NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY CALICUT

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS
LABORATORY MANUAL-II

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

APRIL 2019

1
 CYCLE OF EXPERIMENTS (4th Semester)

Sl. Experiment Page

No No.

1. DETERMINATION OF B-H, µr – H AND µr – B CURVES OF AN IRON RING 3

SPECIMEN AND DETERMINATION OF THE B-H CURVE ON CRO.
2. CALIBRATION OF MAGNETIC FLUX METER 7

3. WHEATSTONE BRIDGE AND KELVIN’S DOUBLE BRIDGE 12

4. EXTENSION OF WATTMETER RANGE USING A CURRENT TRANSFORMER AND A 17

POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER.
5. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF AMMETER OR VOLTMETER AND CALIBRATION OF 20
EXTENDED METERS USING STANDARD METERS
6. LLOYD FISCHER SQUARE 24

7. CALIBRATION OF SINGLE PHASE ENERGY METER BY DIRECT LOADING AND 26

PHANTOM LOADING AT VARIOUS POWER FACTORS

8. CALIBRATION OF THREE PHASE ENERGY METER USING STANDARD WATTMETER 29

9. DETERMINATION OF HYSTERESIS LOOP OF AN IRON RING SPECIMEN USING SIX 31

POINT METHOD
10. PHOTOMETRY 33

11. MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITANCE AND INDUCTANCE USING AC BRIDGES 37

12. CALIBRATION OF PMMC TYPE AMMETER AND DYNAMOMETER TYPE

WATTMETER USING DC VERNIER POTENTIOMETER

2
 Exp No: 1
Date:………….

DETERMINATION OF B-H, µr – H AND µr – B CURVES OF AN IRON RING

SPECIMEN AND DETERMINATION OF THE B-H CURVE ON CRO

AIM

1. To obtain the B-H µr – H AND µr – B CURVES OF AN IRON RING SPECIMEN by

method of reversals
2. To obtain THE B-H CURVE ON CRO

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Sl. Name Rating Quantity
No
1 Ammeter (0-2A) PMMC 1

2 Rheostat 300Ω.1.7A 1
50Ω.5A 1
3 Fuse 2A, 2
5A 1
4 DPST 1

5 Iron ring 1

6 Transformer 230V, 5A,1Ф 1

7 Autotransformer 220V/30V 1

8 Resistance box 1

9 Capacitor 2µF 1

10 CRO 1

11 Flux meter 1

THEORY

Magnetic hysteresis may be defined as the lagging of magnetization or induced flux density
(B) behind the magnetizing force (H). Alternatively it may be defined as that quantity of a
magnetic substance due to which energy is dissipated in it at the reversal of its magnetism.
From the B-H curve of a magnetic material it can be seen that B always lags behind H.
Furthermore, the area of the hysteresis loops gives the net energy dissipated in taking the
magnetic material from through one cycle of magnetization. Now if the magnetic material has
to be magnetized again, it will trace the same hysteresis loop. In fact, when H is varied a
number of times the size of loop become smaller until the material is cyclically magnetized.

3
Measurement of flux density in ring specimen

Determination of B-H curve on CRO

4
PROCEDURE

1. Demagnetize the iron ring specimen

2. Bring the specimen to a re-producible cyclic magnetic state before each observation
by throwing the reverse switch backward and forward about 20 times with the flux
meter key „s‟ closed.
3. Key „s‟ is now opened and the value of flux corresponding to the value of H is
measured by reversing the switch Sr.
4. The value of flux density corresponding to the value of H can be calculated by
dividing the flux by area of the specimen.
5. Observation has to be made upto the maximum value of current.
6. Plot the following curves
a. B-H
b. µr – H
c. µr – B
Determination of the B-H curve on CRO
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig 2
2. Chose the proper value R & C such that it acts as an integrator.
3. Adjust the X and Y of the oscilloscope and obtain the B-H curve.
4. Trace the shape of B-H curve on tracing sheet.
5. Trace it for different voltages and determine the Steinmetz index.
INFERENCE
1. Since the iron ring specimen is a ferromagnetic material its relative permittivity is
very high.
2. The magnetic field intensity (B) first increases with the magnetizing force(H) and
then saturates to a fixed value.
POST EXPERIMENTAL QUESTIONS
1. What is the significance of B-H curve?
2. What is permeability of a material?
3. What do you mean by end effects?
4. What is the advantage of using iron ring specimen over bar specimen?
5. How do you determine the flux density?
6. What do you mean by hysteresis? Explain retentivity and coercivity?

