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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY (With COMMENT and REJOINDER) Author(s) - Leon Miller and Gordon L. Anderson PDF
RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY (With COMMENT and REJOINDER) Author(s) - Leon Miller and Gordon L. Anderson PDF
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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING
NATIONAL UNITY
Leon Miller International Relations Department
International University Audentes
Tondi 55
Tallinn 11316
Estonia
Leon Miller is a native of Pennsylvania where his early influences included Quaker Peace
and environmentalism, leading him to seminary studies at the University of Chicago
Cluster of Theological Schools. He earned a Masters of Divinity degree and continued at
the advanced level doing studies in Liberal and Liberation Theology. He went to work in
the former Soviet State of Estonia during its early stages of a transition to democracy. He
now has fifteen years of experience in Estonia where he works as a university instructor of
Comparative Religion, is a candidate for doctoral degree and does community organizing
in behalf of the International Association for Religious Freedom.
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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY
eties. Without shared values it becomes evident that the society is disjointed
and hardly held together with any sense of overall identity. Civil religion
contributes to rectifying this problem by promoting a national character
based on cherished cultural values. Civil religion becomes the public
expression of a unified identity, consistent with the basic cultural values
that are respected and cherished by the entire population. Civil religion
would contribute to a stronger sense of national unity, which is important
for holding a culture together to offset divisive forces.
Civil religion would particularly benefit the Baltic region's effort to
apply democratic principles toward creating equal benefit for all its citizens.
The Baltic region has emerged from its recent past of Soviet occupation
with the intention of demonstrating an effective model of what binds a
democratic society together into unity. This has been evident, for example,
with Eastern Europe's effort to build social structures based on a deep
respect for liberty, democracy and pluralism. However, Eastern Europe,
like EU, is in the position of needing to establish shared values given its
diverse population. This makes civil religion in Eastern Europe of particular
importance to offset a tendency for some of the cultures to be bipolar.
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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY
Estonia (for example) does enjoy cultural diversity which could add to
its richness and vitality. However, as is true throughout Europe, there is
need of healing old historical wounds if that diversity is to be developed for
constructive and progressive purposes. Thus, a carefully constructed civil
religion would aid Estonia's effort to build, out of its cultural diversity, a
unified national identity. Civil religion would contribute to shaping Esto
nia's adverse population into a unified harmony based on shared cultural
values.
Like the overall European Union, there must be aspects of the common
heritage that can serve as a unifying factor contributing to shared values.
These are found in the sacred canons that
are cherished by Eastern European states
as well as the union at large. These sacred Like the overal1 European
canons are in line with the cultural values Union, there must be
of the Eastern European states as well as aspects of the common
their intention to establish liberal democ- heritage that can serve
racy. These sacred canons of Western as a unifying factor
Civilization become the basis of a more contributing to shared
unified national character. values.
Most Eastern European countries hhmhhmmhm^m^mi
do want to acknowledge the special role
the church has played in history and the struggle for freedom. In addition
to the role of the church in Eastern European cultures and history, con
sideration must be given to the importance of traditional aspects of each
cultural identity. However what is most important today is the fact that
each culture now is legally established as being religiously pluralistic, with
a wide range of Western and Eastern religious beliefs and with the state
making no special accommodations for any church or religious group.
What civil religion contributes to Eastern European society is a form
of social expression that is based on a deep respect for liberty, democracy
and pluralism. In pluralistic societies civil religion is a strategy for shaping
common values into a more unified national character. Civil religion is a
progressive way to deal with plurality because it creates more public toler
ance. Thus, a carefully constructed civil religion would aid Eastern Euro
pean efforts to shape out of their cultural values a more unified national
character. The values that shape national identity motivate the entire public
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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY
For no one person can possess the knowledge of what every person must
sincerely acquire unto the self by way of inquiry, meditation, study and
search (Locke 11).
Into society with one another, that by mutual assistance and joint force
they may secure unto each other the things that contribute to the com
fort and happiness of this life, leaving to every person cares about eternal
happiness (Locke 20).
