A SHORT HISTORY OF BRITAIN

By Tim Lambert (excerpts)

Edward VI

Henry was succeeded by his 9-year-old son Edward. Since he was too young to rule his uncle,
Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, was made protector and ruled in his stead.

Somerset was a devout Protestant as was Archbishop Cranmer. They began to turn England into
a truly Protestant country. The Act of Six Articles was repealed and in 1549 the first Book of
Common Prayer, the first Anglican prayer book was issued. Meanwhile priests were allowed to
marry and pictures or statues of Mary or the saints were removed from churches.

Unfortunately England now faced an economic crisis. There was rapid inflation in the mid-16th
century. Also the population was rising. In the 15th century there was a shortage of workers,
which pushed wages up. In the 16th century the situation was reversed and labourer's wages fell.

In 1549 Edward faced two rebellions. In parts of the Southwest the changes in religion provoked
the so-called Prayer Book Rebellion. In Norfolk economic grievances led to a rebellion led by
Robert Kett (the rebels took control of Norwich). However both rebellions were crushed.

The rebellions led to the fall of Somerset. He was replaced by the ruthless John Dudley, Earl of
Warwick (Later Duke of Northumberland). The unfortunate Somerset was sent to the tower and
in January 1552 he was executed on a trumped up charge of treason. In 1552 a second prayer
book was issued. This one was much more extreme than the first.

Meanwhile England fought the Scots again. Henry VIII had suggested that his son Edward
should marry the king of Scotland's daughter Mary. However the Scottish king rejected the idea.
Somerset revived the plan and he sent an army to Scotland to force the Scots to agree. The
English won a battle at Pinkie Laugh, near Edinburgh, in 1547. However the Scots simply sent 6-
year-old Mary to France to marry the French kings son.

However Edward was sickly and it was clear he was not going to live long. The Duke of
Northumberland was alarmed as the next in line for the throne, Henry's daughter Mary, was a
Catholic.

Northumberland married his son to Lady Jane Grey, a descendant of Henry VII's sister Mary.
When Edward died in 1553 Northumberland had Lady Jane Grey crowned queen. However the
people rose in favour of Mary and Lady Jane Grey was imprisoned.

Mary I

Mary was Catherine of Aragon's daughter. Consequently when Catherine fell from favour Mary
suffered. From 1531 she was kept separate from her mother. In 1533 when Anne Boleyn had a
daughter, Elizabeth, Mary was asked to accept that her parent's marriage was not valid and so she
was illegitimate. Not surprisingly she refused and so she was sent to be lady-in-waiting to her
half-sister Elizabeth.

However in 1536, after her mother's execution, perhaps fearing for her life, she agreed her
parents marriage was unlawful. Henry began to treat her more generously and in 1544 a statute
restored her as heir to the throne after her half brother Edward.

Mary was a devout Catholic and she detested the religious changes of Henry VIII and Edward
VI. When Edward became king she continued to attend Catholic mass in her own private chapel.
When Edward ordered her to desist she appealed to her cousin, Emperor Charles V. He
threatened war with England if she was not left alone.

When she became queen Mary was surprisingly lenient. The Duke of Northumberland was
executed in August 1553. However Lady Jane was, at first, spared.

However Mary married Phillip of Spain in July 1554. The marriage was very unpopular and in
Kent Sir Thomas Wyatt led a rebellion. He was defeated but Mary was forced to execute Lady
Jane, fearing her enemies might try and place Jane on the throne.

Mary was determined to undo the religious changes of the two previous reigns. Catholic mass
was restored in December 1553. In 1554 married clergy were ordered to leave their wives or lose
their posts. Then, in November 1554 the Act of supremacy was repealed.

In 1555 Mary began burning Protestants, which earned her the nickname 'bloody Mary'. The first
martyr was John Rogers who was burned on 4 February 1555. Over the next 3 years almost 300
Protestants were martyred. (Most of them were from Southeast England where Protestantism had
spread most widely). Many more Protestants fled abroad.

However Mary's cruelty simply gained sympathy for the Protestants and alienated ordinary
people. She simply drove people away from Roman Catholicism.

Furthermore in 1557 England went to war with France. In 1558 the English lost Calais, which
they had hung onto since the end of the Hundred Years War in 1453. It was a major blow to
English prestige.

Mary died on 17 November 1558. She was 42.

Elizabeth I

The Religious Settlement

Elizabeth I was crowned in January 1559. She restored Protestantism to England. The Act of
Supremacy was restored in April 1559 and further Acts replaced Catholic practices. However it
was a moderate Protestantism. Elizabeth disliked extremists. She disapproved of the Puritans.
(They were people who wanted to 'purify' the Church of England of its remaining Catholic
elements).
All but one of the English bishops refused to take the Oath of Supremacy (recognising Elizabeth
as head of the Church of England) and were removed from their posts. About one third of the
parish clergy were also removed.

However most of the population (not all) accepted the religious settlement. People could be fined
for not attending church. Nevertheless some Catholics continued to practice their religion in
secret.

In 1568 Mary Queen of Scots was forced to flee her own country. She fled to England and
Elizabeth held her prisoner for 19 years.

In November 1569 Catholics in the north of England rebelled. The rebellion started when people
in Durham Cathedral tore up a Bible. The Catholic rebels hoped to murder Elizabeth and replace
her with Mary Queen of Scots. However the uprising was quickly crushed and the last battle took
place on 19 February 1570. Afterwards many of the rebels were hanged.

Meanwhile in 1570 the pope issued a bull of excommunication and deposition. This papal
document decreed that Elizabeth I was excommunicated (excluded from the church) and
deposed. Her Catholic subjects no longer had to obey her.

Not surprisingly Elizabeth's attitude to Catholics now hardened. A law was passed in 1571
making it treason to deny that Elizabeth was the lawful queen of England or to call her a heretic,
schismatic, tyrant, usurper or infidel. That put Catholics in an awkward position since according
to their church she was a heretic.