5
 Diameter of the ring =
Diameter of the iron ring specimen=
Length of the ring=
Sl. Magnetic Flux meter reading NΔФ Ф= H= B=Ф/ B0 μr
No current initial final Range NΔФ/Ns Np I/l A = =
(I) (N) (wb) μ0 B/
H B0

RESULT
1. The B-H µr – H and µr – B curves were determined for given iron ring specimen.
2. The B-H curve is obtained on CRO

6
 Exp No: 2
Date:………….

CALIBRATION OF MAGNETIC FLUXMETER USING STANDARD AIR CORE,

SEARCH COIL AND HIBBERT’S MAGNETIC STANDARD

AIM:

Calibrate the magnetic flowmeter using standard air core, search coil and Hibbert‟s magnetic
standard.

APPARATUS:

Equipment‟s Specifications Quantity

Ammeter PMMC(0-10) 1

Rheostat 15 ohm,10A 1

Fuse 10A 2

Iron ring 1

Hibbert‟s magnetic standard 1

Air cored solenoid 1

Reversing switch 1

Switch 1

Flux meter 1

Dc supply 1

PROCEDURE:

a) Calibration of flux meter using standard air core, search coil:

1. For different values of current, find out the values of H and B for the
standard air core solenoid.
And B=

Where, H: magnetic flux intensity

B: magnetic flux density
N: no. of turns in the search coil
2. Observe the deflection on the flux meter when the current is reversed.

7
 3. By knowing the No .of turns of the search coil, the true value of the flux
density can be found out.
4. Calculate error and correction.

b) Calibration of flux meter using Hibbert’s magnetic standard:

1. Connect the flux meter across the coil of the Hibbert‟s magnetic standard.

2. Observe the deflection on the flux meter when the coil of the Hibbert‟s
magnetic standard falls down in magnetic field.
3. Calculate the error and correction.

8
 OBSERAVTION TABLE:IRON RING

FLUXMETER READIN I(A) H(AT/m MEASURED B(T)*1 (wb) %

) FLUX( = 0^-3 BA*1 ERR
I/l N∆ / *10^-5 H 0^-5 OR

INITI FINAL DIFFERE

AL NCE

9
AIR CORED SOLENOID OBSERAVTION TABLE:

FLUXMETER READIN I(A) H(AT/m MEASURED B(T)*1 (wb) %

) FLUX( =N∆ 0^-3 BA*1 ERR
I/l / *10^-5 H 0^-5 OR

INITI FINAL DIFFERE

AL NCE

OBSERAVTION TABLE: HIBBERT’S STANDARAD

NO.OF TRUE FLUXMETER READIN (wb) %

TURNS VALUE BA*10^-5 ERR
OF OR
FLUX(wb)
INITIAL FINAL DIFFEREN
CE

10
INFERENCE:

Experimental readings shows deviation from the true values contributing to errors.
These errors may be due to instrumental errors and parallax errors. From the graphs,
we see that the calibration curves are plotted as piecewise linear curves.

RESULT:

Hence magnetic flux meter is calibrated using standard air core, search coil
and Hibbert‟s magnetic standard. The calibration curves are plotted on the graph
using measured flux on X-axis and percentage error on Y-axis and variations are
observed.

