ASSIGNMENT

ENGINEERING MATRERIALS

Group Members:
 Usama Qayyum 180501002

 Talha Bin Zahid 180501015

 Shahid Tariq 180501018

 Asfand Bashir 180501039

Submitted to:
Dr. Abrar Baloch
Contents:
Introduction: ............................................................................. 1
General Properties: .................................................................. 1
Crystal Structure: ..................................................................... 2
Mechanical Properties: ............................................................ 3
Material Failure: ...................................................................... 3
Phase Diagram: ......................................................................... 7
Heat Treatment: ....................................................................... 8
Applications: ............................................................................. 9
Refrences: ................................................................................ 11
Introduction:

Copper-zinc alloys were produced as early the 5th millenia BC in China and were
widely used in east and central Asia by the 2nd and 3rd century BC. It is likely that
the alloys were smelted from zinc-rich copper ores, producing crude brass-like
metals. Greek and Roman documents suggest that the intentional production of
alloys similar to modern brass, using copper and a zinc oxide rich ore known as
calamine, began around the 1st century BC. 'Brass' is a generic term that refers to a
wide range of copper-zinc alloys. In fact, there are over 60 different types of brass
specified by EN (European Norm) Standards. These alloys can have a wide range
of different compositions depending upon the properties required for a particular
application.

Brass Properties:
The exact properties of different brasses depend on the composition of the brass
alloy, particularly the copper-zinc ratio. In general, however, all brasses are valued
for their machinability or the ease with which the metal can be formed into desired
shapes and forms while retaining high strength.

 Brass often has bright gold appearance; however, it can also be reddish-
gold or silvery-white. Artists and architects value the metal's aesthetic properties,
as it can be produced in a range of colors, from deep red to golden yellow. A
higher percentage of copper yields a rosy tone, while more zinc makes the
alloy appear silver.
 Brass has higher malleability than either bronze or zinc.
 Brass has desirable acoustic properties appropriate for use in musical
instruments.
 The metal exhibits low friction.
 Brass is a soft metal that may be used in cases when a low chance of
sparking is necessary.
 The alloy has a relatively low melting point.
  It's a good conductor of heat.
 Brasses with a lower zinc content can be easily cold worked, welded and
brazed. A high copper content also allows the metal to form a protective
oxide layer (patina) on its surface that guards against further corrosion, a
valuable property in applications that expose the metal to moisture and
weathering. Brass resists corrosion, including galvanic corrosion from
saltwater.
 Due to its low melting point, brass can also be cast relatively easily.
However, for casting applications, a high zinc content is usually preferred.
 Brass is not ferromagnetic. Among other things, this makes it easier to
separate from other metals for recycling.

Crystal Structure of Brass:

Following are some specifications of Brass (Cu-Zn) crystal structure.

 1. It has 8 stranded barrel structure
2. It has two long loops of non-reparative structure and 1 helical section
3. Both the elements (Cu and Zn) are joined by the loops
4. Its electron density is 3 angstrom
5. The Cu has 4 ligands ( histidine) in distorted square plane
6. Zinc has 3 histidine in tetrahedral arrangement

Mechanical Properties:
Mechanical Units (Metric) Units (English) Remarks
Properties
Ultimate tensile 338-469 MPa 49000 – 68000 psi
strength
Yield Strength 124-310 MPa 18000-45000 psi Depending on
temperature
Elongation at break 53 % 53 % In 457.2 mm
Modulus of elasticity 97 GPa 14100 ksi
Bulk modulus 40 GPa 20300 ksi Typical for steel
Poisons Ratio 0.31 0.31 Calculated
Machinability 100 % 100 % UNS C36000 (free
cutting) = 100%
Shear modulus 37 GPa 5370 ksi

Major failure phenomenon of brass:

1. Dezincification:
Dezincification is defined as dealloying of zinc as a consequence of selective
leaching of zinc from brass. It can be localized and might result in deep
areas of porous copper which forms red patches on brass surface. It leaves
the copper layer very weak with depleted mechanical strength. Plug
dezincification can lead to component failure if the affected regions
penetrate deep enough within the metal to compromise mechanical strength.
Layer dezincification can lead to shallow regions of porous copper. It attacks
brass surface more uniformly. There are generally two mechanisms of
dezincification. In singular mechanism, Zn oxidation or reaction of Zn with
chloride ions takes place. The electrons released reduce oxygen or chlorine
 present in water. In dual mechanism, both Zn and Cu are oxidized and
dissolved from brass surface.