Furthermore in 1581 the fines for non-attendance at Church of England services (aimed at
Catholics) were greatly increased (although in some areas they were not imposed). In 1585 all
Catholic priests were ordered to leave England within 40 days or face a charge of treason.

Despite these measures the great majority of English Catholics remained loyal to the Queen
when the Spanish Armada sailed in 1588. (The ships that fought the armada were commanded by
a Catholic, Lord Howard of Effingham).

Elizabeth's Foreign Policy

In 1562 John Hawkins started the English slave trade. He transported slaves from Guinea to the
West Indies.

However in 1568 the Spaniards attacked Hawkins and his men while their ships were in harbour
in Mexico. Hawkins and his cousin Francis Drake then began an undeclared war against Spain.
They attacked Spanish ships transporting treasure across the Atlantic and stole their cargoes.

In the years 1577-1580 Drake led an expedition, which sailed around the world. Drake also stole
huge amounts of gold and silver from the Spanish colonies but Elizabeth turned a blind eye.

Meanwhile the Spanish king ruled the Netherlands. However the Dutch turned Protestant and in
1568 they rebelled against the Catholic king's rule. Elizabeth was reluctant to become involved
but from 1578 onwards the Spaniards were winning. In 1585 Elizabeth was forced to send an
army to the Netherlands.

Then in 1586 there was a plot to murder the queen called the Babington Conspiracy. Because of
her involvement Mary Queen of Scots was beheaded on 8 February 1587.

Meanwhile Phillip II of Spain was planning to invade England. However in April 1587 Drake
sailed into Cadiz harbour and destroyed part of the fleet that was preparing to invade. Drake
boasted that he had 'singed the king of Spain's beard'.

Even so the next year the invasion fleet was ready and it sailed in July 1588. The Spanish
Armada consisted of 132 ships and about 30,000 men. It was commanded by the Duke of
Medina Sidonia.

At that time the Spanish king ruled a large part of Northeast Europe. The plan was to send the
armada to Calais to meet a Spanish army grouped there. The armada would then transport them
to England.

The English fleet was gathered at Plymouth. When the Spanish arrived they sailed in a crescent
formation. The English harassed the Spanish ships from behind. In Drake's words they 'plucked
the feathers'. However the English were unable to do serious damage to the armada until they
reached Calais.

When the armada arrived the Spanish troops in Calais were not ready to embark and there was
nothing the armada could do except wait at anchor in the harbour. However the English prepared
fire ships. They loaded ships with pitch and loaded guns which fired when the flames touched the
gunpowder, and set them on fire then steered them towards the Spanish ships. In panic the
armada broke formation. Spanish ships scattered.

Once the Spanish ships broke formation they were vulnerable and the English attacked doing
considerable damage.

Finally the armada sailed north around Scotland and west of Ireland. However they sailed into
terrible storms and many of their remaining ships were wrecked. Eventually the Spanish lost 53
ships. The English lost none.

Despite the failure of the armada the war went on until 1604 but neither side was able to gain a
decisive advantage.

Meanwhile Elizabeth I died on 24 March 1603.

James I

In 1603 King James VI of Scotland became James I of England. He began a new dynasty - the
Stuarts.
James I never had the same charisma as Elizabeth I and never enjoyed the same popularity.
However among his achievements he ended the long war with Spain in 1604. He was also
responsible for a new translation of the Bible, the King James Version, which was published in
1611.

However James came into conflict with parliament. The cost of government (and of fighting
wars) was rising but the government's income did not keep up. Rents from royal lands could only
be raised when the lease ended. Parliament was therefore in a strong position. MPs could refuse
to raise money for the king unless he bowed to their demands. So the king was forced to look for
new ways to raise money.

The situation was complicated by disagreements over religion. Many MPs were puritans. They
wished to 'purify' the Church of England of its remaining Catholic elements. Although he was a
Protestant James disagreed with many of their views.

Furthermore James believed in the divine right of kings. In other words God had chosen him to
rule. James was willing to work with parliament but he believed ultimate authority rested with
him.

James I died in 1625. He was 58.

Charles I

Like his father Charles I was firm believer in the divine right of kings. From the start he
quarrelled with parliament.

At the beginning of his reign Charles I married a French Roman Catholic princess, Henrietta
Maria. However marrying a Catholic was very unpopular move with the Puritans.

Charles also fought unsuccessful wars. In 1625 he sent an expedition to Cadiz, which ended in
failure. Parliament strongly criticized his policies and refused to raise extra taxes to pay for the
Spanish war.

Charles angrily dissolved parliament and raised money by levying forced loans. He imprisoned,
without trial, anyone who refused to pay.

In 1627 an expedition was sent to La Rochelle in France. It was led by the king's favourite the
Duke of Buckingham and it ended in failure.

By 1628 the cost of wars meant Charles was desperate for money and he was forced to call
parliament. This time MPs drew up the Petition of Right, which forbade the levying of taxes
without parliament's consent. it also forbade arbitrary imprisonment.

However king and parliament clashed over the issue of religion. In the 17th century religion was
far more important than it is today. It was a vital part of everyday life. Furthermore there was no
toleration in matters of religion. By law everybody was supposed to belong to the Church of
England (though in practice there were many Roman Catholics especially in the Northwest).
In 1629 William Laud was Bishop of London. He was strongly opposed to the Puritans and
Charles supported him wholeheartedly.

Parliament criticized Laud and Charles called it impertinence. (He did not think parliament had
any right to do so). In return parliament refused to grant the king taxes for more than one year.
Charles sent a messenger to parliament to announce it was dissolved. However members of the
Commons physically held the speaker down until they had passed three resolutions about Laud
and religion. Only then did they disband.

In 1633 Laud was made Archbishop of Canterbury. Laud was determined to suppress the
Puritans and he sent commissioners into almost every parish to make sure the local churches
came into line.

Furthermore the Puritans had their own preachers called lecturers. These men were independent
of the Church of England. Laud tried to put a stop to these preachers - with some success.

Most of all Laud emphasised the ceremony and decoration in churches. These measures were
strongly opposed by the Puritans. They feared it was the 'thin edge of the wedge' and Catholicism
would eventually be restored in England.