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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY
heritage" it must enter into the difficult and polemical task of public debate
to decide the political identity of the new European Union (Casanova
10). Pluralism works best when?out of diverse ideological positions?
public deliberation produces a commonly agreed upon statement of what
is good.
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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY
Rawls offers a relevant variation to Rousseau's ideas. Rawls would design the
practice of justice in Estonia by using a bottom up approach by promoting
greater justice from the perspective of the least advantaged in the society.
With this Neo-Kantian approach to justice, Rawls would ask each person
in Estonian society to imagine being in the position of the least advantaged
of the society. He calls this the "original position" from which to propose
policy that would improve the well-being of each member in the Esto
nian society. However, he adds to this the notion of a "veil of ignorance"
where he asks each member of society to imagine entering society without
any knowledge of status (Rawls 12). This "levels the playing field" giving
everyone the imagined position of equality. Rawls wants to plan social
policy guaranteeing equal access to the
common good from the perspective of
Rawls envisions a
the "original position" along with the
justice system built on "veil of ignorance."
truth. Truth could be Rawls attempts to put every indi
defined as the common vidual in a position of equality and from
conviction of what is a that position plan the ideal principles
fair distribution of social of justice. The veil of ignorance is sup
benefits. posed to eliminate the bias of one's own
ethnic background, social position, class
status, individual assets, and nationalistic
perspective. Rawls' political liberalism takes into consideration Estonian
pluralism. In accordance with Rawls, legislation must be a commonly agreed
upon policy of what is most reasonable for promoting the well being of
even the least advantaged of society.
Rawls envisions a justice system built on truth. Truth could be defined as
the common conviction of what is a fair distribution of social benefits. That
conviction would be accepted or shared because it reflects the perspective of
every individual within the society. He would say that each person in Estonia
has a desire to achieve what he calls primary goods. These goods basically
involve the natural right of even the lowest member of society to enjoy the
benefits that society provides for achieving happiness (Rawls 62).
Each society holds beliefs concerning what will help it to flourish. We
call such beliefs a cultural worldview. A cultural worldview is what unites
a culture into a single people sharing a common life. Civil religion is the
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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY
To claim then that religion is a public good is to claim that religion is more
than a private good that might be regarded with indifference or neutrality
by the commonwealth, and that it bestows a benefit upon the polity and
is thus a public good in the strong sense (Gottsegen 1,4).
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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY
which consider the common interest are the right constitutions, judged by
the standards of absolute justice" (Katz 11).
Aivar Jiirgenson claims that social loyalty emerges when individuals
identify themselves as belonging within certain cultural boundaries and
agreeing to certain values. "The boundaries provide identity (an identity
connected with territory) and the rules valid within these boundaries pro
vide certainty in behavior and orientation" (Jiirgenson 101). Jiirgenson
agrees that these values can be regarded as defining what is held with sacred
regard by those within the cultural boundaries as well as the things that
those wishing to be included within those
boundaries must learn are regarded as
Estonian culture
sacred. What are examples of things that
cherishes the basic
each member of society proudly regards
as values that could be elevated to the democratic principles
position of national identity?
that are considered
Estonian culture cherishes the basic sacred by the overall
democratic principles that are considered European Union.
sacred by the overall European Union. Foremost is the desire for
Foremost is the desire and value for self-determination, self
self-determination, self-initiative and initiative and personal
personal autonomy. "EU has supported autonomy.
the emergence of consociational power
sharing between political actors in order
to accommodate ethnic cleavages. Since consociational power-sharing
arrangements are more compatible with liberal democratic principles and
it does support conditions for interethnic power-sharing" (Brusis 13).
Europe believes this to be in line with liberal democratic norms of justice
and freedom as it applies to a nation's desire to maintain self-determination
and autonomy while accommodating ethnic minorities (Brusis 11). Self
determination in a modern democratic state is also defined as rule by law
and law as the assertion of the common will of the people.
