Aphrodite

This article is about the Greek goddess. For other uses, ing as “she who shines from the foam (of the ocean)", sup-
see Aphrodite (disambiguation). posing the name is a byname of Eos, the dawn goddess.[7]
“Cypris” redirects here. For other uses, see Cypris Likewise, Witczak[11] proposes an Indo-European com-
(disambiguation). pound *abʰor- “very” and *dʰei- “to shine”, also refer-
“Pandemos” redirects here. For the butterfly, see ring to Eos. It has been argued that etymologies based
Pandemos (butterfly). on comparison with Eos are unlikely since Aphrodite’s
attributes are entirely different from those of Eos or the
[12] [7]
Aphrodite ( /æfrəˈdaɪti/ af-rə-DY-tee; Greek: Αφρο- Vedic deity Ushas. Janda disputes this assumption.
i

δίτη (Afrodíti)) is the Greek goddess of love, beauty, A number of improbable non-Greek etymologies have
pleasure, and procreation. She is identified with the been suggested in scholarship. One Semitic etymology
planet Venus; her Roman equivalent is the goddess compares Aphrodite to the Assyrian barīrītu, the name
Venus. The ancient Greeks also identified her with the of a female demon that appears in Middle Babylonian
Ancient Egyptian goddess Hathor.[4][5] Myrtle, roses, and Late Babylonian texts.[13] Hammarström[14] looks to
doves, sparrows and swans were sacred to her. Etruscan, comparing (e)prϑni “lord”, an Etruscan hon-
As with many ancient Greek deities, there is more than orific loaned into Greek as πρύτανις. This would make
one story about her origins. According to Hesiod's the theonym in origin an honorific, “the lady”. Hjalmar
[15]
Theogony, she was born when Cronus cut off Uranus's Frisk and Robert Beekes[16] reject this etymology as
genitals and threw them into the sea, and she arose from implausible, especially since Aphrodite actually appears
the sea foam (aphros). According to Homer's Iliad, she in Etruscan in the borrowed form Apru (from Greek
is the daughter of Zeus and Dione. In Plato (Symposium, Aphrō, clipped form of Aphrodite).
180e), these two origins are said to be of hitherto separate The medieval Etymologicum Magnum (c. 1150) offers a
entities: Aphrodite Ourania (a transcendent, “Heavenly” highly contrived etymology, deriving Aphrodite from the
Aphrodite) and Aphrodite Pandemos (Aphrodite com- compound habrodíaitos (ἁβροδίαιτος), “she who lives
mon to “all the people”). She had many other names, delicately”, from habrós and díaita. The alteration from b
each emphasising a different aspect of the same god- to ph is explained as a “familiar” characteristic of Greek
dess, or used by a different local cult. Thus she was also “obvious from the Macedonians",[17] despite the fact that
known as Cytherea (Lady of Cythera) and Cypris (Lady the name cannot be of Macedonian origin.
of Cyprus), both of which claimed to be her place of birth.
In Greek myth, the other gods feared that Aphrodite’s
beauty might lead to conflict and war, through rivalry for 2 Mythology
her favours; Zeus married her to Hephaestus, who, be-
cause of his ugliness and deformity, was not seen as a
threat. Aphrodite had many lovers—both gods, such as
2.1 Birth
Ares, and men, such as Anchises. She played a role in
the Eros and Psyche legend, and was both lover and sur-
rogate mother of Adonis. Many lesser beings were said
to be children of Aphrodite.

1 Etymology

Hesiod derives Aphrodite from aphrós (ἀφρός) “sea-

foam”, interpreting the name as “risen from the foam”.[6]
Michael Janda, accepting this as genuine, claims the foam
birth myth as an Indo-European mytheme.[7] The second
part of the compound has been variously analyzed as *- The Birth of Venus by Sandro Botticelli (circa 1485)
odítē “wanderer”[8] or *-dítē “bright”,[9][10] the latter of
which Janda agrees with and interprets the overall mean- Aphrodite is usually said to have been born near her chief

1
2 2 MYTHOLOGY

as vain, ill-tempered, and easily offended. Although she

is married—she is one of the few gods in the Greek Pan-
theon who is—she is frequently unfaithful to her husband.
According to one version of Aphrodite’s story, because
of her immense beauty Zeus fears that the other gods will
become violent with each other in their rivalry to possess
her. To forestall this, he forces her to marry Hephaestus,
the dour, humorless god of smithing. In another version
of the story, his mother, Hera casts him off Olympus,
deeming him too ugly and deformed to inhabit the home
of the gods. His revenge is to trap his mother in a magic
throne. In return for her release, he demands to be given
Aphrodite’s hand in marriage.
Hephaestus is overjoyed to be married to the goddess of
Petra tou Romiou (“The rock of the Greek"), Aphrodite’s leg-
endary birthplace in Paphos, Cyprus. beauty, and forges her beautiful jewelry, including the
cestus, a girdle (more properly a strophion, an undergar-
ment which accentuated the breast[22] ) that makes her
center of worship, Paphos, on the island of Cyprus, which even more irresistible to men. Her unhappiness with her
is why she is sometimes called “Cyprian”, especially in marriage causes Aphrodite to seek other male compan-
the poetic works of Sappho. However, other versions ionship, most often Ares, but also sometimes Adonis.
of her myth have her born near the island of Cythera,
Aphrodite’s husband Hephaestus is one of the most even-
hence another of her names, “Cytherea”.[18] Cythera was
tempered of the Hellenic deities, but in the Odyssey, she
a stopping place for trade and culture between Crete and
is portrayed as preferring Ares, the volatile god of war,
the Peloponesus, so these stories may preserve traces of
because she is attracted to his violent nature.
the migration of Aphrodite’s cult from the Middle East to
mainland Greece. Aphrodite is a major figure in the Trojan War legend. She
is a contestant in the “Judgement of Paris” (see below),
In the most famous version of her myth, her birth was
which leads to the war. She had been the lover of the
the consequence of a castration: Cronus severed Uranus’
Trojan Anchises, and mother of his son Aeneas. Later,
genitals and threw them behind him into the sea. The
during the war, she saves Aeneas from Diomedes, who
foam from his genitals gave rise to Aphrodite (hence her
wounds her.
name, meaning “foam-arisen”), while the Erinyes (fu-
ries), and the Meliae emerged from the drops of his
blood.[19] Hesiod states that the genitals “were carried 2.3 Adonis
over the sea a long time, and white foam arose from the
immortal flesh; with it a girl grew.” The girl, Aphrodite, Main article: Adonis
floated ashore on a scallop shell. This iconic representa- The most prominent lover of Aphrodite is Adonis. He
tion of Aphrodite as a mature “Venus rising from the sea”
(Venus Anadyomene[20] ) was made famous in a much-
admired painting by Apelles, now lost, but described in
the Natural History of Pliny the Elder.
In another version of her origin,[21] she was considered a
daughter of Zeus and Dione, the mother goddess whose
oracle was at Dodona. Aphrodite herself was sometimes
also referred to as “Dione”. “Dione” seems to be a fem-
inine form of “Dios”, “of Zeus”, the genitive form case
of Zeus, and could be taken to mean simply "(she) that
belongs to Zeus” in a generic sense. Aphrodite might,
then, be an equivalent of Rhea, the Earth Mother, whom
Homer relocated to Olympus.