Meanwhile for 11 years Charles ruled without parliament. This period was called the eleven
years tyranny. Charles had various ways of raising money without parliament's consent. In the
Middle Ages men with property worth a certain amount of money a year were supposed to serve
the king as knights. Under this old law Charles fined their descendants for not doing so.
Furthermore all wasteland had once been royal land. In time some landowners had taken parts of
it into cultivation. Charles fined them for doing so. Using these dubious methods by 1635
Charles was solvent.

However matters came to a head in 1637. In 1634 the king began levying ship money. This was a
traditional tax raised in coastal towns to enable the king to build ships when more were needed.
However in 1635 Charles began levying ship money in inland areas.

A Buckinghamshire squire called John Hampden refused to pay. In 1637 he was taken to court
and although he lost his case he became a hero. Ship money was very unpopular with the
propertied class.

Worse in 1637 Charles and Laud enraged the Scots by proposing religious changes in Scotland.
Laud and Charles tried to introduce a new prayer book in Scotland. There were riots in
Edinburgh. In February 1638 Scottish nobles and ministers signed a document called the
National Covenant.

Charles made two attempts to bring the Scots to heel. Both were humiliating failures. The first
Bishops War of 1639 ended with the peace of Berwick but it was only a breathing space for both
sides.

In April 1640 Charles summoned parliament again, hoping they would agree to raise money for
his Scottish campaign. Instead parliament simply discussed its many grievances. Charles
dissolved parliament on 5 May and it became known as the Short parliament because it met for
such a short time.

The Second Bishops War followed in 1640. In August 1640 the Scots invaded England and they
captured Newcastle. Charles was forced to make peace with the Scots. By the treaty they
occupied Durham and Northumberland. Charles was forced to pay their army's costs.

Finally in August 1641 Charles was forced to abandon all attempts to impose religious changes
on Scotland. In return the Scots withdrew from northern England.

Meanwhile, desperate for money, Charles was forced to call parliament again in November 1640.
This parliament became known as the Long Parliament.

Parliament passed the Triennial Act, which stated that parliament must be called every three
years. A Dissolution Act stated that parliament could not be dissolved without its consent.

Fining people who had not obtained knighthoods was declared illegal. So was fining landowners
who had encroached on royal land. Ship money was also abolished

Parliament also took revenge on the king's hated advisor, Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford.
They passed a special act declaring Strafford was a traitor. The people of London took to the
streets demanding his execution. Charles feared for his and his familys safety and he was forced
to sign the act. Strafford was executed on 12 may 1641.

Unfortunately parliament then divided. Opposition to the king was led by John Pym but many
began to fear he was going too far.

In November 1641 a list of grievances called the Grand Remonstrance was drawn up but it was
passed by only 11 votes. Pym then demanded that the king hand over control of the militia. For
many that was a step too far. They feared that Pym might replace arbitrary royal government
with something worse.

Meanwhile parliament and the country split cover religion. Some wanted to return the Church of
England to the state of affairs before Laud. Others wanted to abolish bishops completely. The
country was becoming dangerously divided.

In January 1642 Charles made the situation worse by highhandedly entering the Commons and
attempting to arrest 5 MPs for treason. (They had already fled). No king had entered the
Commons before and his actions caused outrage.

Once again Charles feared for his safety and he left London.

In March 1642 Parliament declared that its ordinances were valid laws and they did not require
the royal assent.

In April 1642 king then tried to seize arms in Hull but he was refused entry to the town.
Meanwhile in London parliament began raising an army. (Although most of the House of Lords
went over to the king). The king also began raising an army and he set up his standard at
Nottingham in August.

The English Civil War

However most people were reluctant to take sides in a civil war and wished to stay neutral. Yet
gradually people were sucked in.

From the start parliament had several advantages. Firstly it held London and the customs dues
from the port were an important source of money.

Secondly most of the Southeast and East of England supported parliament. In the 17th century
they were the richest and most densely populated parts of the country. Wales, most of northern
England and most of the Southwest supported the king but they were poor and thinly populated.

Thirdly the navy supported parliament and made it difficult for the king to receive help from
abroad.

The first clash of the civil war took place at Powicke Bridge near Worcester. It was only a
skirmish but it ended in royalist victory. The first major battle took place at Edgehill near
Banbury. On 23 October 1642 the parliamentarians started by firing artillery. Prince Rupert, the
king's nephew then led a cavalry charge. They chased the parliamentary cavalry off the field.
Then infantry then fought but neither side could gain the upper hand. By the time the royalist
cavalry returned to the field it was growing dark so the battle ended indecisively.

The king advanced towards London but he was stopped at Turnham Green on 13 November
1642.

In 1643 things went better for the king. His army won victories at Adwalton Moor in Yorkshire
in June 1643. They also won battles at Landsdown Hill near Bath and at Roundway Down in
July 1643. However in September 1643 the first battle of Newbury proved indecisive. However
the parliamentarians won a victory at Winceby in Lincolnshire on 11 October 1643.

Then, in September 1643, the parliamentarians persuaded the Scots to intervene on their behalf
by promising to make England Presbyterian (a Presbyterian church is one organised without
bishops). A Scottish army entered England in January 1644.

On 2 July 1644 the royalists were severely defeated at the battle of Marston Moor in Yorkshire.
Following this battle the parliamentarians captured all of Northern England. (although the
royalists did win a victory at Lostwithiel on 2 September 1644.

The parliamentarians then decided to reform their army. In December 1644 they passed the Self
Denying Ordinance, which stated that all MPs (except Oliver Cromwell and his son-in-law
Henry Ireton) must give up their commands. Early in 1645 parliamentary forces were
reorganised and became the New Model Army.
The New Model Army crushed the royalists at the battle of Naseby in June 1645 and at Langport,
near Yeovil in July 1645.

Afterwards the parliamentarians slowly gathered strength. Finally in May 1646 the king
surrendered to the Scots.