Factors effecting dezincification:

a) Alloy Composition:
Brasses with Zn between 15%-30% are susceptible to dezincification.

b) Effect of alloy additives:

As and Sn can reduce dezincification in alpha brasses and duplex brasses.

c) Water Chemistry:
The liquid or media to which metal is in contact or exposed and its
individual constituents affect dezincification. When water reacts with metal,
a film formation takes place. In some cases, the film controls corrosion
attack while in other cases it may accelerate the attack.

2. Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC):

Stress corrosion cracking is a phenomenon of cracking of susceptible alloys
by action of high residual stresses and specified corrosive environment.
Stresses can be entrapped during cold working of Cu alloys. Duplex brasses
where Zn content is between 20%-40% are highly prone to SCC. It was
initially called as season cracking. During British period, brass cartridge
cases used by British army were found to crack in ammonia environment.
Ammonia came from the decay of organic matter. The phenomenon
occurred in rainy season, so it was called season cracking.

The cracking is Intergranular. There are three basic mechanisms of SCC.

In active path dissolution, enhanced corrosion along the most active path i.e.
grain boundary occurs where excess of material is passive. So, corrosion
susceptibility in that part becomes higher than normal. E.g. Sensitization of
chromium. When additional stresses are present, cracks will open up and
corrosion product will enter crack tip and accelerate corrosion. In hydrogen
embrittlement, the small atoms of hydrogen fits in the metal atoms in
crystals of metal. Hydrogen atom tends to enter areas of high triaxial tensile
stress, where notches and cracks are under stress and helps in plastically
deforming the metal. Cracks could be trans granular or Intergranular. In film
induced cleavage, when a brittle film forms a coating on ductile material, the
film propagates into the material. If film has resulted from a corrosion
phenomenon, then it can occur on crack tip again and again. This type is
found mostly in brass with trans granular fracture.

Factors effecting SCC:

a) Alloy:
The composition, microstructure and heat treatment of alloy effects SCC
occurrence.
b) Stress:
There is a threshold stress below which cracking will not occur. Products in
service contain edges, cracks, welds, pits, etc. that have stress concentration
and can act as stress raisers. These further help in achieving threshold stress
value.

c) Environment:
Apart from hydrogen embrittlement, the other two SCC mechanisms are
more particular for SCC. Cracking depends on specific corrosion reactions at
crack tip, crack wall and surface. If corrosive environment is controlled,
cracks would not form.

Methods for controlling SCC:

Environment Control:
This includes adding inhibitors or isolating the metal from environment with
suitable coatings. Stress Control: Residual stress relief annealing could be
done to remove the effects of cold working, welding, etc. It is not possible to
remove working stresses. For large structures, partial stress relief annealing
could be done. Mechanical ways of removing stress like grit blasting and
shot peening can also help in SCC control.
3. Corrosion Fatigue Cracking:
Failure of components by coactions of cyclic stress and chemical attack is
called corrosion fatigue cracking. Corrosive environments lead to shorter
fatigue life. Chemical reactions take place between environment and
material so small pits are formed which result in stress concentration. So,
stresses at pit points increase and form a basis for cracks. The corrosive
environment further accelerates crack propagation. The type of cyclic stress,
its frequency if persists for longer durations causes reduced fatigue life.
Methods to prevent corrosion fatigue are applying protective surface
coatings, use of corrosion resistant material and if possible, reduce applied
stresses.