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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY
expression that deepens respect for liberty, democracy and pluralism. Civil
religion is a progressive way to deal with plurality, thus offering Estonia
a means of creating more public tolerance. Civil Religion also is not the
worship of the nation but an understanding of the Estonian national iden
tity in light of the fundamental values of the culture. While allowing each
person to hold to personal beliefs the nation creates a harmony out of its
diversity. This is in line with the progressive view of passing from "Law as
rules to an understanding of law as values and principles. Given the fact
of Estonia's pluralism, the Estonian Constitution?in order to guarantee
equality of treatment?must restrain discrimination by balancing values
and principles" (Linntam 1, 3). In this way justice is defined in legal terms
that actually correspond with societal needs and public values. An Estonian
nation built on justice demands?as the most fundamental principle of its
public morality?an equal treatment of its entire population.
Critics might wonder how the notion of civil religion can be compat
ible with the demand for a secular public sphere which relegates religion
to the private sphere. Civil religion certainly acknowledges and promotes
secularism in the public square. It has always been built on the premise that
constitutional rights are guaranteed by certain principles. These principles
shape the most important convictions of the culture and are believed to
be derived from the very nature of creation. The belief that the grounding
authority for these principles is derived from the very nature of creation is
the fundamental reason why they are expressed as a culture's civil religion.
Thus, civil religion arises for political reasons as an expression of the depth
of conviction that must shape a culture's legally defined identity.
Scholars from Boston University's Institute on Culture, Religion and
World Affairs point out that because religion is at the core of all world
cultures it has significant economic, political, social and psychological
influence (CURA 1). A culture will always formulate a cultural worldview
as the basis of what shapes the norms and values of the culture. However,
in a liberal democracy it is impossible to use any one traditional or cultural
viewpoint as the basis of the identity of the entire nation. Civil religion aims
to resolve this problem by cultivating a more unified social bond, thus is
an almost necessary aspect of a pluralistic society. Contrary to the fear that
it reinforces traditional religious expressions, civil religion contributes to
a more rational and secular way of articulating a people's most profound
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law. Often this is characterized as common law, giving the society's deter
mination of public good something of a religious character. This definition
becomes the public character. Matters of religion and society thus involve
more than just assuring that individual beliefs are not imposed upon by
the state. Civil religion involves a type of common law that expresses basic
standards or values believed to be necessary for justice.
John Rawls believes that social contract promotes fairness and equality
for all its members. The contract theory of jurisprudence suggests forming
a binding agreement that defines legal identity. Every member of the society
has opportunity to contribute to this agreement by way of public discourse.
This public deliberation gives shape to a community of people who share a
desire to continue their corporate communal life. This legally established
commitment is the basis of their sover
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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY
reasonable to the general public. This is formulated into the terms of politi
cal association that all citizens have had a chance to contribute to, thus
each citizen has a high degree of commitment. "When the public governs,
there is no man who does not feel the value of public goodwill or who does
not endeavor to court it by drawing to himself the esteem and affection of
those among whom he is to live" (Tocqueville 11:2:4). This establishes a
public faith that is reinforced by social and legal institutions.
Democracy is justified by its effort to legally guarantee rights ordained
by the natural order of creation (natural law). Such transcendent principles
are accepted as reasonable in pluralistic societies. This is because contem
porary legal thought rests its moral justification on the ideal of discursive
democracy. It calls for an inclusive deliberation which forms an agreement
on what it means to be Estonian, nation
ally and culturally. Only such inclusive
discourse can morally justify public policy.
Democracy is justified
The public arena or the public sphere is by its effort to legally
where people gather to share common guarantee rights
values, to shape these into a cultural ordained by the natural
identity and to realize their hopes for order of creation (natural
obtaining a well-ordered society. Lib law). Such transcendent
eral Democracy only works when policy principles are accepted
represents egalitarian processes of public as reasonable in
deliberation. This results in policies that pluralistic societies.
reflect the will of the people.
The more pluralistic the society, the
more there is a need to establish publicly acknowledged common values.
This is to avoid special interest groups taking power. In Estonia it also
helps to avoid the society becoming an ethnic democracy. In some social
settings this strategy is implemented in an effort to rectify inequalities and
to promote minority rights. Liberal democracy assures that the rights of
any minority group in the society are not restricted to provide advantage
for a majority group. Such restrictions are believed to threaten the very
structures of democracy and justice. Rawls would hold this to be the guid
ing principle for building a state based on political liberalism.
