Environ Geol (2006) 49: 765–779

DOI 10.1007/s00254-005-0127-7 ORIGINAL ARTICLE

G. R. Hancock
E. Turley
Evaluation of proposed waste rock dump
designs using the SIBERIA erosion model

Abstract Computer-based landscape RIA erosion model over a 1000-year

Received: 16 June 2005
Accepted: 4 October 2005
Published online: 6 December 2005
Ó Springer-Verlag 2005
G. R. Hancock (&)
School of Environmental and Life Sciences,
Geology Building, The University
of Newcastle, 2308 Callaghan, Australia
E-mail: gggh@alinga.newcastle.edu.au
Tel.: +61-2-49215090
Fax: +61-2-49216925
E. Turley
Manager Environment NQ Division,
Xstrata Copper, Mt Isa Mines, 4825
Mt Isa, QLD, Australia
evolution models offer the ability to
evaluate landscape stability over the
short (annual), medium (decades to
hundreds of years) and long-term
(thousands of years). Modeling has
advantages in that design ideas can
be tested, different surface material
properties can be evaluated and risk
analysis carried out. Landscape
evolution models allow landscape
surface change through time. These
models also offer the advantage that
the landscape can be evaluated
visually as it develops through time,
which is not possible with other
types of models. Landscape evolu-
tion models can be used for not only
soil loss assessment (i.e. tonnes/
hectare/year), but also to evaluate
the method of soil loss (i.e. rill or
interrill erosion). This study exam-
ines a range of waste rock dump
designs for the Minera Alumbrera
Ltd. copper mine, Argentina. An
erosion assessment using the SIBE-
simulation period demonstrates
waste rock dump designs using a
conventional stepped design of
backsloping benches and caps with
angle of repose slopes provide the
lowest average erosion rates and
depths of incision than do other de-
signs. Caution should be applied in
interpreting these results as the
SIBERIA erosion model is sensitive
to parameter input and in this case
was calibrated and run using a gen-
eric set of parameters that are not
site specific. Nevertheless, the results
provide a guide as to the strengths
and weaknesses of different rehabil-
itation designs and demonstrate the
insights that modeling studies can
provide.
Keywords Mine rehabilitation Æ
SIBERIA Æ Erosion modeling Æ
Waste rock dump Æ
Open-cast mining Æ
Argentina

Introduction To better understand a catchment system for post-

Open-cast mining is a very efficient and cost-effective
method for the extraction of mineral resources. How-
ever, with modern technology this mining method has
the ability to disturb large areas of the landscape sur-
face. While, both mining companies and communities
recognise the economic benefits of mining, disturbance
to the environment should be minimised. Consequently,
cost-effective and environmentally sustainable rehabili-
tation design is crucial for the long-term stability of an
engineered post-mining landform.
mining rehabilitation purposes it is advisable that long-
term pre-mining studies be conducted to determine
background environmental data. For soil erosion and
slope stability assessment this requires field plot studies
investigating different landscape construction material
over a range of slope lengths and angles and over as long
a time period as possible. The measurement of stream
sediment concentrations can also provide an integrated
measure of soil erosion over a catchment (Evans 2000).
Nevertheless, long-term field studies are often not
practical due to time and cost constraints of many
766
mining operations. The next best option is to use
numerical modeling to assess and evaluate erosion risk.
Computer-based landscape evolution models (Coult-
hard 2001) offer the ability to evaluate landscape sta-
bility over the short (annual), medium (decades to
hundreds of years) and long-term (thousands of years)
(Hancock 2004). Modeling has advantages in that design
ideas can be tested, different surface material properties
evaluated and risk analysis carried out. Landscape
evolution models allow the landscape surface to change
through time, in contrast to other models. Evolution
models also offer the advantage that the landscape can
be evaluated visually as it develops through time, which
is not possible with other models. Landscape evolution
models can be used for not only soil loss assessment (i.e.
tonnes/hectare/year), but also to evaluate the method of
soil loss (i.e. rill or interrill erosion).
This paper discusses an erosion assessment of reha-
bilitation design options for the Xstrata Alumbrera
copper mine using the SIBERIA erosion model (Will-
goose and others 1991a–d). The design options exam-
ined in this study are considered by the mining company
to be the most practical, economic and environmentally
sound options available to the mine at the present time.
Underlying the closure strategy for the Alumbrera
operation is a desire to engineer a closure program that
allows for a ‘‘walk away’’ at the end of operations. To
achieve a ‘‘walk away’’ result for the closure of the waste
rock dumps, it is expected that a significant research
effort will be required as they are considered one of the
greatest long-term liabilities, along with the tailings
dam, because of the high potential to cause significant
environment impacts.
In this study the SIBERIA erosion model will be used
to evaluate a range of waste rock dump design options
over a 1000 year modelled (model output at 10, 50, 100
and 1000 years) period as this time period is considered
best practice for mines in sensitive areas (Evans 2000).
Output from the modeling are presented visually, and
also as a maximum depth of erosion and average erosion
over the hillslope. Positions of maximum erosion will be
located and highlighted.
Study site
Minera Alumbrera is the operator of the Alumbrera
open-cut copper/gold mine in northwest Argentina. Ore
is treated through a flotation circuit at a rate of
approximately 37 million tonnes p.a. Flotation opera-
tions commenced in late 1997. A total of 400 million
tonnes of waste are expected to be generated over the
mine life. There are approximately 10 years of mining
remaining and 12 years of milling. The concentrator will
be supplied with stockpiled ore for the latter part of the
operation. The mine is currently in year six of operation.
The climate in the region is considered arid with a
mean annual rainfall of 160 mm per year. The nature of
rainfall is normally in the form of intense storm events.
The evaporation rates greatly exceed rainfall (1385 mm/
yr). Some light snow events are also experienced, but
these generally occur infrequently (1 or 2 times per year
for 2 days).
The current waste rock dump design consists of two
major dump areas. The northern dump area has a final
height of approximately 100 m and the southern dump
has an approximate final height of 180 m. The current
design of these dumps is a benched design, with maxi-
mum lifts of 50 m and berm widths of 50 m. Waste rock
is placed by end tipping.
In terms of waste rock dump stability, it has long
been considered by the mine management that a ben-
ched design is the most practical. However, recent
studies of long-term erosion of the benched design of
waste rock suggest that the landform will eventually
form an angle of repose outer slope (Hancock and
others 2003). In a benched waste rock dump design there
is increased possibility of ponding and concentrating
surface water flow over the crest of the berm or the
formation of ‘‘pipes’’ through the berm which can result
in significant gully erosion, thus removing the effective-
ness of any cover of the outer slopes. Due to the lack of
environmentally benign run of mine rock material, the
current cover thickness of outer slopes is approximately
20 m, consequently any erosion can expose suboptimal
material. Therefore, it is important that rate and depth
of erosion be known so that this can be taken into ac-
count for any rehabilitation design.
Rehabilitation designs
A series of rehabilitation designs, are discussed in this
paper. These designs are considered the most practical
and cost-effective rehabilitation structures and have
been created to evaluate a range of design options at the
mine. In all a total of six waste rock dump designs are
evaluated and are described below (Fig. 1 to 3).
Figures 1a – d are conventional designs with varying
bench widths and lift heights. Figure 1(a) displays the
proposed 50 m lift and 50 m bench design for the site.
Figure 1(b) displays a rehabilitation design with 25 m
lifts at angle of repose and 30 m wide benches.
Figure 1(c) displays a 50 m lift at angle of repose and
30 m bench design hillslope. Figure 1(d) is a single linear
slope at angle of repose.
Figures 1(e) and 1(f) are single concave slopes with
different amounts of concavity. In previous mining
rehabilitation studies, Hancock and others (2003) have
shown that concave slopes show potential as rehabili-
tation design. The design of concave slopes is based on
the understanding that catchments with uniform
 767