4. Failure by surface degradation:

A phenomenon caused by formation of metal oxides at metal-coating
interface which spoils the metal surface is called surface degradation. These
oxides reach the metal surface by means of growing through cracks that
were formed in the coating. The lubricants or bath used prior to
electroplating, if not properly cleaned can react with plating solution and
cause surface degradation. The various components of brass under
experimental study with different environmental conditions show different
failure modes.

CONCLUSION:
The brass is a material with very useful applications but it has very serious
problem of failure during service life under different environmental
conditions. The following facts can be concluded from this study
1. The heat treatment in proper conditions provides better results to control
the failure of brass components.
2. Formation of cuprous compounds is the main cause of dezincification,
since both Cu and Zn dissolve at the same time from brass but Cu is
redeposited and so only Zn is lost.
 3. Cold working operation in brass, especially with high Zn content leave
internal stresses which can cause stress corrosion cracking.
4. Cu and Zn cause a marked reduction in fatigue resistance particularly in
aqueous solution containing chloride ions.
5. Due to formation of ZnO and CuO at the metal coating interface that
reaches the surface by growing through cracks that were also formed in Ni
coatings.

Phase Diagram of Brass:

Brass is a series of binary alloys between copper and zinc, with an upper zinc
content of about 50 wt %. The phase diagram is shown, and two brasses are
identified. Cartridge brass has the composition Cu-30 wt % Zn (green line) and
Muntz metal Cu-40 wt % Zn (red line). At room temperature cartridge brass is a
single phase substitutional solid solution of zinc in the fcc copper structure. Muntz
metal is a two phase (a and g) material at room temperature, both of which are
solid solutions of zinc in copper but with different compositions. When heated
above about 800 C, Muntz metal becomes a single phase b-solid solution. The
presence of two phases at room temperature makes Muntz metal less ductile that
cartridge brass, but with a higher tensile strength. Hot working of the material in
the b-phase takes advantage of the higher ductility of this single phase.
Heat Treatment of Brass:
Heat Treatment is actually a bundle of industrial and other material processes
which is basically used to change the physical (or sometimes chemical) properties
of any material. There are any processes namely; Hardening, Case Hardening,
Annealing, Quenching, Normalizing etc.
In case of brass, we will consider only few of them.
 Annealing (Sample is allowed to cool in a furnace)
 Quenching (Sample is allowed to suddenly cool down in water)
 Normalizing ( Sample is allowed to cool at room temperature)
 Precipitation Hardening ( Sample is kept at high temperature to allow the
formation of precipitates and then allowed to cool)
These different heat treatment tests, performed on different brass samples shown
the following results:
The ductility of the sample increased.
The grain boundaries were also refined.
The hardness and toughness of the sample decreased
Significant changes were noted in the phase structure of the sample

The graphical and microscopical changes of hardness and phase structure can be
seen from the figures below
Applications of Brass
Mechanical Applications:
 Casings for M-16 assault rifle
 Used in Bearing
  Used Gears
 Heat Exchanger
 Drawn and Spun containers
 Tanks, Rubes
 Cartage casings
Daily Life Applications:
 Grillwork
 Jewelry
 Ornamental Trim
 Badges
 Door Handles
 Marine Hardware
 Primer Caps
 Pen, Pencil and Lipstick Tubes
References:
https://www.ezlok.com/brass-properties

http://www.iraj.in/journal/journal_file/journal_pdf/2-56-140048043533-36.pdf

https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=4387

https://www.thoughtco.com/list-of-alloys-by-base-metal-603716

https://www.thoughtco.com/brass-composition-and-properties-603729

https://prezi.com/ywdh2vszcygg/the-heat-treatment-of-brass/

https://www.nature.com/articles/srep07065

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/1055410/

https://www.thebalance.com/brass-applications-2340108

https://www.academia.edu/37784631/Effect_of_soft_annealing_on_copper_brass_and_gunmetal

https://www.academia.edu/37784631/Effect_of_soft_annealing_on_copper_brass_and_gunmetal