The Scots eventually handed the king over to parliament. That left the problem what to do with
the king? Most people did not wish to abolish the monarchy but it was difficult to keep the king
but limit his power. Charles made things worse, as usual, by being obstinate and refusing to
compromise.

Meanwhile following civil war radical ideas flourished. In November 1646 a man named John
Lilburne, one of a group of radicals called the Levellers published a tract called London's Liberty
in Chains. He demanded a republic and the abolition of the House of Lords. He also said that all
men should be allowed to vote and their should be religious freedom.

Furthermore the army fell out with parliament. By the spring of 1647 the soldier's pay was
heavily in arrears and they were not happy. In April 1647 parliament voted to disband the army
and give them no more than 6 weeks pay. However the army refused to disband.

The Second English Civil War

Meanwhile in December 1647 Charles made a secret agreement with the Scots. They agreed to
invade England on his behalf. However Oliver Cromwell crushed an army of Scots and English
royalists at Preston.

A royalist uprising also took place in Kent. However the royalists failed to capture London and
instead they marched to Colchester where they were besieged and finally defeated.

The army now felt that parliament was being too lenient with the king. They occupied London
and Colonel Thomas Pride ejected about 140 members of the Commons. This action was called
'Pride's Purge'. It left a 'rump parliament' of about 60 members.

In January 1649 Charles was put on trial for treason. He was found guilty on 27 January 1649
and he was beheaded outside Whitehall on 30 January 1649.

On 17 March 1649 parliament passed an act abolishing monarchy and the House of Lords.

The Interregnum

Under Charles I those who disagreed with the Church of England were persecuted. However
following the civil war they flourished. Independent churches formed.

Most of parliament wanted to make the Church of England Presbyterian. Furthermore attendance
at Church of England services would remain compulsory. The army disagreed. They wanted the
freedom to worship as they pleased.

After the execution of Charles I the Rump Parliament continued to meet but the army effectively
held power. The most powerful general was Oliver Cromwell.
However Charles II then started another war. He made an agreement with the Scots and in 1650
he landed in Scotland. Cromwell and his army advanced into Scotland and in September 1650
they crushed the Scots at Dunbar. Cromwell then crossed the Firth of Forth, leaving the road to
England open.

In 1651, led by Charles II the Scots then invaded England. However very few Englishmen
supported the invasion and Cromwell routed the Scottish army at Worcester in September 1651.
Charles II fled. He managed to escape to France.

The Rump parliament failed to undertake political and religious reforms so the army grew
impatient. The army finally closed the Rump parliament in April 1653. The independent
churches were asked to nominate men who they thought would be suitable MPs. The army then
selected some of them to be MPs. This nominated parliament was called the Barebones
Parliament after a member called Praise-God Barbon. However it proved just as unsatisfactory as
the old Rump Parliament and it was dissolved in December 1653.

A new constitution was drawn up called the Instrument of Government. Cromwell was made
Lord Protector. At first he ruled with a council but in September 1654 a new parliament was
called. However the Protectorate Parliament refused to accept the Instrument of Government so
Cromwell dissolved it in January 1655.

In 1654 there was a local uprising in Salisbury but it was quickly crushed.

Meanwhile in 1652-1654 England fought a war with the Dutch.

Then in 1655 the country was divided into 11 districts. Each district was ruled by a Major-
General.

However in 1656 another parliament was called. However this time some members were
excluded as 'unfit persons'.

In 1657 the remaining members drew up a Humble Petition and Advice to Cromwell. They
suggested the old system of a parliament with two houses should be revived but this time the
Lord Protector would appoint members of the upper house. They also offered Cromwell the
crown. He refused but he accepted the rest of the agreement. The rule of the Major-generals
ended in 1657.

However when parliament reconvened in January 1658 the members who were excluded in 1656
were allowed to take the seats. This time the members attacked the new arrangements (they
would not accept the new nominated upper house) and Cromwell dissolved parliament again in
February 1658.

Finally Cromwell died on 3 September 1658. He was 59.

Oliver Cromwell appointed his son Richard his successor. However Richard was a shy,
unambitious man and he resigned in May 1659.
Finally in February 1660 General Monck, who commanded the English army stationed in
Scotland marched south. He entered London in February 1660. Monck recalled the surviving
members of the Long Parliament, which first met in 1640.

The Long Parliament voted to disband and hold fresh elections for a new parliament. This one
became known as the Convention parliament.

Meanwhile, in April 1660 Charles II issued a declaration from the Dutch town of Breda. He
promised a general pardon (except for the regicides who were responsible for the death of his
father) and freedom of religion.

The Convention Parliament declared that the government of England should be King, Lords and
Commons. Finally on 25 May 1660 Charles II landed at Dover.

Charles II

Charles II was not particularly religious but as far as he had any religion he secretly leaned to
Roman Catholicism. (He had to keep this very quiet as he feared the people would rebel if they
found out).

In 1662 he married a Portuguese Princess, Catherine of Braganza. However Charles was a

pleasure-seeking man and he had many mistresses.

Meanwhile parliament was determined to crack down on the many independent churches that
had sprung up during the interregnum and make Anglicanism the state religion again.

They passed a series of acts called the Clarendon code, a series of laws to persecute non-
conformists (Protestants who did not belong to the Church of England). The Corporation Act of
1661 said that all officials in towns must be members of the Church of England.

The Act of Uniformity 1662 said that all clergy must use the Book of Common Prayer. About
2,000 clergy who disagreed resigned. Furthermore the Conventicle Act of 1664 forbade
unauthorised religious meetings of more than 5 people unless they were all of the same
household.

Finally the Five Mile Act of 1665 forbade non-Anglican ministers to come within 5 miles of
incorporated towns. (Towns with a mayor and corporation).

However these measures did not stop the non-conformists meeting or preaching.

Meanwhile England fought another was with the Dutch in 1665-1667.

