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Anatomy and Physiology of Salivary Glands
Anatomy and Physiology of Salivary Glands
INTRODUCTION
The major salivary glands in humans consist of the paired parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands.
In addition, hundreds of minor salivary glands line the entire oral cavity. Their main role is the production of
saliva, which aids in digestion, protects the mucosa from desiccation, protects against dental caries, and
assists in the maintenance of homeostasis. The head and neck surgeon should be familiar with the anatomic
relationships of the glands, as well as their innervation and the physiology of secretion. In addition, an
understanding of gland embryology is important in tumor histogenesis.
DEVELOPMENTAL ANATOMY
The major salivary glands develop in the sixth to eighth weeks of embryonic life as outpouchings of oral
ectoderm into the surrounding mesenchyma1 (Fig. 391). The primordia originate at the sites of the eventual
duct orifices, and as they grow, they develop into elaborate tubuloacinar systems. The parotid anlage grows
posteriorly as the facial nerve advances anteriorly and eventually surrounds the nerve with glandular tissue.
As the mesenchymal capsule surrounds the gland, it entraps lymph nodes and sends projections into the
gland itself. The minor salivary glands arise from oral ectoderm and nasopharyngeal endoderm and form
simple tubuloacinar systems.
ANATOMY OF THE SALIVARY GLAND
Parotid Gland
The parotid gland is the largest of the major salivary glands and lies in the preauricular region deep to
skin and subcutaneous tissues (Fig. 392). Its acinar cells are mainly of the serous secreting type. The facial
nerve divides the gland, by definition, into a large supraneural gland and a smaller infraneural component.
The parotid compartment is the triangular space that contains the parotid gland and its associated vessels,
nerves, and lymphatics. The parotid compartment is bounded superiorly by the zygoma, posteriorly by the
external auditory canal, and inferiorly by the styloid process, the styloid muscles, and the internal carotid and
jugular vessels. The anterior margin of the gland forms a diagonal from the gland’s superior to posterior
boundaries superficial to the masseter muscle. In addition, a small tail of parotid tissue extends posteriorly
toward the mastoid process and overlays the sternocleidomastoid muscle.
Stensen’s duct arises from the anterior border of the gland, 1.5 cm below the zygoma. The duct, which
courses approximately 4 to 6 cm, runs anteriorly across the masseter muscle, turns medially and pierces the
buccinator muscle, and ultimately opens intraorally just opposite the second upper molar. The buccal branch
of the facial nerve travels with the duct.
The parotid fascia is a continuation of the superficial layer of deep cervical fascia and is divided into
superficial and deep layers. The dense superficial fascia extends from the surrounding musculature, from the
masseter anteriorly and the sternocleidomastoid posteriorly, and extends superiorly to the zygoma. The fascia
sends septa into the glandular tissue, which prevents separation of a surgical plane between the gland and its
fascia. Because of the presence of this inelastic capsule, a suppurative or other expansive process in the
parotid gland requires surgical drainage.
The deep layer of parotid fascia extends from the fascia of the posterior portion of the digastric muscle
and forms the stylomandibular membrane (Fig. 393). The membrane separates the parotid gland from the
submandibular gland and stretches from the mandible anteriorly, from the stylomandibular ligament
inferiorly, and from the styloid process posteriorly. Occasionally, parotid tissue can herniate through a
weakness in the stylomandibular membrane and lie in the lateral pharyngeal wall. For this reason, tumors
deep in the parotid gland can present as parapharyngeal masses.
Facial Nerve
The facial nerve exits the skull base from the stylomastoid foramen, which lies lateral to the styloid
process and medial to the mastoid tip. The facial nerve gives off three motor branches as it exits the
stylomastoid foramen: (a) to the stylohyoid muscle, (b) to the postauricular muscle, and (c) to the posterior
belly of the digastric muscle. The nerve can be identified by its relationship to the surrounding structures.
The “tragal pointer” is a projection of conchal cartilage that points medially toward the stylomastoid
foramen. The nerve lies approximately 6 to 8 mm anteroinferior to the tympanomastoid suture line.
After it exits the stylomastoid foramen, the facial nerve then turns laterally to enter the parotid gland
posteriorly. It branches at the pes anserinus (goose’s foot) into an upper temporofacial and lower
cervicofacial division. The pes is usually about 1.3 cm from the stylomastoid foramen. The two subdivisions
then branch to form the five major branches: temporal, zygomatic, buccal, marginal mandibular, and
cervical. There are often small internerve communications among the buccal, zygomatic, and temporal
branches, as well as normal anatomic variations in the branching patterns2 (Fig. 394).