11
 Exp No:3
Date:………….

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE AND KELVIN’S DOUBLE BRIDGE

AIM: a) To measure the value of given unknown medium resistance using the Wheatstone
bridge.

b) To measure the value of given unknown low resistance using Kelvin‟s double
bridge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO. NAME SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

1. Ammeter (0-10)mA PMMC 1

2. Wheatstone bridge 1

3. Kelvin‟s double bridge 1

4. Galvanometer 1

5. Voltmeter (0-6)V PMMC 1

6. Wire wound rheostats 15Ω, 10A 1

THEORY: The Wheatstone bridge is an instrument for making comparisons and finding an
unknown resistance by operating upon a null deflection principle. This means deflection is
independent of the calibration of the null indicating instrument or any of its characteristics.
For this reason very high degree of accuracy can be achieved using Wheatstone bridge. It has
four resistance arms, having resistances P, Q, R and S with a source e.m.f. and a null detector,
usually a galvanometer. The bridge is said to be balanced when there is no current through
the galvanometer. At balanced condition P/Q=R/S

i.e. R= PS/Q

S= standard arm P, Q= ratio arm R= unknown resistive arm

12
The Kelvin‟s double bridge is a modification of the Wheatstone bridge and provides
increased accuracy in measurement of low value resistances. It incorporates the idea of a
second set of ratio arms, hence the name double bridge. When the ratio P/Q =p/q;

R= (PS/Q) + (p*r/p+q+r) [P/Q – p/q] becomes R=P*S/Q.

Figure: Wheatstone bridge

Figure: Kelvin Double Bridge

13
Observation table:

Wheatstone bridge

Multiplier (P/Q) Value of S (Ω) Value of X (Ω) Mean value of X (Ω)

Kelvin Double Bridge

P/Q S (Ω) X (Ω) Mean X (Ω)

14
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the unknown resistance across the terminal line.

2. Connect an ammeter in series with the Wheatstone bridge. A (0-10) mA PMMC
ammeter is connected in series with the galvanometer with a short circuiting switch.
3. Measure the resistance of the following 50Ω and 100Ω rheostats and verifying the
value of Ig using the following formula;

Ig =

Where,
Ig = the out of balance current in amps.
V = voltage applied to the circuit.
n = Q/P= S/R at balance
4. Study the Kelvin‟s double bridge. Note down the connection diagram given on the
cover of the equipment. Measure the different types of low resistances i.e. (a)
Standard 4 terminal low resistance specimen, (b) Domestic wiring cable.

POST EXPERIMENTAL REPORT

1. What is the reason for four terminals in a standard resistance?

Ans. Kelvin‟s double bridge may be used for precision measurement of four
terminals low resistance. It has two current reading and the potential terminals
across which resistance equals the marked resistance nominal value. This is
because the current must enter and leave the resister in the fashion that there is
some distribution of current density between particular equipotential surfaces used
to define the resistance.
2. What are the sources of error in measuring low resistance?
Ans. While measuring low resistance the resistance of wires also comes into
account as their resistances reach the same order as low resistance rheostat which
leads to increasing level of error while doing the experiment.
3. Why are bridge methods of measurement preferred to deflection method of
measurement?

15
 Ans. Bridge methods gives accurate measurements. It usually makes reading at
null condition when the internal parameter have very little offered as the
measurement.
4. If you are asked to measure the resistance of a coil of wire in house wiring
which one will you choose and why?
Ans. Kelvin‟s double bridge should be used since the resistance of coil wires is
very low. Other methods will give inaccurate readings due to comparable contact
resistance.

INFERENCE
Wheatstone bridge cannot measure low resistance with accuracy. So, Kelvin‟s
double bridge is used.

RESULT
The value of the medium resistance measured by Wheatstone bridge is…………Ω
The value of low resistance measured by the Kelvin‟s double bridge is………... Ω

16
 Exp No:4
Date:………….

EXTENSION OF WATTMETER RANGE USING A CURRENT

TRANSFORMER AND A POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER
AIM:
To extend the range of a 5A, 125V wattmeter to measure up to 10A, 250V by the use of a
current transformer and a potential transformer and calibrate the same wattmeter using a
standard 10a, 250V wattmeter.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.no Name of apparatus Specifications Quantity
1 Current transformer 10/5A 1
2 Potential transformer 230/115V 1
3 Wattmeter 5A/125V, LPF 1
5A/125V, UPF 1
10A/250V, LPF 1
10A/250V, UPF 1
4 Rheostat 500Ω, 1.7A 1
5 Ammeter (0-10)A, MI 1
6 Voltmeter (0-300)V,MI 1
7 Power supply AC, 1phase, 230V, 50hz 1

THEORY:
Current transformer and potential transformer are used to measure high currents and high
voltages respectively at power stations and transmission lines. They can be used to extend a
wattmeter range also. Let a current transformer has a nominal ratio of and a PT has a
nominal ratio of .