Fig. 1 Hillslope profiles for the 400 400

waste rock dump design. (a) is a b
the proposed 50 m lift and 50 m
bench design for the site. (b) 350 350
displays a rehabilitation design
with 25 m lifts at angle of

metres
metres
repose and 30 m wide benches 300 300
while (c) displays a 50 m lift at
angle of repose and 30 m bench
design hillslope. (d) is a single 250 250
linear slope at angle of repose.
(e) and (f) are single concave
slopes with different amounts of 200 200
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
concavity. See text for more
metres metres
details
400 400
c d
350 350

metres
metres

300 300

250 250

200 200
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
metres metres

400 400
e f
350 350
metres
metres

300 300

250 250

200 200
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
metres metres

underlying geology, and with fluvial erosion dominant,
generally have a convex upper hillslope profile and a
concave profile moving down the slope (Kirkby 1971).
The concavity in the lower section of the slope profile
can be described by the area-slope relationship, which
relates the area draining through a point to the slope at
that point and thus effectively quantifies the local
topographic gradient as a function of drainage area.
This concavity is given by a relationship of the form:
A/ S ¼ constant;
where A is the contributing area to the point of interest,
S (metre/metre) is the slope at the point of interest and a
is the concavity index of the hillslope for natural
catchments, with values ranging between 0.2 and 0.7
(Hack 1957; Flint 1974; Tarboton and others 1989;
Willgoose 1994).
Eq. 1 predicts that the concave slope of fluvially
dominated landscapes typically is steeper in the higher
reaches of the catchment, with a decreasing slope as
catchment area increases. This profile produces a rapid
drop in elevation in the upper reaches of the catchment,
where catchment area and discharge is small. As catch-
ment area increases, slope decreases; therefore reducing
the velocity of discharge and, consequently, erosive po-
tential. In contrast, linear slopes allow a buildup of
runoff down the slope with no reduction in velocity. The
ð1Þ equation in the area-slope relationship accordingly
provides a parameter for the construction of hillslope
profiles.
In post-mining landscapes, the majority of erosion
occurs by gullying caused by fluvial erosion (Hancock
and others 2000). Consequently, in this paper the
authors are only concerned with fluvial erosion and the
768
Fig. 2 Rehabilitation hillslope profile design for the Alumbrera mine using 50 m high lifts at angle of repose with 50 m benches with 2 m
humps added to the cap and benches. All dimensions are metres
fluvial component of the area-slope relationship. Ero-
sion caused by rainsplash is considered to be insignifi-
cant when compared to fluvial erosion on post-mining
landscapes.
In this study the area-slope relationship was deter-
mined from undisturbed catchments within the mine
lease boundary. Using this data (a=0.24), and a given a
maximum lift length of 150 m, a constant value can be
calculated and the concave hillslope profile constructed
(Fig. 1(e) and 1(f)). Figure 1(f) has a concavity matching
that of the surrounding natural hillslopes while Fig-
ure 1(e) has a concavity double that of a natural hills-
lope. While it is recognised that concave hillslopes are
difficult to construct, modeling of these designs will
provide some insight into the benefits and pitfalls of such
structures.
On all waste rock dumps, the flat caps and benches
backslope away from the batter at 1–2%. This directs all
runoff away from the steep slopes. It is also proposed
that on all flat caps and benches that benign waste rock
will be end dumped, creating a very rough ‘humpy’
surface with humps ranging in height from 2 to 3 m.
This rough surface creates ponding and acts as a
sediment trap. To test this humpy design, a 2–3 m tall
random elevation has been added to all flat caps and
benches to simulate paddock dumping. A second series
of hillslopes were created without the humps to evaluate
their long-term effectiveness. For both the humpy design
and those waste rock dumps without the surface eleva-
tions, all have a small amount of surface roughness
added (±1 m) to each elevation to represent surface
roughness created during construction of the landform.
At all breaks in slope a 1.5 m tall and 4 m wide bund
wall has been constructed. This represents the wall that
is constructed as a safety measure (a safety bund) at all
breaks in slope. This also acts as a sediment trap and
may play an important role in controlling water and
sediment movement.
For all simulations the hillslope designs were modeled
on a 2 m grid as this will allow erosion/gullying of the
cap to be quantified and visually assessed for incision.
Accordingly, the maximum size of the each rehabilita-
tion design is 500 m by 500 m. Figures 2 and 3 dem-
onstrate the designs for profiles 1(a) and 1(d) on the 2 m
by 2 m grid that were used for the simulations. All other
designs were constructed in the same way for input into
the SIBERIA erosion model.
In addition, an angle of repose design (with the same
profile as Fig. 1(d)) that is constructed in three lifts and
has three different ranges of particle size distribution
down the slope was also evaluated (Fig. 4). This will
simulate the effect of particle size segregation down the
slope. This is discussed further in the ‘‘Calibration of the
SIBERIA model’’ section.
 769