Government is devoted to providing the legal structures whereby
citizens can equally enjoy the benefits the society offers. This requires a
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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY
Works Cited
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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY
COMMENT_
Gordon L. Anderson Professors World Peace Academy
1925 Oakcrest Ave., Suite 7
St. Paul, MN 55113
USA
Leon Miller is writing on civil religion from the state of Estonia, par
the Soviet Bloc for many decades. The Soviet bloc promoted an ideolo
Marxism-Leninism, that officially rejected religion as "an opiate of
masses," but in fact it could qualify as a civil religion or at least a quasi-ci
religion. Now that the Soviet Union has collapsed and the ideology h
been discredited, there is a value vacuum in Eastern Europe.
Miller suggests that this vacuum can be replaced by a civil religion
agreed upon set of values that form the basis for a social contract. C
Rousseau, D?rkheim, and a number of scholars, he suggests that cul
values can be formulated that will be accepted by nearly all citizens a
expression of the common good and serve as the basis of a civil relig
national identity, and cultural solidarity. This civil religion would be shap
as a consensus in the public forum "where legislators attempt to dis
commonly agreed upon values."
While Miller recognizes there are often competing or opposite valu
he believes that ultimately a reconciliation can be found. Throughout
article he mentions many different values and goods as he quotes var
political theorists. He begins by stating Eastern European goals ar
achieve "a deep respect for liberty, democracy and pluralism." Then
mentions the traditional values of Europe, which the Church played
important role in shaping. Already we may see a problem in reconc
just these two sets of values.
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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY
In other circles of discourse this has been called the conflict between
negative rights and positive rights. Negative rights are those which people
need in order to protect their physical lives and freely pursue a self-deter
mined life on their own. Positive rights, like housing or health care, require
the production and services of others (construction workers and doctors)
that must be paid. Because payments for the goods provided by positive
rights are based on government redistribution of funds and require some
type of taxation by force, as well as mandates on producers, they limit the
extent to which the members of society are free to pursue their own dreams.
Positive rights are determined by social
elites and enforced by the government
Because positive rights
they control.
require government Tribal societies were extended families
redistribution of funds
or groups with face-to-face relations in
and require some type which survival of the group was the fore
of taxation by force, asmost common good. Positive rights are
well as mandates on developed in these societies, but coercion
producers, they limit is less necessary in the shaping of com
the extent to which the mon goals because the needs of survival
members of society are are more readily apparent to all members
free to pursue their own of the group, and personal selfishness is
dreams. easily perceived in such close proximity
and corruption is thwarted.
Agreeing on common positive goods
in larger impersonal and bureaucratic societies is extremely difficult, and
consensus on all but the most basic goals of life is nearly impossible. Large
states and empires tend to collapse or suffer revolution when one person
or an elite group imposes their notion of the common good on everyone
else. More stable societies provide the goods associated with positive rights
at the local community level of government where people cooperate on a
face-to-face basis.1
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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY
cohesion for the state. This has been a dream of Western culture that is
proving an illusion, at least where positive rights are concerned. Many
people today promote the democratic nation-state as an ideal form of
society. This used to be explicitly stated as a goal of United States foreign
policy. However, it is nearly impossible for a large democratic nation to
agree on any positive rights.
As in the United States founding, agreement can be made on nega
tive rights, but that is not enough to provide cultural cohesion in its own
right. The American Experiment required that the private sphere inculcate
individual citizens with the positive values necessary to pursue their own
well-being. Without this complement to the negative rights enshrined in
the Constitution and Declaration of Independence the experiment would
fall apart.
It is a myth to believe that a certain set of positive religious or cultural
values can exist on a large geographic _______-i-___a_____-_____-_-i
territory, inhabited by many different Agreement can be made
peoples, without coercive force. The Holy Qn negative rights,
Roman Empire, the Dar el Islam, the faut that js nQt enough
Christian State, the official State Church tQ proyide cu|tura|
of a country, and Soviet Communism are .
? . , cohesion,
all attempts to impose a homogeneous set ______________________
of values on a specific territory. King Louis
XIV in France developed the concept of
absolute monarchy in France where the cultural values of the monarch were
the national values of the state.