2.2 Adulthood
Venus and Adonis by Titian (circa 1554)
Aphrodite is consistently portrayed, in every image and
story, as having had no childhood, and instead being born is the child of Myrrha, cursed by Aphrodite with insa-
as a nubile, infinitely desirable adult. She is often de- tiable lust for her own father, King Cinyras of Cyprus, af-
picted nude. In many of the later myths, she is portrayed ter Myrrha’s mother bragged that her daughter was more
2.5 Consorts and children 3

beautiful than the goddess. Driven out after becoming The other two goddesses are enraged by this, and through
pregnant, Myrrha is changed into a myrrh tree, but still Helen’s abduction by Paris, they bring about the Trojan
gives birth to Adonis. War.
Aphrodite finds the baby, and takes him to the under-
world to be fostered by Persephone. She returns for him
2.5 Consorts and children
when he is grown and strikingly handsome, but Perse-
phone wants to keep him. Zeus decrees that Adonis will
spend a third of the year with Aphrodite, a third with
Persephone, and a third with whomever he wishes. Ado-
nis chooses Aphrodite, and they are constantly together.
Adonis, who loves hunting, is wounded by a wild boar,
and bleeds to death. Aphrodite can only mourn over his
body. She causes anemones to grow wherever his blood
fell, and decrees a festival on the anniversary of his death.
The shade of Adonis is received in the underworld by
Persephone. Aphrodite wants to return him to life. Con-
sequently, she and Persephone bicker. Zeus intervenes
again, decreeing that Adonis will spend six months with
Aphrodite and six months with Persephone.

2.4 The Judgement of Paris

Main article: Judgement of Paris

The gods are all invited to the marriage of Peleus and

The so-called "Venus in a bikini", from the house of Julia Felix,

Pompeii, Italy actually depicts her Greek counterpart Aphrodite
as she is about to untie her sandal, with a small Eros squatting
beneath her left arm, 1st-century AD [23]

This painting shows Paris surveying Aphrodite naked, with 1. Hephaestus

the other two goddesses watching nearby. This is one of the
numerous works that depict the event. (El Juicio de Paris by 2. Ares
Enrique Simonet, circa 1904)
(a) Phobos
Thetis (the eventual parents of Achilles), except Eris, (b) Deimos
goddess of discord. In revenge, Eris makes a golden (c) Harmonia
Apple of Discord inscribed kallistēi (“to the fairest one”),
which she throws among the goddesses. Aphrodite, Hera, (d) Adrestia
and Athena all claim it. (e) The Erotes
Zeus delegates the choice to a mortal, Paris. The god- i. Eros[3]
desses offer him bribes. Hera offers him supreme power, ii. Anteros
and Athena offers him wisdom, fame, and glory in battle. iii. Himeros
Aphrodite offers him Helen of Troy, the most beautiful
iv. Pothos
mortal woman in the world, as a wife. As the goddess
of desire, she causes Paris to become inflamed with de- 3. Poseidon
sire for Helen at first sight, and he awards the Apple to
her. Helen is already married to King Menelaus of Sparta. (a) Rhodos
4 3 FORMS OF APHRODITE

4. Hermes
(a) Tyche (possibly)
(b) Hermaphroditos
5. Dionysus
(a) The Charites (Graces) (possibly)
i. Thalia
ii. Euphrosyne
iii. Aglaea
(b) Priapus
6. Zeus
(a) Tyche (possibly)
7. Adonis
(a) Beroe
(b) Golgos[24]
(c) Priapus [24]
8. Phaethon (son of Eos)
(a) Astynoos
9. Anchises
(a) Aeneas
Aphrodite Ourania, draped rather than nude, with her foot rest-
(b) Lyrus ing on a tortoise (Musée du Louvre)

10. Butes
(a) Eryx
11. Unknown father
(a) Meligounis + several more unnamed
daughters[25]
(b) Peitho
2.6 Other myths
In one version of the legend of Hippolytus, Aphrodite
is the cause of his death. He scorned the worship of
Aphrodite, preferring Artemis. Aphrodite caused his
stepmother, Phaedra, to fall in love with him, knowing
Hippolytus would reject her. This led to Phaedra’s sui-
cide, and the death of Hippolytus.
Glaucus of Corinth angered Aphrodite. During the char-
iot race at the funeral games of King Pelias, she drove his
horses mad and they tore him apart.[26]
Polyphonte was a young woman who chose virginal
life with Artemis instead of marriage and children, as
favoured by Aphrodite. Aphrodite cursed her, causing
her to have children by a bear. The resulting offspring,
Agrius and Oreius, were wild cannibals who incurred the
hatred of Zeus. Ultimately the whole family were trans-
formed into birds of ill omen.[27]
3 Forms of Aphrodite
For the Amathusian Aphrodite, see Aphroditus.
By the late 5th century BC, certain philosophers
had begun to draw a distinction between two separate
“Aphrodites” as opposed to a single Aphrodite whose
characteristics varied slightly in different local cults of
the goddess: Aphrodite Ourania, the celestial Aphrodite,
born from the sea foam after Cronus castrated Uranus,
and Aphrodite Pandemos, the common Aphrodite “of all
the folk”, born from the union of Zeus and Dione.[28]
Among the neo-Platonists and, later, their Christian in-
terpreters, Aphrodite Ourania is associated with spiritual
love, and Aphrodite Pandemos with physical love (de-
sire). A representation of Aphrodite Ourania with her
foot resting on a tortoise came to be seen as emblem-
atic of discretion in conjugal love (we know of this rep-
resentation, said to have been a chryselephantine sculp-
ture made by Phidias for Elis, only from a parenthetical
comment by the geographer Pausanias).[29]
In the Symposium[30] of Plato, Pausanias (no relation
to the geographer Pausanias) describes Aphrodite. He
distinguishes two manifestations of Aphrodite, repre-
sented by the two stories of her creation. The older one,
Aphrodite Ourania (“heavenly” Aphrodite), is the daugh-
ter of Uranus, and inspires homosexual male desire or,
more specifically, ephebic eros. The younger, Aphrodite
4.1 Modern worship of Aphrodite 5