Fig. 3 Rehabilitation hillslope profile design for the Alumbrera mine using a single hillslope at angle of repose with 2 m humps added to
the cap and benches. All dimensions are metres

The SIBERIA erosion model subjected to fluvial erosion and mass transport
processes. SIBERIA links widely accepted hydrology
SIBERIA is a physically-based predictive model that and erosion models under the action of runoff and
can simulate the geomorphic evolution of landforms erosion over variable-time scales. The SIBERIA erosion

Increased
Less segregation segregation of
of particle size particle size over
along a 50m >100m bench
bench height

a Current Benched Design b Benched/Angle of Repose Design c Angle of Repose Design

Fig. 4 Conceptual dump configurations for benched and angle of
repose slopes. (a) displays a conventional benched design
constructed in 3 lifts and conceptually how particle size distribution
is likely to vary down each slope from fine to coarse. The angle of
repose slope in (b) is constructed in two lifts with the second (top)
lift pushed out to the limit of the bottom lift. This will result in a
mix of both fine and coarse material down the hillslope. (c) is an
angle of repose waste rock dump constructed in a single lift.
Conceptually particle size is likely to increase down the hillslope
770
model (Willgoose and others 1991a-d) has recently been
tested and evaluated for erosion assessment of post-
mining landforms (Boggs and others 2000, 2001; Evans
and Willgoose 2000; Evans and others 2000; Hancock
and others 2000, 2002). SIBERIA is an important tool in
the understanding of the interactions between geomor-
phology, erosion and hydrologic process because of its
ability to explore the sensitivity of a system to changes in
physical conditions without many of the difficulties of
identification and generalisation associated with the
heterogeneity encountered in field studies.
The sediment transport equation of SIBERIA con-
sists of two terms:
qs ¼ qsf þ qsd ; ð2Þ
where qs is the sediment transport rate per unit width
(m3/s/m width), qsf is the fluvial or rill sediment trans-
port term, and qsd is the diffusive or interrill transport
term (both m3/s/m width).
The fluvial sediment transport term (qsf) is based on
the Einstein-Brown model which is:
qsf ¼ b1 Qm1 Sn1 ; ð3Þ
3 and hydrology data. This parameterisation process is
where Q is the discharge per unit width (m /s/m width),
S the slope (m/m) in the steepest downslope direction
and b1, m1, and n1 are constant non-dimensional
parameters of the model with m1 and n1 determining the
type of erosion (Kirkby, 1971). The rate constant b1
controls the rate of erosion and can be scaled to match
the observed erosion rate.
The diffusive transport term is expressed as:
qsd ¼ DS; ð4Þ
where D (m3/s/m width) is diffusivity and S is slope. The
diffusive term can model creep, rainsplash and land-
sliding.
SIBERIA does not directly model runoff (Q, m3 - for
the area draining through a point) but uses a sub-grid
effective parameterisation based on empirical observa-
tions, and justified by theoretical analysis, which con-
ceptually relates discharge to area (A) (m2/m width)
draining through a point as:
Q ¼ b 3 A m3 ; ð5Þ
where b3 is the runoff rate constant and m3 is the
exponent of area, both of which require calibration for
the particular field site.
For long-term elevation changes it is convenient to
model the average effect of these processes over time.
Accordingly, individual events are not normally modeled,
but rather the average effect of many aggregated events
over time are modeled. The physics of runoff and erosion
that are included in the model are broadly similar to the
well understood Water Erosion Prediction Project
(WEPP) model (Laflen and others. 1991; Flanagan and
Livingston 1995), the main difference being that SIBE-
RIA allows the landform to evolve in response to erosion.
Consequently, SIBERIA output describes how the
catchment is expected to look, on average, at any given
time. Long-term landscape evolution is the balance be-
tween fluvial processes that incise the landscape and
diffusive processes which round or smooth the landscape
(Willgoose 1994). The sophistication of SIBERIA lies in
its use of digital terrain models for the determination of
drainage areas and geomorphology as well as its ability
to efficiently adjust the landform with time in response
to the erosion that occurs on it. The testing and vali-
dation of SIBERIA is ongoing (Hancock 2003; Will-
goose and others 2003).
Calibration of the SIBERIA model
Before SIBERIA can be used to simulate soil erosion the
sediment transport equation (Eq. 3) and area-discharge
relationship (Eq. 5) require calibration. The fluvial sed-
iment transport equation (Eq. 3) in SIBERIA is pa-
rameterised using input from field sediment transport
described in detail by Evans and others (2000) and
Hancock and others (2000) and can use field data col-
lected from rainfall/runoff plots or laboratory flume
and/or rainfall simulator data (Evans and others 1998;
Hancock and others 2002; Hancock 2004). Alterna-
tively, a data base of SIBERIA erosion model parame-
ters has been developed from existing rainfall simulator
and flume studies that relates soil particle size distribu-
tion to erosion rates. This latter method is less reliable
than the former.
At this study site, as rainfall is often low and infre-
quent, it was not possible to derive calibration data from
natural rainfall events quickly. The erosion data of
Sheridan and others (2000) provides a database for spoil
textural properties as well as its erodibility. It has long
been recognised that soil properties influence erosion
rates. While there are many factors, such as organic
matter content, electrical conductivity, mineralogy and
rock content that contribute to soil erodibility, one of
the strongest influences on erodibility is soil particle size
distribution. Consequently, the textural properties or
particle size distribution of soil can be used to provide an
indication of erodibility and can be used to calibrate the
SIBERIA erosion model.
In this study, calibration data was derived from
rainfall simulator and flume studies for a range of soil
and spoil materials from the data of Sheridan and others
(2000). To calibrate Eq. 3 the sediment concentration
data was used in a multiple regression between sediment
concentration, slope and discharge. This provides a
range of values for b1, m1, and n1. From this a database
of input parameters for SIBERIA have been determined.