It has never been the case that the values which prop up the rulers
of a regime are not challenged. Even the claims to sacred scriptures that
elites make fail to earn the agreement of critical thinkers. Who chose which
books to include in the Bible? Why were the books written by women not
included? Was the Council of Nicaea ultimately a quest for truth or merely
the consolidation of power in the Holy Roman Empire? These types of
questions are also asked of the sacred texts of Islam, Marxism, and other
religious and ideologically based values advocated for a society. Osama bin
Laden is today asking questions like that with respect to the use of religious
tradition by the Saudi royal family. Rationalists can turn around and ask
similarly probing questions about bin Laden's theology.
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The role of the Federal government was originally limited to the ter
ritorial protection of the union, the regulation of interstate commerce,
and the settlement of disputes between states. Those states, like Virginia,
Maryland, or Connecticut, would be analogous to Estonia or Sweden in the
European Union. "Civil religion," to the extent it existed nationally, was
limited to the basic philosophy of the right to life, liberty and the pursuit
of happiness by all. The legislation of particular social laws was to be left
to lower governments. Jefferson warned:
[T]he States can best govern our home concerns and the general govern
ment our foreign ones. I wish, therefore...never to see all offices transferred
to Washington, where, further withdrawn from the eyes of the people,
they may more secretly be bought and sold at market.5
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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY
The Civil War in the United States and the Constitutional amendments
which followed shortly thereafter converted the United States from a vol
untary union of states to a union maintained by the power of the Federal
government. These amendments opened the door for the Supreme Court
to consider and issue a decision on virtually any issue in which an individual
was dissatisfied with the decision of an individual state. Famous decisions
on positive social values like public education (Brown v. Board of Education)
or abortion (Roe v. Wade) were considered by the U.S. Supreme Court,
even though the country was almost evenly divided on these contentious
issues. In these cases and others, the Court issued an ultimate moral deci
sion and, in so doing, delegitimized the federal government for nearly half
the citizens that held the opposite view.
Such decisions can only be upheld
by force and they lead to a police state. Famous decisions on
They cannot be part of an acceptable civil positive social values like
religion based on "shared values." While public education (Brown
Miller did not refer to the values of a v. Board of Education) or
civil religion in Estonia or the European abortion (Roe v. Wade)
Union being particularly determined by were considered by the
courts, he does indicate that the creation
Supreme Court, even
of civil religion should be the result of
though the country was
public dialogue reflected in legal institu
almost evenly divided on
tions. Following Robert Bellah and Phil these contentious issues.
lip E. Hammond, Miller writes,
There is a problem with the Bellah and Hammond quote which is not
discussed. Do "natural rights" mean "interests which we think ought to be
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CONCLUSION
In conclusion, I propose that civil religion, to the limit it exists, can help
the cause of civil order in a pluralistic state. It can serve as a principle to be
enshrined in political Constitutions that guarantee people their freedom
to pursue life in liberty and happiness. However, civil religion is under
pinned more by a rational understanding of natural law than by articles of
universal faith, and as such can more appropriately be called core principles
than civil religion.
Religion does assist in the creation of national unity, when the term
"nation" refers to a "national group" and not "the people living on the
territory of a particular state." For nations, unlike states, are cultural entities
which are based on the people who declare membership in them. The state
ment "I am Greek" does not require that I live in Greece. And the inverse
statement, "I live in Greece" does not necessarily mean that I consider
myself a Greek. In this era of globalization, the overlap between national
identity and territorial residence is decreasing, and attempts to force them
to unity are working against the evolution of human history.
There is some psychological comfort in the idea that the legal civil reli
gion of a state can create the necessary morality and unity for the citizens of
a modern state the achieve "the good life." This has been the presupposition
of both the old state churches in Western Europe and communist ideol
ogy. However, societies change and evolve, people cross state borders, and
today's consensus often becomes tomorrow's tyranny. That psychological
comfort can only come at the price of freedom.