the sea, dolphins, doves, swans, pomegranates, sceptres,

apples, myrtle, rose trees, lime trees, clams, scallop shells,
and pearls.
One aspect of the cult of Aphrodite and her precedents
that Thomas Bulfinch's much-reprinted The Age of Fa-
ble; or Stories of Gods and Heroes (1855 etc.) elided[33]
was the practice of ritual prostitution in her shrines and
temples. The euphemism in Greek is hierodoule, “sacred
slave.” The practice was an inherent part of the rituals
owed to Aphrodite’s Near Eastern forebears, Sumerian
Inanna and Akkadian Ishtar, whose temple priestesses
were the “women of Ishtar,” ishtaritum.[34]
The practice has been documented in Babylon, Syria,
and Palestine, in Phoenician cities and the Tyrian colony
Carthage, and for Hellenic Aphrodite in Cyprus, the cen-
ter of her cult, Cythera, Corinth, and in Sicily (Mar-
covich 1996:49); the practice however is not attested in
Athens. Aphrodite was everywhere the patroness of the
hetaera and courtesan. In Ionia on the coast of Asia Mi-
nor, hierodoulai served in the temple of Artemis.

4.1 Modern worship of Aphrodite

The Birth of Venus by William-Adolphe Bouguereau (circa

1879)

Pandemos (“Common” Aphrodite) is the daughter of

Zeus and Dione, and all love for women comes from
her.[31]
Aphrodite is also known as Areia, showing her connection
to Ares, the god of war, with whom she had extramarital
relations.[32] As a result, she was, to some extent, made
into a goddess of war. This is especially true in Sparta.

4 Cult of Aphrodite
See also: Category:Epithets of Aphrodite

She was also called Kypris or Cytherea after her birth-

places in Cyprus and Cythera, respectively, both cen-
ters of her cult. She was associated with Hesperia and
frequently accompanied by the Oreads, nymphs of the Pottery vessel in the shape of Aphrodite inside a shell; from
mountains. Attica, Classical Greece, discovered in the Phanagoria ceme-
tery, Taman Peninsula (Bosporan Kingdom, southern Russia),
Her festival, Aphrodisia, was celebrated across Greece,
1st quarter of 4th century BC, Hermitage Museum, Saint Peters-
but particularly in Athens and Corinth. At the temple of
burg.
Aphrodite on the summit of Acrocorinth (before the Ro-
man destruction of the city in 146 BC), intercourse withAs one of the Twelve Olympians of the Greek pan-
her priestesses was considered a method of worshiping theon and thus a major deity, worship of Aphrodite or
Aphrodite. This temple was not rebuilt when the city wasAphrodíti as a living goddess is one of the more promi-
re-established under Roman rule in 44 BC, but the fertil-
nent devotionals in Hellenismos (Hellenic Polytheistic
ity rituals likely continued in the main city near the agora.
Reconstructionism),[35] the revival of ancient Greek re-
Aphrodite was associated with, and often depicted with, ligious practices in the present day.[36]
6 5 COMPARATIVE MYTHOLOGY

Hellenic polytheists of today celebrate their religious de-

votion to Aphrodite on two annual and monthly festival
days. Aphrodisia is her main festival day, which is cele-
brated on the 4th day of Hekatombaion in the Attic cal-
endar, falling in the months of July and August in the
Gregorian calendar, depending on the year. Adonia, a
joint festival of Aphrodite and her partner Adonis, is cele-
brated on the first full moon following the Northern spring
equinox, often roughly as the same week the Christian
festival of Easter is celebrated. The fourth day of each
month is considered a sacred day of both Aphrodite and
her son Eros.[37]
Devotional offerings to Aphrodite can include incense,
fruit (particularly apples and pomegranates), flowers (par-
ticularly fragrant roses), sweet dessert wine (particularly
Commandaria wine from Cyprus), and cakes made with
honey.[38][39]

5 Comparative mythology

5.1 Ancient Near Eastern parallels

The cult of Aphrodite in Greece was imported from, or

at least influenced by, the cult of Astarte in Phoenicia,
which, in turn, was derived from the cult of the Babylo-
nian goddess Ishtar, which itself was largely derived from
the cult of the Sumerian goddess Inanna.[40] Pausanias
states that the first to establish a cult of Aphrodite
were the Assyrians, after the Assyrians, the Paphians
of Cyprus, and then the Phoenicians at Ascalon. The
Phoenicians, in turn, taught her worship to the people of
Cythera.[41]
An origin of or significant influence on the Greek love
goddess from Near Eastern traditions was seen with some
skepticism in classical 19th century scholarship. Au-
thors such as A. Enmann (Kypros und der Ursprung des
Aphroditekultes 1881) attempted to portray the cult of
Aphrodite as a native Greek development. Hans Georg
Wunderlich attempted to connect Aphrodite with the
Minoan snake goddess.[42] This theory found some sup-
port in the fact that the Egyptian snake goddess Wadjet Figurine from the Louvre Museum portraying Astarte, the
was associated with the city known to the Greeks as Phoenician precursor to Aphrodite, wearing a horned headdress
Aphroditopolis, which means “City of Aphrodite.”[43]
Scholarly opinion on this question has shifted signif- fication as Ishtar/Aphrodite, during the 4th century BC,
icantly since the 1980s, notably due to Walter Burk- along with other items of Babylonian astrology, such as
ert (1984). The significant influence of the Near East the zodiac (Eudoxus of Cnidus).
on early Greek religion in general (and on the cult of
Aphrodite in particular) is now widely recognized as dat-
ing to a period of orientalization during the 8th century 5.2 Comparison with the Indo-European
BC, when archaic Greece was on the fringes of the Neo-
dawn goddess
Assyrian Empire.[44]
In native Greek tradition, the planet Venus had two It has long been accepted in comparative mythology, re-
names: Hesperos as the evening star and Eosphoros as the gardless of possible oriental influences, that Aphrodite
morning star. The Greeks adopted the identification of preserves some aspects of the Indo-European dawn god-
the morning and the evening stars, as well as its identi- dess *Haéusōs (properly Greek Eos, Latin Aurora, San-
 7