Using particle size data determined by O’Kane
Consultants (2004) erosion parameters of m1= 1.5,
n1=2.1, b3=1, m3=1 and b1=0.00075 were determined
for the Alumbrera rainfall and waste rock material
(Table 1). The values of m1 and n1 determine the type of
erosion. Values of m1=1 and n1=1 produce sheet wash
erosion while m1=2 and n1=2 produce incision or
gullying (Kirkby 1971). Therefore, the parameters
derived for this site indicate that erosion will be domi-
nated by incisive type processes. To provide a range of
possible outcomes, a high set of parameters were
calculated and also used in the SIBERIA model to
represent an average annual rainfall of 400 mm/year.
Further simulations were also run using m1= 2.0,
n1=2.1, b3=1, m3=1 and b1=0.00075 to evaluate the
effect of enhanced gullying on the waste rock dump
designs (Table 1).
It is well understood that rock particles segregate
from small to large when dumped down a hillslope. This
segregation effectively changes infiltration rates down a
slope, from a low value at the top of the hillslope to a
high infiltration at the bottom of the slope, where the
particles are large. SIBERIA has the ability to spatially
vary runoff over a hillslope. This allows different rainfall
and/or infiltration rates to be input into the model as a
result of segregation. In this study, the effect of spatially
variable particle size distribution on runoff, and resul-
tant erosion rates, were evaluated using SIBERIA on the
angle of repose hillslope (Fig. 1d, 3 and 4). For this
waste rock dump design (Fig. 3), the hillslope has been
constructed in three 50 m lifts to produce a single angle
of repose slope 150 m tall, producing three sets of par-
ticle size distributions down each 50 m lift (Fig. 4).
Particle size distribution of mine waste rock is related
to the geology itself, blast energy used to break up the
intact rock, as well as mechanical handling of the
material. All these factors can and do vary on a minesite.
Consequently, there is little data in the literature, despite
it being well recognised. For this study, there is no data
for the Alumbrera mine in regard to particle size dis-
tribution down a slope. To assess the impact of different
particle size distributions down a hillslope, and spatially
variable infiltration rates, the b3 value (Eq. 5) was varied
at constant rate from 1 to 0 for each of the three lifts.
This effectively varied infiltration and consequent runoff
down the angle of repose slope.
Table 1 Parameters used in the
SIBERIA erosion model (see High Rainfall
text for an explanation of these (400 mm/year)
parameters)
m1 1.5
n1 2.1
b3 1 1
m3 1 1
b1 0.00225
771
Results
Results are presented for simulations using the
high average annual rainfall of 400 mm/year and
160 mm/year representing the average annual rainfall
for the Alumbrera site. Results are presented as average
rates and depths of erosion (Tables 2 to 5) and also
visually (Figs. 5 to 7), displaying how and where erosion
occurs on the different waste rock dump designs over the
1000-year simulation. Two simulations were carried out
for each design, one with 2 m humps on the surface of
the flat cap and benches and one without humps. The
results of the SIBERIA simulation for each dump design
are discussed below.
Designs using multiple benches
Results of the simulations demonstrate over the 1000-
year modeled period show (Tables 2 and 3) the
majority of erosion occurs down the angle of repose
slopes, with little erosion (other than redistribution) on
the flat cap and benches (Fig. 5). Erosion down the
angle of repose slopes occurs mostly by gullying. Gul-
lying is most evident for the high rainfall simulations.
At no time over the 1000 year simulation is the bund
wall (safety wall) at the edge of the flat cap and benches
breached. Considerable deposition is evident at the foot
of all slopes.
The results demonstrate that maximum average ero-
sion and maximum depth of erosion occur for the 50 m
bench and 50 m lift design (design 1a, average depth of
erosion = 1.85 m, maximum depth of erosion =
2.188 m), with the lowest erosion occurring for the 25 m
lift with 30 m benches (design 1b, average depth of
erosion = 1.50 m, maximum depth of erosion =
1.605 m). Nevertheless, the erosional differences be-
tween the various bench and lift designs are not large.
The design using 25 m lifts and 30 m benches (design 1b)
has the lowest erosion of all designs due to the shorter
slope lengths.
Simulations using the average annual rainfall data
demonstrate a considerably lower rate of erosion com-
pared to the high rainfall data (Table 3). Similar to the
high rainfall simulations, the designs using a 50 m bench
with 50 m lifts (design 1a) had the highest average an-
Low Rainfall/Low Low Rainfall/High incision
incision (160 mm/year) (160 mm/year)
1.5 2.0
2.1 2.1
1
1
0.00075 0.00075
772