Notes
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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY
REJOINDER_
Leon Miller
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Estonia took great pride in becoming
a model of progressive social, economic and political reform. Its accom
plishments have been commendable given the fact of its enormous diversity
challenge. This diversity challenge (that Estonia must effectively manage as
a part of its adjustment to democracy) is largely due to the massive popula
tion shifts that were a part of the Soviet strategy. The Estonian attempt to
successfully shape itself into a model of liberal democracy must contend
with the problem of this diversity resulting in what amounts to Estonia's
bi-polar culture (60 percent Estonian and 40 percent people relocated from
various parts of the former Soviet Union).
The minority population is generally referred to as Russian. Thus, Esto
nia, like many other Western European secular nations, finds it difficult to
establish common shared values that bond people together. Estonia also
has found it difficult to establish a national character with which all of its
people can identify. To have a clear picture of the intricate dynamics con
nected with challenges to Estonia's attempt at improved national unity,
a couple of key factors must be taken into consideration. First, Estonia
enjoyed a brief period of independence during the interwar years. Prior
to the interwar period of independence Estonia had been under foreign
occupation for something like seven hundred years. In addition to effectively
integrating the Russian influence, Estonia is also challenged to integrate
significant influences resulting from Swedish and German occupations
(along with a mixture of other occupations and minor influences) into a
unified national character.
The necessity of establishing a unified national character based on the
Estonian cultural heritage is not an easy task given such a history. In other
words Estonia is challenged to search its collective ethnic memory to find
a source of shared values that can unite a nation that is 40 percent or more
composed of the very forces that reflect the disruption of that culture. So,
on the one hand, Estonia must be commended for having come so far in
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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY
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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY
especially heightened after Estonia once again became the target of Russia's
threat to punish Estonia for the 'blasphemous and inhuman' removal of
a monument to the Red Army after deadly rioting took over Tallinn, the
capital" (Halpin 1).
Although the monument outbreak reveals underlying tensions that have
been smoldering for quite some time, there is an overall preference of the
total population to identify with the progressive direction of the society's
Western slant. "A large part of Russian speakers are oriented towards an
integrating identity inspired by a liberal ideology of progress. They begin
to identify Estonia as the place where they can either realize their dreams
of progress or as a springboard for moving further West, where they believe
they are even more certain of realizing their dream" (Ehala 5). This change
has taken hold especially among the younger people, who have a higher
regard for self-realization and are orientated towards prosperity, economic
security, plus a life that is more interesting. This shift in values signals the
weakening of privatized identity and strengthening of integrating trends in
the identity of Russian speakers. I hold that such a value shift can be a basis
for the entire population forming a new, more unified, national character.
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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY
a common good. The West proceeded with the conviction that Rousseau's
Social Contract and Civil Religion could restore the benefits of the human
"Original Position." Although Rousseau is generally credited with coining
the term "civil religion," an analysis of its sociological significance was done
by Emile D?rkheim. "For Rousseau civil religion is a sensible thing for
leaders to create and encourage; for D?rkheim it is an emergent property
of social life itself (Bellah and Hammond 1). D?rkheim was convinced
that such a civil identity unites people into a "community of interests and
tradition," which heightens their sense of moral unity. Thus he claimed civil
identity (which he referred to as totem) shapes the culture because these
value expressions become traditions, ceremonies, celebrations, rituals and,
in short, the cultural identity.
Dr. Anderson points out that the scarcity of resources in comparison
with needs results in resource allocation decisions that can only be done
justly based on the most enlightened theories of distributive justice. Because
members of a pluralistic society have conflicting interests, a liberal democracy
attempts to build justice on the basis of contract theory. Contract theory
presumes that the common good can be achieved through a process of public
deliberation. "Tocqueville claimed that mutual respect between citizens even
when their views are widely divergent is not a matter of law enforcement,
but social consensus" (Bellah 1). Such public consensus is necessarily the
basis of what makes a viable democratic society work successfully. The real
ization of the individual's right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness
is predicated upon the "unifying tie" resulting from public debate.
Dr. Anderson recognizes that transitional societies?emerging from
authoritarianism and trying to institute democratic institutions?find that
they often experience something of an ideological vacuum that must be
filled. It is impossible to fill this vacuum in a way that is in line with liberal
democracy without generating an active public sphere: freedom of assem
bly, freedom of expression, and, in short, public communication. It is out
of such an active public sphere that constitutional patriotism is generated.