In 1670 Charles made a secret treaty with Louis XIV of France. It was called the Treaty of
Dover. By it Louis promised to give Charles money (so he was no longer dependent on
parliament). Charles agreed to join with Louis in another war with Holland and to announce he
was a Roman Catholic (Louis promised to send 6,000 men if the people rebelled when he did
so).
However the war with Holland, which began in 1672, proved to be far more expensive than
anticipated and the money from Louis XIV was not enough. Eventually Charles was forced to
call parliament.

Meanwhile in 1672 Charles II issued the Royal Declaration of Indulgence suspending the laws
against non-conformists. (Charles believed that as king he had the right to suspend laws).

Parliament angrily declared that the king had no right to grant exemption from the law to non-
conformists and Catholics.

In 1673 they passed the Test Act, which banned non-conformists and Catholics from holding
public office.

In 1678 two liars, Titus Oates and Israel Tonge claimed there was a 'Popish' (Catholic) plot to
assassinate Charles II and replace him with his brother James who was openly Catholic. The
government began investigating their claims. One of the magistrates who investigated, called Sir
Edmund Berry Godfrey was murdered. It was said to be the work of Catholics. In the panic that
followed many innocent Catholics were convicted of treason and executed.

Meanwhile there was the question of exclusion. Charles II had no legitimate children and when
he died his Catholic brother James was next in line for the throne. Some people, led by the Earl
of Shaftesbury, said James should be excluded from the succession. They were known as Whigs.
Their opponents were known as Whigs.

Charles II was strongly opposed. In 1679 when parliament proposed to exclude James from the
succession he simply dissolved parliament. In 1681 another parliament planned to exclude
James. Once again Charles dismissed parliament and for the last 4 years of his reign ruled
without it.

Charles II died in 1685. He was 54.

Despite the religious conflicts the English economy boomed in Charles II's reign. Trade and
commerce thrived. Although most people still made their living from farming trade now became
an increasingly important part of English life. Industries like coal and iron also expanded rapidly.

Furthermore in 1679 parliament passed the Act of Habeas Corpus forbidding imprisonment
without trial.

In the late 17th century science flourished. From 1645 a group of mathematicians and
philosophers began to meet to discuss scientific subjects. Charles II was interested in science so
in 1662 he gave them a royal charter. They became the Royal Society of London for the
advancement of Natural Knowledge.

Perhaps the greatest scientist of 17th century England was Isaac Newton

Following the death of Charles II in 1685 his brother James became king. However Charles II's
illegitimate son the Duke of Monmouth landed in Dorset and led a rebellion in Southwest
England. He was proclaimed king in Taunton but his army was crushed at the battle of
Sedgemoor. Afterwards George Jeffreys (1648-1689), known as the hanging judge presided over
a series of trials known as the Bloody Assizes. About 300 people were hanged and hundreds
more were transported to the West Indies.

The Glorious Revolution

James II promptly alienated the people by appointing Catholics to powerful and important
positions.

In 1687 he went further and issued a Declaration of Indulgence suspending all laws against
Catholics and Protestant non-Anglicans. In 1688 he ordered the Church of England clergy to read
the declaration from the churches.

However in 1688 7 bishops wrote to James and asked to him to revise his policy on religion.
They were arrested and put on trial for libel but they were acquitted to general rejoicing.

Worse in June 1688 James had a son. The people of England were willing to tolerate James as
long as he did not have a Catholic heir. However his son would certainly be brought up a
Catholic and would, of course, succeed his father.

Seven powerful nobles then stepped in. They invited the Dutchman William of Orange, husband
of James's Protestant daughter Mary, to come to England with an army and promised to support
him. William landed in Devon in November and in December James II fled to France.

Parliament declared that the throne was vacant. William and Mary were declared joint monarchs.
(Although Mary died in 1694).

The Bill of Rights (1689) said that no Catholic could become king or queen. No king could
marry a Catholic. Furthermore the king could not suspend laws or levy loans or taxes without
parliament's consent.

Parliament also passed the Toleration Act in 1689. Non-conformists were allowed their own
places of worship and their own teachers and preachers. However they could not hold
government positions or attend university.

England in the 18th Century

In 1702 Queen Anne began her reign. In the same year the war of the Spanish succession began.
In 1704 the great general the Duke of Marlborough, won a great victory over the French at
Blenheim. Also in 1704 the British captured Gibraltar - and they have held it ever since.

The Duke of Marlborough went on to win great victories at Ramillies in 1706, at Oudenarde in
1708 and at Malplaquet in 1709.

Meanwhile the Act of Union between England and Scotland was passed in 1707. From 1603
England and Scotland shared a king but they remained separate countries. The Act of Union
made them one although the Scots kept their own legal system, church and educational system.
Free trade was established between the two countries.

Queen Anne died in 1714. That unfortunate woman had 17 pregnancies. They either ended in
miscarriages or stillbirths or if the child was born they did not survive beyond childhood.

George I became king in 1714. He was also the ruler of Hanover (part of Germany) and he much
preferred to stay there. George could not speak English and was content to leave the running of
Britain to his ministers.

Meanwhile in September 1714 the Highlands of Scotland rose in rebellion. In an attempt to claim
his throne James Stuart (son of James II, who was deposed in 1688) landed at Peterhead in
December 1714. The uprising failed after an indecisive battle was fought at Sheriffmuir near
Stirling on 13 November 1715. James Stuart left Scotland in February 1716.

In 1711 the South Sea Company was formed. It was given exclusive rights to trade with the
Spanish colonies in South America. (It transported many slaves from Africa to South America).
In 1720 shares in the company became massively overpriced. Then the share price collapsed.
(The South Sea Bubble burst) and many investors lost huge sums of money.

From 1721 Robert Walpole (1676-1745) became the king's chief minister. People began to call
him Prime Minister (Originally it was a term of abuse not an official title). Walpole moved into
Downing Street in 1735.

10 Downing Street became the Prime Minister's official residence in 1732. However Walpole
resigned in February 1742.

George I died in 1727 and was succeeded by his son George II. Like his father George II was
content to leave government largely in the hands of his ministers. However he was the last
British king to lead an army into battle. He led them to victory against the French at Dettingen in
June 1743.