skrit Ushas).[45]
Janda (2010) etymologizes her name as “she who rises
from the foam [of the ocean]" and points to Hesiod’s
Theogony account of Aphrodite’s birth as an archaic re-
flex of Indo-European myth. Aphrodite rising out of the
waters after Cronus defeats Uranus as a mytheme would
then be directly cognate to the Rigvedic myth of Indra • Aphrodite of Menophantos a Venus
defeating Vrtra, liberating Ushas.[7] Pudica signed by Menophantos, 1st century BC,
found at San Gregorio al Celio, Rome (Museo
Nazionale Romano), of the Capitoline Venus type.

6 Gallery

• Fountain of Aphrodite in Mexico City.

• The Venus Kallipygos. Aphrodite Kallipygos

(“Aphrodite of the Beautiful Buttocks”),[46] is a
type of nude female statue of the Hellenistic era.
It depicts a partially draped woman[47] raising her
light peplos[48] to uncover her hips and buttocks,
and looking back and down over her shoulder, • Aphrodite Heyl, terracotta statuette of very
perhaps to evaluate them high quality, probably from Myrina, 2nd century BC

• The Venus Anadyomene,

from Pompeii, believed to be a copy of a lost work
by Apelles.

• The Ludovisi Cnidian Aphrodite, Roman

marble copy (torso and thighs) with restored head,
arms, legs and drapery support. The Aphrodite of
Cnidus was one of the most famous works of the
Attic sculptor Praxiteles (4th century BC).
• The Ludovisi Throne (460
BC?) is believed to be a classical Greek bas-relief,
although it has also been alleged to be a 19th-
century forgery

• Aphrodite of Milos (c.100 BC), • The Birth of Venus (1912), by Odilon

Louvre Redon.
8 8
• Aphrodite riding a swan: Attic [14] M. Hammarström, “Griechisch-etruskische Wortgle-
white-ground red-figured kylix, c. 460, found at
Kameiros (Rhodes).
7 See also
Hellenismos
8 References and sources
References
[1] Hesiod, Theogony, 188
[2] Homer, Iliad 5.370.
[3] Eros is usually mentioned as the son of Aphrodite but in
other versions he is born out of Chaos
[4] Reginald Eldred Witt, Isis in the ancient world (Johns
Hopkins University Press) 1997:125. ISBN 0-8018-
5642-6
[5] Larousse Desk Reference Encyclopedia, The Book People,
Haydock, 1995, p. 215.
[6] Hesiod, Theogony, 190-197.
[7] Michael Janda, Elysion. Entstehung und Entwicklung der
griechischen Religion, (Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachen
und Literaturen, 2005), pp. 349–360; id., Die Musik
nach dem Chaos: der Schöpfungsmythos der europäischen
Vorzeit (Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachen und Literaturen,
2010), 65.
[8] Paul Kretschmer, “Zum pamphylischen Dialekt”,
Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung auf dem
Gebiet der Indogermanischen Sprachen 33 (1895): 267.
[9] Ernst Maaß, “Aphrodite und die hl. Pelagia”, Neue
Jahrbücher für das klassische Altertum 27 (1911): 457-
468.
[10] Vittore Pisani, “Akmon e Dieus”, Archivio glottologico
italiano 24 (1930): 65-73.
[11] K.T. Witczak, “Greek Aphrodite and her Indo-European
origins”, Miscellanea Linguistica Graeco-Latina, ed.
Lambert Isebaert (Namur: Société des études classiques,
1993), 115-123.
REFERENCES AND SOURCES
[12] Charles Penglase, Greek Myths and Mesopotamia: Par-
allels and Influence in the Homeric Hymns and Hes-
iod (Routledge, 1997), 164; citing Deborah Boedeker,
Aphrodite’s Entry into Greek Epic (Leiden: Brill, 1974),
15-6.
[13] Chicago Assyrian Dictionary, vol. 2, p. 111.
ichungen”, Glotta: Zeitschrift für griechische und lateinis-
che Sprache 11 (1921): 215-6.
[15] Hjalmar Frisk, Griechisches etymologisches Wörterbuch,
vol. 1 (Heidelberg: Carl Winter, 1960), 196 f.
[16] Robert Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, vol. 1
(Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2010), 179.
[17] Etymologicum Magnum, Ἀφροδίτη.
[18] Homer, Odyssey viii. 288; Herodotus i. 105; Pausanias
iii. 23. § 1; Anacreon v. 9; Horace, Carmina i. 4. 5.
[19] Graves, Robert (1960). The Greek Myths. London: Pen-
guin Books. p. 37. ISBN 9780140171990.
[20] Αναδυόμενη (Anadyómenē), “rising up”.
[21] Iliad (Book V)
[22] “Iconography in Art History: The girdle of Aphrodite-
Venus...or was it her 'wonderbra'?".
[23] Museo Archeologico Nazionale (Napoli). "so-called
Venus in a bikini.” Cir.campania.beniculturali.it. Ac-
cessed 3 October 2016.
"The statuette portrays Aphrodite on the point of untying the
laces of the sandal on her left foot, under which a small
Eros squats, touching the sole of her shoe with his right
hand. The Goddess is leaning with her left arm (the hand
is missing) against a figure of Priapus standing, naked and
bearded, positioned on a small cylindrical altar while, next
to her left thigh, there is a tree trunk over which the gar-
ment of the Goddess is folded. Aphrodite, almost com-
pletely naked, wears only a sort of costume, consisting of a
corset held up by two pairs of straps and two short sleeves
on the upper part of her arm, from which a long chain
leads to her hips and forms a star-shaped motif at the level
of her navel. The 'bikini', for which the statuette is famous,
is obtained by the masterly use of the technique of gilding,
also employed on her groin, in the pendant necklace and in
the armilla on Aphrodite’s right wrist, as well as on Pria-
pus’ phallus. Traces of the red paint are evident on the tree
trunk, on the short curly hair gathered back in a bun and
on the lips of the Goddess, as well as on the heads of Pria-
pus and the Eros. Aphrodite’s eyes are made of glass paste,
while the presence of holes at the level of the ear-lobes sug-
gest the existence of precious metal ear-rings which have
since been lost. An interesting insight into the female or-
naments of Roman times, the statuette, probably imported
from the area of Alexandria, reproduces with a few modi-
fications the statuary type of Aphrodite untying her sandal,
known from copies in bronze and terracotta.”
For extensive research and a bibliography on the subject,
see: de Franciscis 1963, p. 78, tav. XCI; Kraus 1973,
nn. 270-271, pp. 194-195; Pompei 1973, n. 132; Pom-
peji 1973, n. 199, pp. 142 e 144; Pompeji 1974, n. 281,