= and =

Now the reading of the wattmeter .

The correct reading

PROCEDURE:
1. Use suitable current and potential transformers such that the given 5A, 125V
wattmeter is able to measure up to 10A, 250V.
2. Calibrate the wattmeter whose range has been extended using a standard wattmeter
rating 10A, 250V for resistive loads.

17
3. Repeat the second step for inductive load.
4. Plot the graph of the extended reading versus correction percentage for resistive load
and inductive load.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

POST EXPERIMENTAL QUESTIONS:

1. What are the disadvantages of shunts?
Ans. The disadvantages of shunts are:
a. It is difficult to achieve accuracy with a shunt on AC, since the division of current
between a meter and shunt depends upon the ratio of reactance to resistance of two
paths. For proper measurements, the time constants of meter and shunt should be the
same. Therefore, a separate shunt would be needed for each instrument. Also since the
measurements are made over a wide range of frequency, it becomes difficult to obtain
good accuracy with shunts.
b. The method of using shunts is limited to capacities of a few hundreds of ampere. At
most, since the power consumed by shunts at large currents would be considerably
large.
c. The problem of emulation of the instrument and shunt is difficult if measurements are
done at high voltages of several hundred thousands of volts above ground.
d. The measuring circuit is not isolated electrically from the power circuit.

2. Why the secondary windings of CT is short circuited?

Ans. Since a CT is used to measure currents at the secondary winding, the secondary
windings are short circuited. It provides accuracy since there is no current alteration
due to the circuit resistance.

18
3. What are the special features incorporated in an electro dynamometer wattmeter to
make it a low power factor type of wattmeter?
Ans:
a. Pressure coil current: The pressure coil circuit is designed to have a low value of
resistance so that the current flowing through it is increased to give an increased
operating torque.
b. Compensation for pressure coil current: The power being measured in a low
power factor circuit is small and current is high. We can use compensating coils
which can be connected in series with the pressure coil circuit and is made as
nearly as possible identical and coincident with the current coil. It is so connected
that it opposes the field of the current coil.
c. Compensation for inductance of pressure coils: The error is Now
with LPF the value of Φ is large and therefore the error is correspondingly large.
Therefore, in a LPF wattmeter we must compensate for the error caused by the
inductance of pressure coil.
d. Small control torque: LPF wattmeter are designed with a small control torque
arrangement. So that they give full scale deflection for power factor as low.

4. Explain true power, reactive power, apparent power and power factor?
Ans:
a. True power: It is that power which is due to the voltage and current that are in phase.

Φ is the phase angle between voltage and current.

b. Reactive power: It is the power that is continuously back and forth between the source
and load.

c. Apparent power: It is the product of voltage and current. It is also called the total
power.

d. Power factor: cosΦ

5. What are the instrumental transformers? How do they differ from power
transformers?
Instrument transformers are used in conjunction with measuring instruments for
measuring high currents and high voltages where the measuring circuit is emulated with
the power circuit. In construction of instrument transformers emphasis is given more to
accuracy than to efficiency as in power transformers. In this sense the effect of secondary
burden is reduced considerably in instrument transformers.
6. You are supplied with a wattmeter, the current coil of which can take a maximum
current of 5A and whose voltage coil can take a maximum voltage of 150V. you are
required to measure the total power of 10Kw in a 250V single phase supply at 0.8 pf.
What additional equipment you need? Connect them in proper circuit and find out the
multiplying factor which has to be used?

19
 Total power= 10Kw
True power= 10Kw*0.8= 8Kw

Current =

Therefore a CT of nominal ratio ⁄ and a PT of nominal ratio ⁄ should be

used.

Multiplying factor =

7. Explain the operation of analog wattmeter?

Most of analog wattmeter are electro dynamometer type. It has a fixed coil called
current coil and moving coil called pressure coil. The control torque is usually
provided by spring control.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.no Wattmeter Corrected Standard %
reading ( wattmeter wattmeter correction
in watts reading reading
* 100
( in watts ( in
watts
Resistive 1
load 2
3
4
5

Inductive 1
load 2
3
4
5

RESULT:

INFERENCE:

20
 Exp No: 5
Date:………….

EXTENSION OF RANGE OF AMMETER OR VOLTMETER AND CALIBRATION

OF EXTENDED METERS USING STANDARD METERS
I. Aim:
To extend the range of (0-30) V voltmeter to measure voltage up to 150 V and calibrate the
same thing using a standard (0-150) V voltmeter.