Table 2 Results from the SIBERIA simulations for the waste rock dump designs displayed in Fig. 1 with humps on the caps and benches
using erosion model parameters for an average annual rainfall of 400 mm per year

Design Depth of erosion (m) 10 years 100 years 1000 years

Humps No humps Humps No humps Humps No humps

a Average 0.005 0.004 0.037 0.031 0.246 0.185

Minimum 0 0 0 0 0 0
Maximum 0.275 0.28 0.802 0.807 2.17 2.188
b Average 0.003 0.003 0.029 0.024 0.198 0.150
Minimum 0 0 0 0 0 0
Maximum 0.246 0.070 1.12 0.450 1.58 1.605
c Average 0.005 0.004 0.036 0.030 0.241 0.180
Minimum 0 0 0 0 0 0
Maximum 0.199 0.199 0.715 0.715 1.92 1.949
d Average 0.012 0.011 0.056 0.048 0.413 0.332
Minimum 0 0 0 0 0 0
Maximum 0.49 0.490 1.86 1.855 8.09 8.095
e Average 0.011 0.010 0.044 0.040 0.262 0.228
Minimum 0 0 0 0 0 0
Maximum 0.574 0.550 1.10 1.012 3.64 3.750
f Average 0.012 0.011 0.055 0.051 0.372 0.345
Minimum 0 0 0 0 0 0
Maximum 0.632 0.656 1.58 1.700 5.36 6.010

Table 3 Results from the SIBERIA simulations for the waste rock dump designs displayed in Fig. 1 with humps on the caps and benches
using erosion model parameters for an average annual rainfall of 160 mm per year

Design Depth of erosion (m) 10 years 100 years 1000 years

Humps No humps Humps No humps Humps No humps

a Average 0.002 0.002 0.016 0.014 0.094 0.074

Minimum 0 0 0 0 0 0
Maximum 0.114 0.114 0.633 0.634 1.210 1.226
b Average 0.001 0.001 0.011 0.009 0.078 0.061
Minimum 0 0 0 0 0 0
Maximum 0.101 0.025 0.548 0.220 1.330 0.937
c Average 0.002 0.002 0.016 0.014 0.094 0.072
Minimum 0 0 0 0 0 0
Maximum 0.079 0.079 0.415 0.415 1.320 1.34
d Average 0.005 0.005 0.030 0.027 0.150 0.121
Minimum 0 0 0 0 0 0
Maximum 0.255 0.254 1.12 1.12 3.282 3.28
e Average 0.007 0.007 0.0251 0.023 0.109 0.096
Minimum 0 0 0 0 0 0
Maximum 0.544 0.508 0.836 0.756 2.380 2.25
f Average 0.008 0.007 0.029 0.023 0.152 0.096
Minimum 0 0 0 0 0 0
Maximum 0.543 0.507 0.944 0.014 3.261 2.251

nual erosion of 0.074 m, with maximum depth of ero-
sion of 1.34 m occurring for the design using 50 m lifts
with 30 m benches (design c, Fig. 1).
The simulations without the humps on the cap and
benches show a slightly lower average erosion rate, but
similar maximum depths of erosion as the simulations
using humps. The slightly lower average erosion rate is a
result of less erosion occurring on the cap and benches
as there is less soil redistribution due to the reduced
surface roughness.
Design using a single angle of repose slope
Results for design 1d with 2 m humps on the cap and
benches demonstrate an average erosion rate of 0.413 m
and 0.150 m, and a maximum depth of erosion of
8.09 m and 3.28 m for the high and low rainfall simu-
lations, respectively, over the 1000-year modeled period
(Tables 2 and 3). In this design, the majority of erosion
occurs down the long angle of repose slope, with little
erosion (other than redistribution) on the flat cap. Ero-
 773