When the normal anatomy is distorted, as when tumor is present, the facial nerve can be identified from
several constant relationships. The buccal branch of the facial nerve follows the course of the parotid duct
and lies either superior or inferior to the duct3. The temporal branch crosses the zygomatic arch parallel with
the superficial temporal vessels. The marginal mandibular branch runs along the inferior border of the gland
superficial to the posterior facial vein (retromandibular vein). Each of these branches can be identified
distally, then followed proximally through the gland to the main trunk of the nerve. Occasionally, if the main
nerve trunk cannot be identified by the usual landmarks, a mastoidectomy can be performed to identify the
nerve as it exits the stylomastoid foramen.
Arterial Supply
The external carotid artery provides the major blood supply to the parotid gland. The artery runs
cephalad, parallel with the mandible, and bifurcates into its two terminal branches (maxillary and superficial
temporal arteries) at the level of the mandibular condyle. The transverse facial artery, a branch of the
superficial temporal artery, supplies the parotid gland, Stensen’s duct, and the masseter muscle. It is
accompanied by the transverse facial vein and travels anteriorly between the zygomatic arch and the parotid
duct.
Venous Drainage
The superficial temporal vein joins the maxillary vein to form the posterior facial (retromandibular) vein.
The posterior facial vein is the major venous drainage of the parotid and lies deep to the facial nerve. The
vein runs lateral to the carotid artery and emerges at the lower pole of the gland. It then joins the
postauricular vein to form the external jugular vein. Also, the posterior facial vein joins the anterior facial
vein to form the common facial vein, which ultimately empties into the internal jugular system4.
Lymphatic Drainage
The parotid gland is the only salivary gland with two layers of nodes. The superficial layer, consisting of
approximately 3 to 20 nodes, lies between the gland and its capsule. These nodes drain the parotid gland,
external auditory canal, pinna, scalp, eyelids, and lacrimal glands. The second layer of nodes lies deep in
parotid tissue and drains the parotid gland, external auditory canal, middle ear, nasopharynx, and soft palate.
More lymph nodes are present in the superficial lobe of the parotid as compared to the deep lobe (7.6 versus
2.3)5. The two systems empty into the superficial and deep cervical lymph systems.
Submandibular Gland
The second largest major salivary gland is the submandibular (submaxillary) gland. It comprises both
mucous and serous cells. The gland lies in the submandibular triangle, which is formed by the anterior and
posterior bellies of the digastric muscle and the inferior margin of the mandible (Fig. 395). The gland lies
medial and inferior to the mandibular ramus and wraps around the mylohyoid muscle in a Cshaped fashion
to produce a superficial and deep lobe (Fig. 396).
The superficial lobe of the submandibular gland lies in the lateral sublingual space. The deep lobe of the
gland (actually first encountered during a routine submandibular gland excision) lies inferior to the
mylohyoid muscle and constitutes the bulk of the gland. The superficial layer of deep cervical fascia splits to
envelop the gland. Wharton’s duct exits from the medial surface of the gland and travels between the
mylohyoid and hyoglossus muscles onto the genioglossus muscle. It then opens intraorally lateral to the
lingual frenulum at the floor of the mouth. The duct is approximately 5 cm in length. As the duct exits the
gland, the hypoglossal nerve lies inferiorly and the lingual nerve superiorly.
The submandibular gland is innervated by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, which
stimulate the gland to produce mucoid and watery saliva, respectively. The parasympathetic supply is from
the chorda tympani nerve, which is a branch of the facial nerve. The chorda carries preganglionic
parasympathetic fibers to the submandibular ganglion by means of the lingual nerve. At the submandibular
ganglion, the fibers synapse onto postganglionic parasympathetic fibers that stimulate the gland to produce
saliva. The sympathetic fibers originate in the superior cervical ganglion and travel with the lingual artery to
the gland.
The facial artery provides the major blood supply to the gland. The artery, which is a major branch of the
external carotid artery, grooves the deep portion of the submandibular gland as it courses superiorly and
anteriorly. At the superior aspect of the gland, it passes laterally and curves around a notch in the mandible to
supply the face. The anterior facial vein drains the gland. The marginal mandibular branch of the facial nerve
lies superficial to the anterior facial vein. Ligation of the vein and retraction superiorly are one technique
used to protect the nerve during submandibular gland excision.
Lymph nodes are present between the gland and the capsular fascia but not deep in glandular tissue. The
nodes drain into the deep cervical and jugular chains.
Sublingual Gland
The sublingual gland is the smallest of the major salivary glands and lies just below the floor of mouth
mucosa (see Fig. 396). It contains primarily mucussecreting acinar cells. The gland is bordered by the
mandible and genioglossus muscle laterally and the mylohyoid muscle inferiorly. The submandibular duct
and lingual nerve travel between the sublingual gland and the genioglossus muscle. In contrast to the parotid
and submandibular glands, no true fascial capsule surrounds the sublingual gland.
Approximately ten small ducts (ducts of Rivinus) exit the superior aspect of the gland and open
intraorally along the sublingual fold or plica of the floor of the mouth. Occasionally, several of the ducts may
join to form a major sublingual (Bartholin’s) duct, which then empties into Wharton’s duct.