pp. 148-149; Pompeii A.D. 79 1976, p. 83 e n. 218;
Pompeii A.D. 79 1978, I, n. 208, pp. 64-65, II, n. 208,
p. 189; Döhl, Zanker 1979, p. 202, tav. Va; Pompeii
A.D. 79 1980, p. 79 e n. 198; Pompeya 1981, n. 198, p.
107; Pompeii lives 1984, fig. 10, p. 46; Collezioni Museo
1989, I, 2, n. 254, pp. 146-147; PPM II, 1990, n. 7, p.
532; Armitt 1993, p. 240; Vésuve 1995, n. 53, pp. 162-
163; Vulkan 1995, n. 53, pp. 162-163; LIMC VIII, 1,
1997, p. 210, s.v. Venus, n. 182; LIMC VIII, 2, 1997,
p. 144; LIMC VIII, 1, 1997, p. 1031, s.v. Priapos, n.
15; LIMC VIII, 2, 1997, p. 680; Romana Pictura 1998,
n. 153, p. 317 e tav. a p. 245; Cantarella 1999, p. 128;
De Caro 1999, pp. 100-101; De Caro 2000, p. 46 e tav.
a p. 62; Pompeii 2000, n. 1, p. 62.
[24] Graves, Robert (1960). The Greek Myths. London: Pen-
guin Books. p. 70. ISBN 9780140171990.
[25] Hesychius of Alexandria s. v. Μελιγουνίς: “Meligounis:
this is what the island Lipara was called. Also one of the
daughters of Aphrodite.”
[26] Hyginus, Fabulae 250.3, 273.11; Pausanias, Guide to
Greece 6.20.19
[27] Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses, 21
[28] E.g. Plato, Symposium 181a-d.
[29] Pausanias, Periegesis vi.25.1; Aphrodite Pandemos was
represented in the same temple riding on a goat, symbol
of purely carnal rut: “The meaning of the tortoise and of
the he-goat I leave to those who care to guess,” Pausa-
nias remarks. The image was taken up again after the Re-
naissance: see Andrea Alciato, Emblemata / Les emblemes
(1584).
[30] Plato, Symposium 180e.
[31] Richard L. Hunter, Plato’s Symposium, Oxford University
Press: 2004, p. 44
[32] T.T. Kroon, art. Areia (1), in T.T. Kroon, Mythologisch
Woordenboek, ’s Gravenshage, 1875.
[33] “Our work is not for the learned, nor for the theologian,
nor for the philosopher, but for the reader of English lit-
erature, of either sex, who wishes to comprehend the al-
lusions so frequently made by public speakers, lecturers,
essayists, and poets, and those which occur in polite con-
versation.” Bulfinch’s obituary in the Boston Evening Stan-
dard noted that the contents were “expurgated of all that
would be offensive”.
[34] Miroslav Marcovich, “From Ishtar to Aphrodite” Journal
of Aesthetic Education 30.2, Special Issue: Distinguished
Humanities Lectures II (Summer 1996) p 49.
[35] World, Matthew Brunwasser PRI’s The; Olympus, Mount.
“The Greeks who worship the ancient gods”.
[36] “Hellenic Polytheism and the Reconstruction of Greek Pa-
ganism”.
[37] “Aphrodite”.
[38] “What Should I Use as an Offering to the Gods?".
9
[39] “Aphrodite - Sacred Haven Coven”.
[40] Marcovich, Miroslav (1996). “From Ishtar to Aphrodite”.
Journal of Aesthetic Education. 39 (2): 43–59.
doi:10.2307/3333191. Retrieved 30 April 2017.
[41] Pausanias, Description of Greece, I. XIV.7
[42] Wunderlich (R. Winston, tr.).The secret of Crete
(1987:134)
[43] C.L. Whitcombe.Minoan snake goddess.8.Snakes, Egypt
magic and women.Minoan Snake Goddess
[44] see Burkert in his introduction to The Orientalizing Rev-
olution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the
Early Archaic Age (1992), especially in pp 1-6.
[45] Dumézil, Ouranos-Vàruna:Ètude de mythologie compáree
indo-européene. Paris: Maisonneuve. 1934
[46] The word callipygian is defined as “having shapely but-
tocks” by Merriam-Webster.
[47] Conventionally presumed to be Venus, though it may
equally be a portrait of a mortal woman, such as a hetaira,
or an image of the goddess modeled on one such
[48] The gesture of Aphrodite/Venus lifting the robe sym-
bolized religious initiation and the ancient Greeks wor-
shiped the woman’s “rich” buttocks to obtain great wealth
on earth as the two Syracusan sisters who inspired the
Kallipygos idea had accomplished.
Sources
• C. Kerényi (1951). The Gods of the Greeks.
• Walter Burkert (1985). Greek Religion (Harvard
University Press).
• Vinciane Pirenne-Delforge (1994). L'Aphrodite
grecque: contribution à l'étude de ses cultes et de sa
personnalité dans le panthéon archaïque et classique,
(Athènes : Centre international d'étude de la religion
grecque antique (Kernos. Supplément ; 4))
9 External links
• Theoi Project, Aphrodite information from classical
literature, Greek and Roman art
• The Glory which Was Greece from a Female Per-
spective
• Sappho’s Hymn to Aphrodite, with a brief explana-
tion`
10 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