Table 4 Results from the SIBERIA simulations using different and 2.38 m for the high and low rainfall simulations,
erosion parameters for the waste rock dump design using 50 m lifts respectively, over the 1000-year modeled period, while
and 50 m benches (Figs. 1a and 2)
the shallow concavity slope produces an average ero-
Simulation Depth of 10 years 100 years 1000 years sion rate of 0.372 m and 0.152 m and a maximum
erosion (m) depth of erosion of 5.36 m and 3.26 m for the high
and low rainfall simulations, respectively, over the
m1=1.5 Average 0.002 0.016 0.094 1000-year modeled period (Tables 2 and 3). In this
Minimum 0 0 0
Maximum 0.114 0.633 1.210 design, the majority of erosion occurs down the long
m1=2.0 Average 0.005 0.038 0.244 concave slope with little erosion (other than redistri-
Minimum 0 0 0 bution) on the flat cap. Erosion down the concave
Maximum 0.409 1.065 5.707 slope occurs mostly by gullying (Fig. 7). Gullying is
most evident for the high rainfall simulations. At no
time over the 1000-year simulation is the bund wall
sion down the angle of repose slopes occurs mostly by (safety wall) at the edge of the flat cap and benches
gullying (Fig. 6). Gullying is most evident for the high breached. Considerable deposition is evident at the
rainfall simulations. At no time over the 1000-year foot of the slope. The shallow and deep concave slopes
simulation is the bund wall (safety wall) at the edge of have the second and third highest erosion rates of all
the flat cap and benches breached. Considerable depo- the designs.
sition is evident at the foot of the slope. This design has Further simulations without the humps on the cap
the highest erosion rate and the highest depth of incision show a slightly lower average erosion rate, but similar
of all the designs. maximum depths of erosion as the simulations using
Further simulations for design 1d without the humps humps. The slightly lower average erosion rate is a result
on the cap show a slightly lower average erosion rate, of less erosion occurring on the cap and benches as there
but similar maximum depths of erosion as the simula- is less soil redistribution due to the reduced surface
tions using humps. The slightly lower average erosion roughness.
rate is a result of less erosion occurring on the cap and The results demonstrate that concave designs with
benches as there is less soil redistribution due to the deeper concavity perform better in terms of erosion than
reduced surface roughness. those with shallow concavity over the same average
slope length and height. This is a result of the higher
concavity slopes losing elevation quicker in the higher
Design using a single concave slope reaches of the hillslope where there is less runoff and
with deep concavity having a less steep slope in the lower reaches of the
catchment where runoff is greatest.
Two simulations were carried out for the design using a
single concave slope with a shallow and deep concavity
(Figs. 1e and f). These were a design with 2 m humps on Design using a 50 m lift and 50 m benches
the surface of the flat cap and benches and one without and using a m1 =2.0
humps. It is recognized that this design is difficult to
construct, but the simulations provide an indication of As discussed in ‘‘Calibration of the SIBERIA model’’
the advantages and disadvantages of such design. section, the calibration process used in this study uses a
Results with 2 m humps on the cap and benches generic data set so it is appropriate that an evaluation of
demonstrate an average erosion rate of 0.262 m and different parameters be conducted. In this study a higher
0.109 m and a maximum depth of erosion of 3.64 m value of m1=2.0 (all other simulations used m1=1.5)
was run to assess the impact of enhanced gullying (as a
result of the higher value of m1) on the 50 m lift and
Table 5 Results from the SIBERIA simulations for the waste rock
dump designs with humps on the cap and single angle of repose 50 m bench design (Figs. 1a and 2). This simulation
slope constructed in three lifts used the waste rock dump design that had 2 m humps of
the cap and benches and high rainfall.
Simulation Depth of 10 years 100 years 1000 years Results of the simulation demonstrate an average
erosion (m)
erosion rate of 0.244 m and maximum depth of 5.71 m
Constant runoff Average 0.005 0.030 0.150 over the 1000 year simulation (Table 4). This compares
Minimum 0 0 0 to an average erosion value of 0.094 m, a maximum
Maximum 0.255 1.12 3.282 depth of erosion of 1.21 m using m1=1.5 (as discussed
Spatially varied Average 0.002 0.019 0.082 in the ‘‘Design using multiple benches’’ section) over the
Minimum 0 0 0
Maximum 0.125 0.690 2.029 1000-year modeled period. This represents a three-to-
four fold increase in erosion over the modelled period
774

Fig. 5 SIBERIA simulation of a rehabilitation hillslope design for the Alumbrera mine using 50 high lifts at angle of repose with 50 m
benches using high rainfall of 400 mm/year (top) and low rainfall of 160 mm/year (bottom) after 1000-years of erosion. All dimensions are
metres

and demonstrates the sensitivity of the SIBERIA model
to different parameters. It also highlights the need for
the determination of correct erosion model parameters
for long-term simulations.
As for the simulations using m1=1.5, the majority of
erosion occurs down the angle of repose slopes by
gullying with little erosion (other than redistribution) on
the flat cap and benches. Despite the enhanced rate and
depth of erosion at no time over the 1000-year simula-
tion is the bund wall (safety wall) at the edge of the flat
cap and benches breached. Considerable deposition is
evident at the foot of all slopes.
 775

Fig. 6 SIBERIA simulation of a rehabilitation hillslope design for the Alumbrera mine using a single hillslope at an angle of repose using
high rainfall of 600 mm/year (top) and low rainfall of 160 mm/year (bottom) after 1000 years of erosion. All dimensions are metres

Design using a single angle of repose slope
and with spatially varied runoff
It is well understood that rock particles segregate from
small to large when dumped down a hillslope. A
simulation was carried out for the design using a single
angle of repose slope (Fig. 1d) and spatially variable
runoff down the angle of repose slope (see the ‘‘Cali-
bration of the SIBERIA model’’ section). For this
waste rock dump design (Fig. 4), the hillslope has been
constructed in three 50 m lifts to produce a single angle
of repose slope 150 m tall, this producing three sets of
776

Fig. 7 SIBERIA simulation of a rehabilitation hillslope design for the Alumbrera mine using a single concave hillslope with deep
concavity using high rainfall of 400 mm/year (top) and low rainfall of 160 mm/year (bottom) after 1000 years of erosion. All dimensions
are metres

particle size distributions down each 50 m lift. These
simulations used 2 m humps on the surface of the flat
cap.
Results demonstrate an average erosion rate of
0.082 m and a maximum depth of erosion of 2.029 m
(Table 5). This compares to an average erosion rate of
0.150 m and a maximum depth of erosion of 3.282 m,
with no segregation taken into account. This represents
a reduction of erosion of approximately half when
compared to the same slope with no segregation.