In July 1745 Charles Stuart landed in the Hebrides. He had promised his father, James Stuart,
that he would capture the throne. The Highlanders rose to support him and Charles made rapid
progress. In September 1745 his followers (known as Jacobites from the Latin for James,
Jacobus) captured Edinburgh (except for the castle). The Jacobites then won the battle of
Prestopans.

They invaded England and in November 1745 they captured Carlisle. The Jacobite army reached
Derby in December 1745 but they then turned back. Charles Stuart then headed to Inverness.
However the Jacobites were crushed at the battle of Culloden in April 1746. Charles Stuart fled
to France.

Also in the early 18th century England suffered from an 'epidemic' of gin drinking. Gin was
cheap and drinking it was easy way for the poor to forget their troubles. However in 1751 a duty
was added to gin which curtailed gin drinking.
The early 18th century was noted for its lack of religious enthusiasm. It was an age of reason
rather then dogmatism and the churches lacked vigour. However in the mid-18th century things
began to change. In 1739 the great evangelist George Whitefield (1714-1770) began preaching.
Also in 1739 John Wesley (1703-1791) began preaching. He eventually created a new religious
movement.

The Agricultural Revolution

In the 18th century there was an agricultural revolution in England. It began with Jethro Tull. In
the 17th century seed was sown by hand. The sower simply scattered seed on the ground.
However in 1701 Tull (1674-1741) invented the seed drill. This machine dropped seeds at a
controllable rate in the straight lines. A harrow at the back of the machine covered the seeds to
prevent birds eating them. Tull also invented a horse drawn hoe which killed weeds between
rows of seeds.

Furthermore new forms of crop rotation were introduced. Under the old system land was divided
into 3 fields and each year one was left fallow. This was, obviously, wasteful, as one third of the
land was not used each year. In the 17th century the Dutch began to use new forms of crop
rotation with clover and root crops such as turnips and swedes instead of letting the land grow
fallow. (Root crops restored fertility to the soil). In the 18th century these new methods became
common in England. A man named Charles 'Turnip' Townshend (1674-1738) did much to
popularise growing turnips.

Turnips had another advantage. They provided winter feed for cattle. Previously most cattle were
slaughtered at the beginning of winter because there was not enough food to keep them through
the season. Now fresh milk and butter became available all year round.

Moreover in the early 18th century farmers began to improve their livestock by selective
breeding. One of the most famous pioneers of selective breeding was Robert Bakewell (1725-
1795).

There were other minor improvements. On light soil farmers used marl (clay with a lime
content). Other farmers drained their fields with stone lined trenches. Manure has always been
used as fertiliser but in the mid-18th century farmers began to build underground tanks to protect
manure from the weather.

Finally in the 18th century there was a wave of enclosures. In the Middle Ages land in each
village was divided into strips. Each farmer held some strips in each field. In the 16th and 17th
centuries some enclosures took place. Many more followed in the 18th century. When an act of
enclosure was passed commissioners divided up the land in the village so each farmer had all his
land in one place, which was an inefficient way of doing things.

In 1756 Britain became embroiled in the Seven Years War (1756-1763) with France. In 1759 the
British, led by General Wolfe, won a great victory at Quebec. That ensured that Canada became a
British colony rather than a French one. Meanwhile in 1757 Clive won the battle of Plassey,
which ensured that India became British rather than French.
Meanwhile in 1760 George II died at the age of 77. George III succeeded him. The first two
George's were content to leave government in the hands of their ministers. However, according
to his enemies, George III tried to gain more power for himself.

During his reign Britain lost her colonies in North America. Fighting began in 1775 and the
colonists declared themselves independent in 1776. George was determined to suppress the
colonists, ignoring the wishes of those who wanted reconciliation. However the Americans won
a decisive victory at Yorktown in 1781, which ensured their independence. That caused George's
crony, Prime Minister Lord North to fall from power.

Meanwhile London was rocked by the anti-Catholic Gordon riots in 1780. Riots were common
in the 18th century. The workers could not vote and there were no trade unions so if the workers
were disaffected they rioted.

The Gordon riot was the worst. Lord George Gordon (1751-1793) was an MP who led a huge
crowd to parliament to present a petition demanding the repeal of a 1778 act, which removed
certain restrictions on Roman Catholics. The demonstration became a riot. With cries of 'No
Popery!' the rioters held London for several days until the army restored order. About 300 people
died in the rioting.

At the end of the 18th century a group of Evangelical Christians called the Clapham Sect were
formed. They campaigned for an end to slavery and cruel sports. They were later called the
Clapham Sect because so many of them lived in Clapham.

The Industrial Revolution

In the late 18th century everyday life in Britain was transformed by the industrial revolution.
Towns, industry and trade had been growing for centuries but about 1780 economic growth took
off.

Economic growth was helped by vast improvements in transport. In the early and mid 18th
century many turnpike roads were built. Local turnpike trusts were formed. They maintained a
road and charged people to travel on it.

In the late 18th century a network of canals was built. One of the first was built for the Duke of
Bridgewater by James Brindley. It opened in 1761 from Worsley to Manchester.

A number of technological advances made the revolution possible. In 1709 Abraham Darby
(1677-1717), who owned an ironworks, began using coke instead of charcoal to melt iron ore. (It
was a much more efficient fuel). Darby and his family kept the new fuel secret for a time but in
the late 18th century the practice spread.

Meanwhile in 1698 Thomas Savery made the first steam engine. From 1712 Thomas Newcomen
made steam engines to pump water from coalmines. Then, in 1769, James Watt patented a more
efficient steam engine and in the 1780s it was adapted to power machinery.

The first industry to become mechanised was the textile industry. In 1771 Richard Arkwright
opened a cotton-spinning mill with a machine called a water frame, which was powered by a
water mill. Then, in 1779, Samuel Crompton invented a new cotton-spinning machine called a
spinning mule. Finally in 1785 Edmund Cartwright invented a loom that could be powered by a
steam engine. As a result of these new inventions cotton production boomed.