Constitutional patriotism for transitional societies creates a process where
members of the society shape their conflicting interests into agreed upon
social-political cohesion.
Members of Estonian society are in need of and desperately desire such
reconciliation to shape the existing conflicting views about history into a
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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY
The network society, in which a broad range of actors and groups of actors
with different interests is operating, driven by a wish to protect their (spe
cial) interests in the policy-making process, requires that the state gives up
the monopoly of decision-making (Sustainable Estonia 46).
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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY
ern oriented, moving them into strategic official positions and attempting
to reeducate the older employees that had been educated with a Soviet
orientation. During this period, balancing positive and negative rights for
all the citizens of Estonia was enormously difficult. There were frequent
accusations of apparent discrimination. These legal and economic factors
were exasperated with the Estonian attempt to reestablish some sense of a
uniquely Estonian cultural pride in a society with such bipolar tensions.
The role of the Estonian language, in a world where perhaps only
around one and half million people speak the language, became a crucial
issue. Language is certainly a key factor in cultural identity, cultural pride
and the preservation of one of the most
immediately recognizable features of a
Shaping post-Soviet culture. Language, language training and
states into a democracy the need to be multi-lingual immediately
requires mediating became a factor in being able to enjoy new
differences through opportunities.
a legal process that The demands of the modern world
assures distributive (EU membership, for example) neces
justice and human rights. sitated multi-lingual skills in order to
The process demands improve one's quality of life. In Estonia
the deliberation of free this means that the best opportunities go
to those who speak the national language
and equal consociates.
as well as English and Russian. "Because
many of the former officials?trained
with a Soviet orientation?were ethnic Russians it appeared to them that
they were specially targeted and laid off because of their ethnicity. This
was accentuated by the laws on citizenship, aliens, language and the like,
which were adopted and promulgated while at the same time the economic
restructuring took place, this led to accusations of ethnic discrimination
perpetrated against ethnic Russians" (Demuth 223).
It is the goal of Estonia to effectively model a deep respect for liberal
democracy by successfully facilitating its pluralism. However, shaping post
Soviet states into a democracy requires mediating differences through a
legal process that assures distributive justice and human rights. The process
demands the deliberation of free and equal consociates. The participants
voluntarily agree to shape their contending interests into a legally binding
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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY
that there are additional values that are more uniquely Estonian that all the
members of the society identify with. The orientation toward nature that
predominates with a large portion of the Estonian population reflects the
deep cultural value for environmentalism.
The fact that environmentalism is one of the most viable ways of
generating international agreement, treaties and cooperation offers the
possibility that this cultural trait could play an important factor in the
national character. Such a national character would be a reflection of the
Estonian passion for peace and freedom that is generated by their long his
tory of oppression. I believe all of the population would accept the image
of Estonians as a people truly committed to modeling what it means to
put an end to tyranny. This would give Estonia the image of employing
"Soft Power" in its domestic and international relations. In other words, all
Estonians would support a national image based on a desire to put the past
behind, put an end to tyranny and stand as a nation on a deep respect for
nature, peace, freedom and a deep respect for the rights of the individual
(self determination).
CONCLUSION
In the article, "Estonian Civil Religion" I describe a model for how Estonia
can achieve its effort to create a stronger and more unified national char
acter. I propose that Estonia draw from its cultural heritage to establish
a national character that all of its people can identity with. Dr. Anderson
responds to the article by raising questions like: "The problem that develops
when one both tries to combine the concept of liberty and the protection
of the basic right to pursue individual happiness with concepts of positive
social goods like healthcare, housing, and public education is that there is
mutual exclusivity."
The issue is whether or not a small society like Estonia can establish an
agreement on common positive goods, thus reconciling possible conflicting
interests. It is indeed true that there is great difficulty in shaping democracy
so that it equally guarantees justice and rights. Often this difficulty is felt
most by a nation's minority. I believe, however, that all Estonians (regard
less of ethnicity) agree that it is equally to the advantage of all Estonians
to employ the process of public discourse to establish a common good
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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY
WORKS CITED
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RELIGION'S ROLE IN CREATING NATIONAL UNITY
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