Apparatus required:
1. Rheostat 500 Ω, 1.2 A 1
2. Voltmeter (0-150) V PMMC, (0-30) V PMMC 1
3. Decade Resistance Box 1
4. DC Source (0-220) V 1
5. DPST switch 1
6. Fuse 1

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
 Calculate the value of resistance to be set in the decade resistance box so that the
given (0-30) V voltmeter can be used to measure voltage up to 150 V.
 Verify result experimentally.
 Calibrate the voltmeter whose range has been extended using a standard (0-150) V
voltmeter.
 Plot the graph with extended reading on X-axis and (a) actual reading (b) %
correction on Y-axis.

21
 II. Aim:
Conversion of (0-20) mA ammeter into voltmeter to measure voltage up to 150 V and
calibrate the same thing using a standard (0-150) V voltmeter.

Apparatus required:
1. Rheostat 500 Ω, 1.2 A 1
2. Voltmeter (0-150) V PMMC 1
3. Ammeter (0-10) mA PMMC 1
4. Decade Resistance Box 1
5. DC Source (0-220) V 1
6. DPST switch 1
7. Fuse 1

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
 Calculate the value of resistance to be set in the decade resistance box so that the
given milliammeter can be used to measure voltage up to 150 V.
 Verify result experimentally.
 Calibrate the milliammeter converted to voltmeter using a standard (0-150) V
voltmeter.
 Plot the graph with extended reading on X-axis and (a) actual reading (b) %
correction on Y-axis.
 All the points are to be connected by straight lines.
Post -experimental report:
1. Explain absolute instruments.
2. Explain the use of shunt as a device for extending the range of ammeter.

22
 3. An MC ammeter has a full scale deflection of 50 µA and a coil resistance of 100 Ω.
What will be the value of shunt resistance required for the instrument to be converted
to read full scale reading of 1 A?
4. A moving coil ammeter gives full scale deflection with 15 mA and has a resistance of
5 Ω. Calculate the resistance to be connected in
(a) Parallel to the instrument to read up to 1 A.
(b) Series to enable it to read up to 10 V.
5. Explain secondary instrument.
6. What is hot-wire ammeter?
7. What is moving coil galvanometer?

Observation Table
Extension of (0-30) V voltmeter to read up to (0-150) V:
(0-30) V Extended Actual Voltmeter % Error % Correction
Voltmeter Reading Reading (V)
Voltmeter Reading(V) (V)

Conversion of (0-20) mA Ammeter to (0-150) V Voltmeter:

(0-20) mA Extended Actual Voltmeter % Error % Correction
Voltmeter Reading Reading (V)
Ammeter Reading (V)
(mA)

Result:
Extension of range of voltmeter and conversion of ammeter into voltmeter using standard
voltmeter was performed.

23
 Exp No:6
Date:………….
LLOYD FISCHER SQUARE

Aim:

To setup a circuit to determine the iron loss/kg of the given steel at various values of
minimum flux densities

Apparatus required: Specifications

Quantity

1. Ammeter (0-15) A, MI 1
2. Voltmeter (0-60) V, MI 1
3. Rheostat 15 Ω/ 10 A 1
4. Wattmeter 125 V/ 5 A, UPF 1
5. Auto transformer 230 V / 15 A 1
6. Lloyd fischer square 1

Procedure:

 Setup a Lloyd fischer square circuit as in the circuit diagram

 The auto transformer is varied
 The current in the core varies accordingly
 The ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter readings are observed and noted down
 Thus iron loss at various flux densities can be determined
 The specifications of the iron core are noted
 The iron loss/kg can be evaluated

Post -experimental report:

1. What are the uses of magnetic squares and what are they? What are the different
arrangements of stamping‟s in such squares? Explain with the help of neat sketches?
2. What are the loss curves?
3. Describe briefly, how the eddy current and hysteresis losses are separated in a sample
of magnetic material?
4. What is the use of allowance of corner pieces in Lloyd fischer square unlike Epstein
square?
5. In this experiment why do you connect current coil of the wattmeter on primary
winding and pressure coil on secondary winding?