Iron production also grew rapidly. In 1784 a man named Henry Cort (1740-1800) invented a
much better way of making wrought iron. Until then men had to beat red hot iron with hammers
to remove impurities. In 1784 Cort invented the puddling process. The iron was melted in an
extremely hot furnace and stirred of 'puddled' to remove impurities. The result was a vast
increase in iron production.

Britain in the 19th Century

During the 19th century Britain was transformed by the industrial revolution. In 1801, at the time
of the first census, only about 20% of the population lived in towns. By 1851 the figure had risen
to over 50%. By 1881 about two thirds of the population lived in towns.

Furthermore in 1801 the majority of the population still worked in agriculture or related
industries. Most goods were made by hand and very many craftsmen worked on their own with
perhaps a labourer and an apprentice. By the late 19th century factories were common and most
goods were made by machine.

The early 19th century was an era of political and social unrest in Britain. In the early 19th
century a group of Evangelical Christians called the Clapham Sect were active in politics. They
campaigned for an end to slavery and cruel sports. They gained their name because so many of
them lived in Clapham.

Then on 11 May 1812 a man named John Bellingham shot Tory prime minister Spencer
Perceval. He was the only British prime minister ever to be assassinated.

Bellingham was a lone madman but in 1820 there was a plot to kill the whole cabinet. Arthur
Thistlewood led the Cato Street Conspiracy but the conspirators were arrested on 23 February
1820. Thistlewood and 4 of his companions were hanged.

Meanwhile in 1811-1816 textile workers in the Midlands and the north of England broke
machines, fearing they would cause unemployment. The wreckers were called Luddites and if
caught they were likely to be hanged.

In March 1817 textile workers from Manchester tried to march to London to petition the Prince
Regent. They were called blanketeers because many of them carried blankets. However even
though the march was peaceful the blanketeers were stopped by soldiers at Stockport.

Then on 16 August 1819 a crowd of about 60,000 people gathered at St Peter's Field in
Manchester to hear a man named Henry Hunt. Even though the crowd were unarmed and the
peaceful the authorities sent in soldiers. As a result 11 people were killed and hundreds were
wounded. Afterwards people called the event 'The Peterloo Massacre' in a grim mockery of
Waterloo.
In 1830 farm labourers in Kent and Sussex broke agricultural machinery fearing it would cause
unemployment. The riots were called the Swing Riots because a man named Captain Swing
supposedly, led them. As a result of the riots 4 men were hanged and 52 were transported to
Australia.

In 1834 6 farm labourers in Tolpuddle, Dorset tried to form a trade union. However they were
prosecuted for making illegal oaths. (Not for forming a union, which was legal). They were
sentenced to transportation to Australia. The case caused an outcry and they returned to Britain in
1838.

Political Reform

In 1822 a Tory government was formed which introduced some reforms. At that time you could
be hanged for over 200 offences. (Although the sentence was often commuted to transportation).
In 1825-1828 the death penalty was abolished for more than 180 crimes.

Peel also formed the first modern police force in London in 1829. The police were called
'bobbies' or 'peelers' after him.

From 1828 to 1830 the Duke of Wellington (1769-1852) was prime minister. He introduced the
Catholic Emancipation Act (1829). Since the Reformation Catholics had been unable to become
MPs or to hold public office. The Act restored those rights to them.

However Wellington was strongly opposed to any change to the electoral system.

At that time there were two types of constituency, country areas and towns or boroughs. In the
countryside only the landowners could vote. In boroughs the franchise varied but was usually
limited. However the constituencies had not been changed for centuries and they no longer
reflected the distribution of the population. Industrial towns like Birmingham and Manchester
did not have MPs of their own. On the other hand some settlements had died out but they were
still represented in parliament! In 'rotten' or 'pocket' boroughs there might be only one or two
voters!

In the early 19th century there were increasing demands for reforms. Most people wanted
constituencies distributed more fairly and they also wanted the franchise extended but
Wellington's party, the Tories, resisted.

However in 1830 the Whigs formed a government and they tried to introduced reform. The
House of Commons eventually voted for a reform bill but the House of Lords rejected it. The
King, William IV, warned that he would create more peers, who favoured the bill unless the
Lords agreed to accept it. Eventually the House of Lords backed down and passed the Great
Reform Bill. It received the royal assent on 7 June 1832.

The franchise was only extended slightly but much more importantly the new industrial towns
were now represented in parliament. Before 1832 Britain was ruled by an oligarchy of
landowners. After 1832 the urban middle class had an increasing say.
However the working class were excluded from the reforms. From 1838 a working class protest
movement called the Chartists was formed. (They were named after their People's Charter). The
Chartists had several demands. They wanted all men to have the vote. Furthermore at that time
you had to own a certain amount of property to become an MP. Chartists wanted the property
qualification abolished. They also wanted MPs to be paid. Chartists also wanted all
constituencies to be equal in size and they wanted voting to be by secret ballot.

The first Chartist rally was held in Manchester in 1838. In 1839 the Chartists delivered a petition
to parliament, which was rejected out of hand. Another petition delivered in 1842 was also
rejected. Finally in 1848 another great petition was sent to parliament but it turned into a farce.
Some of the signatures were obvious fakes.

Chartism then fizzled out. For one thing it lacked middle class support and had no support
among MPs. For another in the late 1840s conditions for the working class in Britain were
improving and discontent was declining.

However further reform did eventually follow. In 1867 most workers in the towns were given the
vote and in 1872 the Ballot Act introduced voting by secret ballot. In 1884 farm labourers were
given the vote.

Meanwhile in 1835 the Municipal Corporations Act reformed town governments. A uniform
system of town government was formed.

The Decline of Britain

In the middle of the 19th century Britain was the richest and most powerful nation in the world.
However in the late 19th century Britain's power declined. It was inevitable. Britain was the first
country to industrialise. She therefore had a head start over other nations. However the other
countries began to catch up. France, Germany and the USA industrialised. By the end of the 19th
century Russia, Sweden, (North) Italy and Japan were also industrialising. As a result Britain
became relatively less important.