10.1 Text
• Aphrodite Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphrodite?oldid=779056938 Contributors: Derek Ross, Bryan Derksen, The Anome,
Koyaanis Qatsi, -- April, Alex.tan, Andre Engels, Eclecticology, Josh Grosse, Matusz, William Avery, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Montrealais,
Hephaestos, Tucci528, Frecklefoot, Edward, D, Tim Starling, Jahsonic, Wapcaplet, Karl Stas, Looxix~enwiki, Ellywa, Mdebets, Ahoer-
stemeier, TUF-KAT, TUF-KAT, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Emperor, Glenn, Andres, Evercat, Panoramix, Csernica, Hashar, Adam
Bishop, EmphasisMine, Dcoetzee, Jallan, Zoicon5, Haukurth, Saltine, Ed g2s, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Wetman, Chrisjj, Pollinator, Rob-
bot, Modulatum, Securiger, Chris Roy, Sunray, Hadal, UtherSRG, Wikibot, Taliswolf, Lupo, GreatWhiteNortherner, Dina, Xyzzyva,
DocWatson42, Gtrmp, J heisenberg, Harp, Wiglaf, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Mark T, Kenneth Alan, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Bovlb, Alen-
sha, Slyguy, Eequor, Adam McMaster, Golbez, Bacchiad, Gadfium, J. 'mach' wust, CryptoDerk, Slowking Man, Quadell, Antandrus, The
Singing Badger, Ctachme, Jossi, Vina, Pmanderson, Karl-Henner, Gscshoyru, Hadarot, Grm wnr, Adashiel, SYSS Mouse, Mike Rosoft,
Freakofnurture, DanielCD, EugeneZelenko, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Pjacobi, Randee15, Florian Blaschke, Silence, EliasAlucard,
YUL89YYZ, Narsil, Luxdormiens, Dbachmann, Paul August, SamEV, ESkog, Furius, Aranel, Kwamikagami, Amerika, Pablo X, Bobo192,
Marblespire, Teorth, Filiocht, Angie Y., Thanos6, SpeedyGonsales, La goutte de pluie, Sasquatch, Nsaa, HasharBot~enwiki, Knucmo2,
Jumbuck, Kuratowski’s Ghost, Alansohn, Lord Pistachio, Damnreds, Malo, Snowolf, Fivetrees, RainbowOfLight, Sciurinæ, Pwqn, Red-
vers, Saxifrage, Ekedolphin, Zntrip, Nuno Tavares, Kelly Martin, Pekinensis, Lincspoacher, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, LadyNorbert,
Rocastelo, TheoClarke, Tckma, Schzmo, Ekerilaz, Meneth, Kralizec!, Prashanthns, Stefanomione, Palica, Paxsimius, Mandarax, Magister
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berniantears, Josiah Rowe, SMC, Heah, Ccson, Tarc, DuKot, Yamamoto Ichiro, Darcagn, FlaBot, RobertG, Thexmanlight, Yoursvivek,
Loggie, Ysangkok, Nihiltres, Crazycomputers, Kerowyn, Spudtater, RexNL, Ewlyahoocom, Gurch, Ben Babcock, Alphachimp, Idaltu,
King of Hearts, Antilived, Damac, Korg, Gwernol, The Rambling Man, Satanael, Mercury McKinnon, YurikBot, Wavelength, Hairy
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Wimt, Marcus Cyron, NawlinWiki, Dysmorodrepanis~enwiki, Wiki alf, Bachrach44, Aeusoes1, Bloodofox, NickBush24, Jaxl, Welsh,
Harksaw, RazorICE, Krea, Aaron Brenneman, Francis Ocoma, Juanpdp, Misza13, Nick C, Bucketsofg, Deucalionite, AdelaMae, Dead-
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Wahabijaz, Green Eyes On Television, JAnDbot, Deflective, Leuko, Husond, Notellm, Instinct, Db099221, Andonic, Cynwolfe, Acrote-
rion, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Remsy, AuburnPilot, T@nn, Xn4, Theranos, JNW, JamesBWatson, HollaAtYaHero, Doug
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TheCormac, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Zepheriah, Allstarecho, Cpl Syx, Softwarenerd, Beggarsbanquet, DerHexer, JaGa, NKGENERA-
TION, Pax:Vobiscum, Jonomacdrones, DGG, SquidSK, Ineffable3000, MartinBot, Sarahpw4444, Arjun01, APT, Crvst, Rob Lindsey,
Lexivore, Zouavman Le Zouave, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Spyguy 95, Nono64, Doctor Doomsday, PrestonH, Kaoak,
N4nojohn, Paranomia, J.delanoy, Nev1, Kimse, Trusilver, Rgoodermote, Huey45, Hoorayformadnezz, Rrostrom, Eeemte, Shaher20, Hans
Dunkelberg, Uncle Dick, Gpshaw, Nigholith, Albgentius, Extransit, KeybladeSephi, Cocoaguy, Jerry, Interrobang², Ian.thomson, Wikiwiki-
woolgar, Davidprior, Katalaveno, McSly, Jeepday, Jayden54, AntiSpamBot, (jarbarf), NewEnglandYankee, Doushebigaloeurpeonjiggalo,
Patina Praxis, MKoltnow, Shoessss, Sunderland06, SSSN, Juliancolton, Action Jackson IV, Katie Enright, Natl1, Richco07, Aaaandimhere,
Useight, Wiki3857, Urheimat, Halmstad, CardinalDan, Xnuala, BigToe7000, ACSE, Deor, Midasminus, CWii, Thedjatclubrock, ABF,
Marcobadotti, Macedonian, Science4sail, ICE77, Jeff G., Tesscass, Barneca, Philip Trueman, Pfinley, TXiKiBoT, Zidonuke, Erik the Red
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Tpk5010, Delbert Grady, Mannafredo, Jeremy Bolwell, Hebele, Asoyrun, Maxim, Solopiano, ARUNKUMAR P.R, RiverStyx23, Tay-
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FlyingLeopard2014, EmxBot, Johnathan West, Rknasc, Deconstructhis, Greekmythomania, ChipChamp, Pentium1000, Ponyo, EJF,
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Jokeaccount, KPH2293, Fuzzyduckling, Steven Crossin, Nireka130, Tombomp, Techman224, Hobartimus, Thisis0, Alex.muller, Fratrep,
Hmbones, Ivan1984, Tonmere, StaticGull, Tetraktys-English, Georgette2, Dabomb87, Nn123645, Lloydpick, Into The Fray, Beemer69,
TheCatalyst31, Invertzoo, Atif.t2, Loren.wilton, ClueBot, GorillaWarfare, Chicagoshim, The Thing That Should Not Be, Kafka Liz,
Rjd0060, Plastikspork, Enthusiast01, Miriyan, Drmies, CounterVandalismBot, Cowatemypant, Niceguyedc, Oceanblueeyes, MARKEL-
LOS, Blanchardb, DifferCake, LizardJr8, Orthoepy, Medussaxxvalovia, Neverquick, Cirt, Auntof6, Val12697, Luke4545, DragonBot,
Excirial, Anonymous101, Jusdafax, Andy pyro, Erebus Morgaine, Divine faith, Lartoven, Sfsheath, Portalthinking, Larrythechim, Tnx-
man307, Razorflame, Huntthetroll, Bballboysigmasix, LukeKutler, SchreiberBike, Ottawa4ever, La Pianista, Rui Gabriel Correia, Dragotr,
Azndragon5435, Thingg, Puppyakitty, Aitias, Zaledin, Mattissa, Versus22, Teleomatic, Burner0718, Cupcakes yum, SoxBot III, Sim-
plonicity, Relly Komaruzaman, Runefrost, DumZiBoT, Littlemissdevil, XLinkBot, Hotcrocodile, Loopman182, Literaryaddict, Jovianeye,
10.2 Images 11