As in all other designs, the majority of erosion occurs
down the long angle of repose slope with little erosion
(other than redistribution) on the flat cap with erosion
down the angle of repose slopes occurring mostly by
gullying. At no time over the 1000-year simulation is the
bund wall (safety wall) at the edge of the flat cap and
benches breached. Considerable deposition is evident at
the foot of the slope.
Overall, this simulation greatly reduced erosion when
compared to the simulation which did not take into
account particle sorting down the slope. Nevertheless, as
there is no field data with which to justify the particle
sorting on the waste rock dumps and therefore the
runoff calculations used in the model the results found in
this study should be viewed as indicative only. This is an
area for further research.
Discussion
Computer modeling provides a design tool with which to
assess the benefits and limitations of different waste rock
dump designs. It also provides a method to evaluate the
strengths and weaknesses of available environmental
knowledge and provides a framework for designing fu-
ture research programs with which to fill knowledge
gaps. This aims to ensure that environmental rehabili-
tation is conducted with the best technology using the
best information.
The SIBERIA model used here to assess the various
waste rock dump designs not only allows average erosion
rates to be assessed, but also how and where erosion oc-
curs. It also allows erosion to be visualized, something
that is not possible with WEPP (Flanagan and Livingston
1995) or USLE (Wischmeier and Smith 1978). This is
particularly important for mines such as Alumbrera where
potentially acid generating material is encapsulated by a
thick cover of benign material. The modeling results
demonstrate that any of the designs are sufficient to pre-
vent exposure of potentially acid generating material if a
conservative cover thickness of 20 m of benign waste rock
is used for periods of at least 1000 years.
The results demonstrate that waste rock dump de-
signs using angle of repose slopes with benches provide
the most erosionally stable design over the modelled
period. The waste rock dumps with a single slope at
angle of repose and the single concave slopes all have
higher erosion rates than the benched designs. Small
amounts of incision can be observed on the angle of
repose slopes with benches while considerable incision
exists on the single angle of repose and concave slopes.
There appears to be little difference between simulations
using the humpy design on the flat cap and benches
compared to those with no humps.
For all designs, the backsloping benches prevented
the bunds being breached and all sediment was con-
777
tained on the benches. While a small amount of erosion
occurred on the benches, the majority of erosion oc-
curred on the angle of repose slopes. The results dem-
onstrate that the longer the angle of repose slope, the
greater the erosion. Deposition can be observed at the
foot of all slopes.
In terms of depth of incision the waste rock dumps
with design b (Fig. 1) provides the lowest average ero-
sion rate and depth of incision of 1.58 m and 1.33 m for
the high and low rainfall simulations respectively. The
highest depth of incision, with a maximum depth of
8.09 m and 3.28 m for the high and low rainfall simu-
lations over the 1000-year modeled period, occurs on the
angle of repose slope (Fig. 1) (design d). Nevertheless,
designs b and c also have low erosion rates and maxi-
mum depths of incision. Overall, the results demonstrate
that constructed hillslopes with benches provide the
lowest erosion rates. The design using 30 m benches with
25 m lifts (Fig. 1b) provides the lowest overall erosion
rate, but the difference is small compared to the other
benched designs.
Nevertheless, caution should be applied in inter-
preting these results. The SIBERIA erosion model was
calibrated and run using a generic set of parameters
that are not site specific. For the calibration, a particle
size distribution from fresh waste rock was used. No
account was taken of the chemical properties of the
spoil and its effect on erodibility as the data was not
available. Also, the effect of weathering and armouring
of fresh spoil together with the establishment of vege-
tation may retard or enhance erosion over the long-
term and it is likely that erosion rates will change
through time as weathering and armouring occurs
which may either increase or enhance erosion through
time. The importance of these factors for long-term site
stability is unknown at the present time. Long-term
rainfall data is required to correctly input rainfall and
resultant runoff into the model. Accordingly, to ensure
the validity of these modeled results site specific cali-
bration data is required. This requires that field sites be
established for long-term monitoring of runoff and
sediment transport on rehabilitated spoil over arrange
of slopes and slope lengths.
Also the hillslopes investigated in this study are
constructed to precise designs. There has been no ac-
count of construction error that may result in ponding
or redirection of flows and their influence on erosion.
These factors require further investigation to better
guarantee the reliability of the modeling. This is of
particular importance as if ponding occurs due to poor
construction and overtops a contour bank, severe gul-
lying may result.
While the simulation investigating the effect of par-
ticle segregation down an angle of repose slope shows
great promise as a potential rehabilitation design, fur-
ther information is required on the effect of particle
778

segregation in infiltration and runoff rates. There ap- Conclusion

pears to be a dearth of information in the literature
regarding particle size distribution down constructed
angle of repose slopes and this study’s result should be
viewed as indicative only. This is an area for consider-
able further research.
There is no data on background or natural soil ero-
sion rates in the area. While the waste rock dump de-
signs with benches are relatively simple and easy to
construct and provide the lowest erosion rates, it is not
known how these erosion rates compare to those of the
surrounding undisturbed environment. It is important
that background erosion rates be determined and a
waste rock dump design be used that has an erosion rate
similar to that of the surrounding undisturbed area as
enhanced erosion rates and resultant poor water quality
may impact on off-site biota for a considerable time
post-mining.
The slope designs used in this report also assume that
the mine equipment can build waste rock dumps to the
specifications examined. This assumes that the caps and
benches are correctly graded. This report does not take
into account undulations and cracking of the top sur-
faces resulting from settling.
Finally, while there are many unknowns in the cali-
bration of this model, the results have provided a risk
assessment using the limited environmental data avail-
able. The work demonstrated here provides a framework
for determining the effectiveness of different waste rock
dump designs.
Erosion models can be used as rehabilitation design tools
for post-mining landscape design. In this study the
authors have used the SIBERIA landscape evolution and
erosion model to evaluate a series of potential waste rock
dump designs. The modeling used a generic set of erosion
parameters as well as a set of potential rehabilitation
design options that are cost-effective and practical to
construct. The use of this modeling approach shows that
this type of evaluation can be an effective design tool as
not only average erosion rates, type and depth of erosion
but position of erosion can be evaluated. This is of par-
ticular importance if the waste rock is covering or
encapsulating tailings or potentially acid generating
material. The results of this study demonstrate that a
waste rock dump design that has short slope lengths
produces the lowest erosion rates while those designs with
the longest slope lengths had the highest erosion rates. The
model shows that not only can erosion rates be determined
but maximum depths of incision and where this incision
occurs can be evaluated. The methodology outlined in this
study offers a framework for the evaluation of rehabili-
tation designs for other post-mining landscapes. Never-
theless to ensure the validity of the results, site specific
calibration is necessary as well as field validation of the
modelling results over a number of years.
Acknowledgements The very helpful comments of the anonymous
reviewers are very much appreciated.

