
Relexification The process of substituting new vocabulary for old. Pidgins may get
relexified with new English vocabulary to replace the previous Portuguese vocabulary,
etc.
B. A creole language, or simply a creole, is some kind of sloppy French. It’s a stable
language that has originated from a pidgin language that has been nativized (that is,
acquired by children). The vocabulary of a creole language consists of cognates from
the parent languages, though there are often clear phonetic and semantic shifts. On the
other hand, the grammar often has original features but may differ substantially from
those of the parent languages. Most often, the vocabulary comes from the dominant
group and the grammar from the subordinate group, where such stratification exits. For
example, Jamaican Creole features largely English words superimposed on West
African grammar.

A creole is believed to arise when a pidgin, which was developed by adults for use as a
second language, becomes the native and primary language of their children — a process
known as nativization.
 7. SPEECH, ACT

Speech Act did not start as a linguistic enterprise; it rather began as a philosophical
investigation of the power of words in language. The two philosophers whose names are
associated with, are JohnAustin and John SearleSpeech act theory treats an utterance as an act
performed by a speaker in a context with respect to an addressee

A theory of language based on John Austin's ‘How to Do Things with Words’ 1962, the major
premise of which is that language is as much a mode of action as it is a means of conveying
information. As John Searle puts it, “All linguistic communication involves linguistic acts.”Speech
act theory attempts to explain how speakers use language to accomplish intended actions and
how hearers infer intended meaning form what is said

A. Levels of Speech Acts:

According to Austin, performing speech acts involves performing:

• A locutionary act :the act of producing a recognizable, grammatical utterance in the

language.
• Anillocutionary act : the attempt to accomplish some communicative purpose.
 • A perlocutionary act: the effect produced by the utterance in a given context.
• It should be noted that while phonology, syntax, and semantics focus on the locutionary act,
pragmatics focuses on the illocutionary act, the aspect of the speech act which specifies what
the language is being used for in a given situation.
• In other words, a locutionary act has meaning; it produces an understandable utterance.
• An illocutionary act has force; it is informed with a certain tone, attitude, feeling, motive, or
intention to achieve a purpose.
• A perlocutionary act has consequence; it has an effect upon the addressee. By describing an
imminently dangerous situation (locutionary component) in a tone that is designed to have
the force of a warning (illocutionary component), the addresser may actually frighten the
addressee into moving (perlocutionary component). These three components, then, are not
altogether separable.
•
B. Types of Illocutionary Acts:
 Assertive: like claims and suggestions
 Directive: requests and commands
 Expressive: thanks and apologies
 Comissive: promises and vows
 Declarative: decrees and declarations

9. LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE

Language maintenance refers to the situasion where a speaker,a group of speakers,or a speech
community continues to use their language in same or all spheres of life despie compettion with
dominant or majority language become the main language in these spheres

Factors of language maintenance:

A. Status

1. Economy status:is a prominent factor in nearly all studies in language maintenance,where

group of minority low economic status,there is astrong tendency to shift towards majority
language.

2. Social status: Social status is very closely linked with economic status and it is problaly equally
with respect to language maintenance.

3. Language status: Language status and social status are closely related in the sense that the
latter influences the former.The self ascribed language status will be low especially when
minority speak a dialect of the language in question.Thus languages with low status are in
danger of becoming asolescent,where this happens also depends in the status of competing
language,which will often be the majority language.
B. Demographic

They concern the number of member of a linguistic minority group and their social
distribution.The absolute number of speakers of a certain language become important when it
decreases

C. Institutional support
1. It refers ti extent to which the language of minority group is represented in the various
institutions of a nation or community
2. Maintenace is supported when the minority language used in various institutions of the
government,church,cultural,organization,ect.