Bradv, DaL33T, SilvonenBot, Sparkygary, Noctibus, Therese868, MystBot, Asbjbo, Airplaneman, Thatguyflint, HexaChord, Keagan1221,
Klundarr, Xp54321, Euterpe the Muse, Yagooblian, Dillonrigby, Peeeeedia, Lmbd uk, Willking1979, Jafeluv, Celery2011, Tcncv, Big-
boylovin22, Lithoderm, Friginator, OttRider, Williower, Psykin, 15lsoucy, Ronhjones, Fieldday-sunday, Mr. Wheely Guy, CanadianLin-
uxUser, J16ess, 4.0girl, NyashMak, Wikimaster201010, MrOllie, Wolverinetree, Mentisock, Download, Morning277, Ccacsmss, DFS454,
Reds29, Z. Patterson, Debresser, Puppydog1220, Numbo3-bot, Names of gods, Marijuanna, Doublenl, MaxiMage, Spencemac724, Tide
rolls, Mitchells90, Malwinder25, Krano, Teles, Tarheelz123, Zorrobot, Alain08, Cheesychick365, Quantumobserver, Borg2008, Tar-
tarus, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 2D, Themfromspace, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Fraggle81, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Medusalover, THEN WHO
WAS PHONE?, Dfrayne, IW.HG, Eric-Wester, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Killiondude, Taam, Piano non troppo, Xufanc, Ipatrol, Bythh,
Aditya, Kingpin13, Eleph23, RandomAct, Materialscientist, ImperatorExercitus, 98fan300, Doughnut1501, Majasety, Erkel23, Neurol-
ysis, Xqbot, Capricorn42, Gigemag76, TechBot, Lionboy-Renae, Mononomic, Acebulf, Tfts, Cobra2194, Starburstdomo, Inferno, Lord
of Penguins, Zeusperson, - ), Almabot, Dreamwalker936, J04n, GrouchoBot, Ultrabenboom3, Germanmxc, ProtectionTaggingBot, Om-
nipaedista, Frankie0607, Shirik, StarfireRulez123, RibotBOT, Amaury, Monicanto101, Sophus Bie, GhalyBot, Willchen298, Ticklemon-
ster55, Angi306077, Ophelia2, Erik9, Haploidavey, Griffinofwales, FrescoBot, Mamaberry11, Gemmologist, Danny 1873, Calamitas-92,
Recognizance, Mfwitten, Tlork Thunderhead, Guitarlordzx, Egmontbot, Kinoko123, Graplegi, Xxglennxx, Amplitude101, Phlyaristis,
Ilovesma, Dancecheer4ever, Plushiethemu, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, 123bobi, TU-nor, Blondesome, Padme22, Mayormaynot, Stor-
mander, Calmer Waters, A8UDI, RedBot, Pikiwyn, Wikitanvir, Ranielle86, Meaghan, Helios13, Jujutacular, Eanudimmud, VanessaMk,
Greco22, Jan11989, TheoloJ, Mono, Lotje, Sangjinhwa, Abie the Fish Peddler, Torres6880, Markerer, Looloo04, Suffusion of Yellow, Tb-
hotch, Derild4921, Keegscee, Courtneyownstheworld, Woogee, TjBot, Bento00, Idiot12345, Word changer101, Spongalicious, Jdeamer19,
Gabbyrox115, Lukestiller, Chrisfromnewdorp, Slon02, CalicoCatLover, LcawteHuggle, DASHBot, Superk1a, EmausBot, John of Read-
ing, Orphan Wiki, Alagos, Bluethegrappler, Iluvvamps16, Minimac’s Clone, Jacobsteiner, Tommy2010, Adiomfg123, Starryhue1023,
Wikipelli, MikeyMouse10, Malcolm77, JSquish, ZéroBot, MithrandirAgain, HeavyDWiita, Danslelovegame, Maypigeon of Liberty, Me-
leak100, Hereforhomework2, Alpha Quadrant, Hazard-SJ, Everard Proudfoot, Alexpinette, BleedingEffect, SporkBot, FinalRapture, Rap-
tureBot, Arubafirina, Aahaal4600, Karthikndr, Afrodita nz, Brandmeister, L Kensington, Philafrenzy, Aegoceras, Italy8a, Axosman,
RoseAphro, Mernellica, ChuispastonBot, Ajstov, EdoBot, Davey2010, Mjanja, Gilderien, SilentResident, Noym, Noh Chung, Phoebeache-
son, BG19bot, Keivan.f, AngBent, AvocatoBot, Lieutenant Waaxe, Marcocapelle, Gay4RKO, Bissonar, Franknam96, Haymouse, Torvalu4,
Dexbot, Caroline1981, Gre regiment, Cathry, The Editors United, Michael!, Melonkelon, Fumiko Take, Nemoswlewa, Chris troutman,
DavidLeighEllis, Mmay2, BadKittieKat76, Jackson Gumprecht, Respositob, MagicatthemovieS, Owain Knight, GrassHopHer, Mattym-
moo, Nathaniel360, Nilaerturk, Karl’s Wagon, Nyctimene, Lux ex Tenebris, Fastez, Skip2MyLulu, KasparBot, Mrclever2248, Bender the
Bot, Checks Facts, Here2help, Katolophyromai, 1a16, Markx121993 and Anonymous: 1519