Like the other major salivary glands, the sublingual gland is innervated by both the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous systems. The lingual nerve carries postganglionic parasympathetic fibers to the
gland from the submandibular ganglion. The facial artery carries the sympathetic fibers from the cervical
ganglion. The sublingual branch of the lingual artery and the submental branch of the facial artery provide
the blood supply to the sublingual gland. The venous drainage is by the corresponding veins. The major
lymphatic drainage is to the submandibular nodes.
Production of Saliva
The Secretory Unit
The production of saliva is an active process that begins proximally in the acinus and is modified distally
by the ducts. The secretory unit refers to the acinus, secretory tubules, and collecting duct (Fig. 397). The
acinar cells and proximal ducts are surrounded by myoepithelial cells that contract to expel preformed
secretions from the glandular cells. The acini secrete saliva, which travels by the intercalated ducts to intra
and interlobular ducts, which ultimately empty into larger collecting ducts. The intralobular and interlobular
ducts make up the secretory tubules, which are involved in salt and water transport. As previously described,
the parotid and submandibular glands have elaborate tubuloacinar systems, whereas the sublingual glands
have simple systems in which the interlobular ducts empty into 10 to 12 separate collecting ducts.
Because the parotid gland has only serous acinar cells, it secretes a thin, watery saliva, devoid of mucins.
The sublingual gland has only mucous acinar cells and thus produces a more viscous saliva. The
submandibular gland contains acinar cells of both types and produces a mixed (serous and mucous) saliva.
The minor salivary glands contain acini that are serous, mucous, or mixed.
Autonomic Innervation
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Stimulation of salivary gland secretion by the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) produces an
abundant, watery saliva. Preganglionic parasympathetic neurons originate in the salivary nuclei of the
brainstem, synapse in autonomic ganglia, and enter the salivary glands by their sensory nerves (Fig. 398).
The parotid gland receives its PNS innervation from the glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX). The
parasympathetic fibers are carried to the otic ganglion by the lesser superficial petrosal nerve. The
postganglionic fibers are then directed toward the parotid gland by the auriculotemporal nerve (branch of
cranial nerve V3). The submandibular and sublingual glands receive PNS fibers from the chorda tympani
nerve (branch of cranial nerve VII), which travels with the lingual nerve. The fibers synapse at the
submandibular ganglion. Postganglionic parasympathetic fibers release acetylcholine in close proximity to
the glands, and stimulation occurs by way of passive diffusion of neurotransmitter; that is, no true synapse
exists between the postganglionic nerves and the glands.
Acetylcholine is the primary neurotransmitter of the PNS. Acetylcholine receptors can be nicotinic or
muscarinic, although only the latter appear to be involved in salivary gland stimulation. Anticholinesterases,
which block the breakdown of acetylcholine, prolong the action of acetylcholine at the receptor sites and
sustain glandular stimulation. Alternatively, atropine, which competes with acetylcholine for postganglionic
receptor sites, retards glandular stimulation and has been used as a potent antisialagogue. Because of the
bothersome anticholinergic side effects of atropine, scopolamine and methscopolamine have similarly been
used as antisialagogues.
HIGHLIGHTS
• The parotid (Stensen’s) duct opens intraorally at a papilla opposite the second upper molar.
• The parotid acinar cells are serous cells, and the sublingual acinar cells are mucous cells. The
submandibular acinar cells are of both serous and mucous types.
• The auriculotemporal nerve, a branch of the mandibular (third) division of cranial nerve V, carries
postganglionic parasympathetic fibers from the otic ganglion to the parotid gland. Auriculotemporal
nerve injury during a parotidectomy can result in gustatory sweating (Frey’s syndrome).
• The submandibular gland (Wharton’s) duct opens intraorally lateral to the lingual frenulum on the floor
of the mouth.
• The sublingual gland has approximately ten small ducts that exit through the superior aspect of the gland
to open intraorally along the sublingual fold.
• The minor salivary glands are composed of mucous, serous, or mixed cell types, and they have a simple
duct system.
• Saliva is formed by the salivary gland acinar cells and modified by the ductal cells into a hypotonic fluid.
• The parotid gland receives its PNS fibers from cranial nerve IX. The fibers travel with the lesser
superficial petrosal nerve, synapse at the otic ganglion, and travel to the gland by way of the
auriculotemporal nerve.
• The PNS fibers to the submandibular and sublingual glands travel with the chorda tympani branch of
cranial nerve VII, which joins the lingual nerve before synapsing at the submandibular ganglion just
adjacent to the glands.
• Sympathetic nerve fibers arise in the superior cervical ganglion and travel with the gland’s arterial
supply: external carotid artery to the parotid, lingual artery to the submandibular gland, and facial artery
to the sublingual gland.