References

Boggs G, Evans K, Devonport C, Moliere
D, Saynor M (2000) Assessing catch-
ment-wide, mining related impacts on
sediment movement in the Swift Creek
Catchment, Northern Territory, Aus-
tralia, using GIS and landform evolu-
tion modeling techniques. Journal of
Environmental Management
59:321–334
Boggs G, Devonport C, Evans K, Puig P
(2001) Rapid assessment of erosion risk
in a small catchment in the wet/dry
tropics of Australia using GIS. Land
Degradation and Development
12(5):417–434
Coulthard TJ (2001) Landscape evolution
models: a software review. Hydrological
Processes 15:165–173
Evans KG (2000) Methods for assessing
mine site rehabilitation design for ero-
sion impact. Australian Journal of Soil
Research 38:231–247
Evans KG, Willgoose GR, Saynor MJ,
House T (1998) Effect of vegetation and
surface amelioration on simulated
landform evolution of the post-mining
landscape at ERA Ranger Mine,
Northern Territory, Supervising Scien-
tist Report 134, Australian Government
Publishing Service, Canberra
Evans KG, Willgoose GR, Saynor MJ,
Riley SJ (2000) Post-mining landform
evolution modeling. I. Derivation of
sediment transport model and rainfall-
runoff model parameters. Earth Surface
Processes and Landforms 25(7):743–763
Evans KG, Willgoose GR (2000) Post-
mining landform evolution modeling: 2.
Effects of vegetation and surface rip-
ping. Earth Surface Processes and
Landforms 25(8):803–823
Flanagan DC, Livingston SJ (1995) Water
Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP)
Version 95.7 User Summary. In: Flan-
agan DC, Livingston SJ (eds) ‘WEPP
user summary’, NSERL Report No 11,
July 1995
Flint JJ (1974) Stream gradient as a func-
tion of order, magnitude and discharge.
Water Resources Research 10(5):969–
973
Hack JT (1957) Studies of longitudinal
stream profiles in Virginia and Mary-
land. United States Geological Survey
Professional Paper 292(B):45–97
Hancock GR (2004) The use of landscape
evolution models in mining rehabilita-
tion design. Environmental Geology
46:561–573
Hancock GR (2003) The effect of catch-
ment aspect ratio on geomorphological
descriptors. In: Prediction in Geomor-
phology, Wilcock P, Iverson R (eds)
Geophysical Monograph Series Volume
135, American Geophysical Union,
Washington, DOI: 10.1029/135GM015
Hancock GR, Loch R, Willgoose GR
(2003) The design of post-mining land-
scapes using geomorphic guidelines.
Earth Surface Processes and Landforms
28:1097–1110

Hancock GR, Willgoose GR, Evans KG
(2002) Testing of the SIBERIA land-
scape evolution model using the Tin
Camp Creek, Northern Territory, Aus-
tralia, field catchment. Earth Surface
Processes and Landforms 27:125–143
Hancock GR, Willgoose GR, Evans KG,
Moliere DR, Saynor MJ (2000) Med-
ium term erosion simulation of a
abandoned mine site using the
SIBERIA landscape evolution model.
Australian Journal of Soil Research
38:249–263
Kirkby MS (1971) Hillslope process-re-
sponse models based on the continuity
equation, Slopes Form and Process.
Institute of British Geographers Serial
Publication No.3, p15–30 January 1971
Laflen JM, Elliot WJ, Simanton J R,
Holzhey CS, Kohl KD (1991) WEPP
soil erodibility experiments for range-
land and cropland soils. Journal of Soil
and Water Conservation pp 39–34
O’Kane Consultants (2004) Report on
particle size distribution of waste rock
prepared for Minera Alumbrera Ltd
Sheridan GJ, So HB, Loch RJ, Pocknee C,
Walker CM (2000) Use of laboratory
scale rill and interrill erodibility mea-
surements for the prediction of hills-
lope–scale erosion on rehabilitated coal
mines soils and overburden. Australian
Journal of Soil Research 38(2):285–298
Tarboton DG, Bras RL, Rodriguez-Iturbe
I (1989) Scaling and elevation in river
Networks. Water Resources Research
25(9):2037–2052
Willgoose GR, Hancock GR, Kuczera G
(2003) Variability of catchment statis-
tics. In: Prediction in Geomorphology,
Wilcock P, Iverson R (eds), Geophysi-
cal Monograph Series Volume 135,
American Geophysical Union, Wash-
ington, DOI:10.1029/135GM014
Willgoose GR (1994) A physical explana-
tion for an observed area-slope-eleva-
tion relationship for catchments with
declining relief. Water Resources Re-
search 30(2):151–159
779
Willgoose GR, Bras R, Rodriguez-Iturbe I
(1991a) A physically based coupled
network growth and hillslope evolution
model: 1 Theory. Water Resources Re-
search 27(7):1671–1684
Willgoose GR, Bras RL, Rodriguez-Iturbe
I (1991b) A physically based coupled
network growth and hillslope evolution
model: 2 Applications. Water Resources
Research 27(7):1685–1696
Willgoose GR, Bras RL, Rodriguez-Iturbe
I (1991c) A physical explanation of an
observed link area-slope relationship.
Water Resources Research 27(7):1697–
1702
Willgoose GR, Bras RL, Rodriguez-Iturbe
I (1991d) Results from a new model of
river basin evolution. Earth Surface
Processes and Landforms 16:237–254
Wischmeier WH, Smith DD (1978) Pre-
dicting rainfall erosion losses-A guide to
Conservation Planning. US Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Agriculture
Handbook No. 537.2