10.2 Images
• File:Aphrodite_Anadyomene_from_Pompeii_cropped.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/
67/Aphrodite_Anadyomene_from_Pompeii_cropped.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: archive of Stephen Haynes:
http://www.shaynes.com/Photos/Italy_Spring_2004/CRW_8457.htm Original artist: unknown ancient Rome artist, photo of Stephen
Haynes
• File:Aphrodite_Heyl_(2).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Aphrodite_Heyl_%282%29.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Ophelia2 Original artist: Anonymous
• File:Aphrodite_fountain.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/22/Aphrodite_fountain.jpg License: PD Contribu-
tors:
Own work
Original artist:
Doctor_Doomsday (talk) (Uploads)
• File:Aphrodite_swan_BM_D2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Aphrodite_swan_BM_D2.jpg Li-
cense: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (2007) Original artist: English: Pistoxenos Painter
• File:Aphrodites_Rock.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Aphrodites_Rock.jpg License: CC BY-SA
2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Atuell_en_forma_d'Afrodita_en_una_petxina,_Àtica,_necròpolis_de_Fanagoria,_pinínsula_de_Taman._Primer_quart_
del_segle_IV_aC,_ceràmica.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Atuell_en_forma_d%27Afrodita_
en_una_petxina%2C_%C3%80tica%2C_necr%C3%B2polis_de_Fanagoria%2C_pin%C3%ADnsula_de_Taman._Primer_quart_del_
segle_IV_aC%2C_cer%C3%A0mica.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Joanbanjo
• File:Birth_of_Venus_detail.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Birth_of_Venus_detail.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/b/botticel/5allegor/32birth.jpg' data-x-
rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.
svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.
png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='60'
data-file-height='60' /></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/b/botticel/5allegor/32birth.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img
alt='Information icon.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_
icon.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.
svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/
40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='620' data-file-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Sandro Botticelli
• File:CallipygianVenus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1f/CallipygianVenus.jpg License: Public domain Con-
tributors:
http://www.niia.net/~{}alsman/venus.jpg Original artist: ?
• File:Cnidus_Aphrodite_Altemps_Inv8619.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Cnidus_Aphrodite_
Altemps_Inv8619.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (September 2009) Original artist: English: Copy of Prax-
iteles; restorer: Ippolito Buzzi (Italian, 1562–1634)
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
12 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Enrique_Simonet_-_El_Juicio_de_Paris_-_1904.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Enrique_

Simonet_-_El_Juicio_de_Paris_-_1904.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Webpage Image Original artist: Enrique Simonet
• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-
sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Greek_Roman_Laurel_wreath_vector.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Greek_Roman_
Laurel_wreath_vector.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Laurel_wreath_fa13.gif By Фёдор Таран (http://fa13.com) [Copyrighted free use],
via Wikimedia Commons Original artist: dalovar
• File:Laurel_wreath_fa13.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Laurel_wreath_fa13.gif License: Copy-
righted free use Contributors: http://fa13.com Original artist: Фёдор Таран
• File:Ludovisi_throne_Altemps_Inv8570.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Ludovisi_throne_
Altemps_Inv8570.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (September 2009) Original artist: ?
• File:Napoli_BW_2013-05-16_16-32-51_DxO.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Napoli_BW_
2013-05-16_16-32-51_DxO.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Berthold Werner
• File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
• File:Sandro_Botticelli_-_La_nascita_di_Venere_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Sandro_Botticelli_-_La_nascita_di_Venere_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Adjusted levels from File:Sandro Botticelli - La nascita di Venere - Google Art Project.jpg, originally from Google Art
Project. Compression Photoshop level 9. Original artist: Sandro Botticelli
• File:Speakerlink-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Speakerlink-new.svg License: CC0 Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist: Kelvinsong
• File:Statuette_Goddess_Louvre_AO20127.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Statuette_Goddess_
Louvre_AO20127.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Marie-Lan Nguyen
• File:The_Birth_of_Venus_by_William-Adolphe_Bouguereau_(1879).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/f/f9/The_Birth_of_Venus_by_William-Adolphe_Bouguereau_%281879%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
musee-orsay Original artist: William-Adolphe Bouguereau
• File:Titian_(Tiziano_Vecellio)_(Italian_-_Venus_and_Adonis_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/4/45/Titian_%28Tiziano_Vecellio%29_%28Italian_-_Venus_and_Adonis_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: 6wFX9LAwK-a-RQ at Google Cultural Institute maximum zoom level Original artist: Titian
• File:Turtle_Aphrodite_AO20126_mp3h9188.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Turtle_Aphrodite_
AO20126_mp3h9188.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 fr Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rama
• File:Venere_di_Milo_02.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Venere_di_Milo_02.JPG License: CC
BY 2.5 Contributors: sailko (Own work (my camera)) Original artist: ?
• File:Venus_pudica_Massimo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Venus_pudica_Massimo.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2006) Original artist: English: Menophantos (signed)
• File:Venus_redon.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Venus_redon.jpeg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: www.the-athenaeum.org Original artist: Odilon Redon
• File:Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg License: CC BY-
SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dan Polansky based on work currently attributed to Wikimedia Foundation but originally
created by Smurrayinchester

10.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0