British Foreign Policy in the 19th Century

The 19th century was a relatively peaceful era for Britain. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815
Britain only fought one war with another European power, the Crimean War against Russia
(1854-1846). Other wars were colonial wars involving small numbers of soldiers.
During the 19th century Britain built up a great overseas empire including South Africa,
Australia and New Zealand. In 1857-58 they crushed the uprising called the Indian Mutiny and
in 1877 Queen Victoria was made Empress of India.

Meanwhile in 1819 Sir Stafford Raffles founded Singapore. Britain also took Burma in stages
during the 19th century.

In the late 19th century Britain took large swathes of Africa (Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi, Kenya
and Nigeria. The British also took control of Egypt and Sudan.

Nevertheless by the end of the 19th century it was obvious that Britain was no longer as
powerful as she had once been and needed allies in Europe.

Britain in the 20th Century

The First World War

Britain declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914. A British expeditionary force was sent to
France, led by Sir John French. It fought the Germans at Mons on 23 August. The Germans
continued to advance but the French and British halted them at the Battle of the Marne in
September. The Germans tried to outflank the allies but were blocked. Both sides dug trenches to
protect themselves and soon the trenches ran in a continuous line. The war became a stalemate.

In 1916 the British launched an attack on the Somme. Both sides horrific losses. However during
this battle the British unleashed a secret weapon - the tank. The first tanks were too unreliable
and too few in number to affect the outcome of the battle but they were a sign of things to come.

In 1917 Germany began unrestricted submarine warfare. They sank any ships from any country
attempting to reach Britain. As a result food in Britain ran very short but the crisis ended when
the convoy system was introduced. Merchant ships travelled in groups protected by warships.
Nevertheless in 1918 rationing of meat, butter and cheese began. Furthermore as a result of the
German policy the USA entered the war.

In the Spring of 1918 Germany launched a series of offensives in northern France. The allies
fought on with the 'backs against the wall' and in August the British launched a counter-attack
using tanks. The Germans were gradually pushed back and on 11 November they signed an
armistice (cease-fire).

The Depression
In 1929 the world was plunged into a severe economic recession.

By 1932 22.8% of insured workers were unemployed. However unemployment began to fall in
1933. By January 1936 it stood at 13.9%. By 1938 it stood at around 10%.

World War II

When war began on 3 September 1939 it was feared that the Germans would bomb British cities
causing great loss of life. So children from the cities were evacuated to the countryside.
Altogether 827,000 schoolchildren with 103,000 teachers and helpers left the big cities.
Furthermore 524,000 children below school age and their mothers left. However most of the
'evacuees' soon returned home. The bombing raid on British cities failed to materialise - at first.

Rationing in Britain began in September 1939 when petrol was rationed. As the war continued
rationing became stricter and stricter. In January 1940 butter, sugar, bacon and ham were
rationed. Tea was rationed from July 1940. Then in May 1941 cheese was rationed and from June
1941 eggs were rationed. From July 1941 clothes were rationed and you had to save up coupons
to buy them. From July 1942 sweets were rationed.

From 1942 dried (powdered) egg arrived from the USA. Meanwhile the people were encouraged
to 'dig for victory' and the amount of land under cultivation increased from 12 million acres in
1939 to 18 million acres in 1945.

On 7 September 1940 the Germans began bombing London and by 1 January 1941 over 13,000
Londoners were killed. Other cities heavily bombed during the 'blitz' included Birmingham,
Coventry, Bristol, Portsmouth and Plymouth.

German bombing lessened after mid-1941 when Hitler invaded Russia. From then on most
German armed forces were concentrated in the east. However in June 1944 the Germans
unleashed a 'secret weapon'. It was kind of rocket called a VI flying bomb. (The British public
called them 'doodlebugs'). From September 1944 V2 rockets were launched. altogether 1,115
V2s hit England and about half of them hit London. The last V2 was fired on 27 March 1945. At
first the government claimed the explosions were caused by exploding gas mains (which didn't
fool anybody!). They did not admit the truth until November 1944. Hitler called his new
weapons Vergeltung (vengeance) weapons yet German bombing failed. It failed to dent British
morale and it failed to seriously affect industrial output.

About 1 million houses were destroyed or severely damaged during World War II. About 40,000
civilians were killed. After the war Britain was left with a severe shortage of housing. The
Housing Act of 1946 gave grants and subsidies for building houses. By 1951 900,000 new
houses had been built.

National Austerity
Germany surrendered on 8 May 1945. Immediately afterwards a general election was held (the
first since November 1935). Labour won by a landside and Clement Attlee (1883-1967) became
prime minister until 1951. Labour set about introducing a welfare state. By the National
Insurance Act of 1946 everyone was entitled to unemployment benefit, sickness benefit, old age
pensions and widows pensions. The National Health Service was introduced in 1948. (Many of
the ideas for the welfare state were laid out by a Liberal named William Beveridge 1879-1963).

During World War II Britain was run by a coalition government. In 1944 it passed the Butler
Education Act. (It was named after a Conservative, Richard Butler). In future all 11-year-old
children would sit an exam (it became known as the 11+). Afterwards some went to grammar
school to study academic subjects while others went to secondary modern schools to study
technical subjects. Both types of school were supposed to be equal. (In the official phrase they
had 'parity of esteem'). However in the eyes of the public if you 'passed' the 11+ you went to a
grammar school. If you 'failed' you went to a secondary modern. In 1947 the school leaving age
was raised to 15.

However the period 1945-1951 was one of 'national austerity' when many goods were in short
supply and long queues were common. Rationing continued and it actually grew stricter than
during the war. Conditions were hardest in 1947 when there was a severe winter. Bread was
rationed in July 1946 and in November 1947 potatoes were rationed.

The Labour party also nationalised certain industries (made them state owned). Coal was
nationalised in 1947. So were the railways. In 1948 gas and electricity were nationalised.

Meanwhile shortages gradually lessened. Clothes rationing ended in 1949 and petrol rationing
ended in 1950. However rationing of butter and meat lasted until 1954.