24
Tabular column

SI Ammeter Voltmeter Wattmeter E(V) Iron Iron

no readings(A) readings(V) readings(w) losses loss/kg
(

Circuit Diagram:

A
260T 80T
(0-15)A

160T V (0-60)V

15 Ω /10A

M C

125 V/5 A LPF Dynamo

meter Type
V
Wattmeter
L

P
15 A
230 V,50 Hz, Single phase

230 V/15 A
AC supply

DPST
Auto transformer

N 15 A

Result:

Iron loss/kg of the given iron specimen/steel stampings at various values of maximum flux
densities were obtained and tabulated. Graph between iron loss/kg Vs maximum flux
densities were plotted

25
 Exp No: 7
Date:………….

CALIBRATION OF SINGLE PHASE ENERGY METER BY DIRECT

LOADING AND PHANTOM LOADING AT VARIOUS POWER
FACTORS
Aim:

1. To calibrate the given single phase energy meter using standard wattmeter by direct
loading.
Apparatus required:

Quantity Specifications

1 Ammeter (0-5) A, MI 1
2 Voltmeter (0-250) V, MI 1
3 Single phase variable resistance load 15 Ω/ 5 A 1
4 Wattmeter 250 V/ 5 A, UPF 1
5 Single phase Auto transformer 270 V / 15 A 1
6 Three phase Auto transformer 1
7 Stop watch 1

Principle

In order to check the calibration of a single phase energy meter, the reading of the energy
meter is compared with that of a standard instrument. For determining the true energy
consumption, a standard wattmeter and an accurate stopwatch is used. From the calculated
true power, the error and the percentage error in the energy meter reading is determined. In
direct loading, the current coils of the energy meter and wattmeter are connected to a single
phase supply in series with the loading device (say rheostat) whereas the pressure coils are
connected directly to the supply. The loading device is adjusted to get the required current.
Then the energy consumption is determined by observing the time for a fixed number (say N)
of revolutions. The true energy is calculated from the wattmeter reading and the time
indicated by the stopwatch.

26
 Fig. Direct loading

Procedure

The connections are done as shown in the circuit diagram. Adjust the auto transformer to
minimum position. Supply is switched on and rated voltage (specified on energy meter) is
applied by varying autotransformer. Remove the loads completely (i.e. keep the loading
rheostat in maximum resistance position or if you are using single phase resistive load then
switch off all the loads in it). Now see if the disc is rotating without any load, if it is rotating
then it is having creeping error. Note down the time taken for 1 revolution. The current is
varied using loading rheostat till the rated current (specified on energy meter) step by step.
The ammeter reading, voltmeter reading, wattmeter reading and time for 5 revolutions of
energy meter disc are noted in each step. Remove all the loads step by step. Adjust the auto
transformer to minimum position and switch off supply. Plot the graph with indicated power
on X-axis and (a) true power (b) % correction on Y-axis.

DIRECT LOADING

Power Voltmeter Ammeter Wattmeter Time for 5 Indicated % Error % Correction

revolutions
factor Reading Reading Reading Power *100 = - % Error
(V) W1 (W) t (Sec) W2 (W)
(A)

Unity

27
*W1-Actual power (Wattmeter), W2-Indicated power (Energy meter)

Note:

Meter Constant of energy meter (MC) =

kWh =

Power in watts (W) = = =

2. To calibrate the given single phase energy meter using standard wattmeter by
phantom loading without using phase shifting transformer

Fig. 1 Circuit diagram for UPF

Fig. 2 Circuit diagram for 0.5 lag/lead

28
Principle

When a energy meter is designed for high current loads, it is uneconomical to arrange such
loads for testing purposes as it involves a considerable waste of time and power. To avoid
this problem "phantom” loading is done. In phantom loading, pressure coil is excited from
normal supply voltage and current coil is excited from a separate low voltage supply. The low
impedance of current coil circuit makes it possible to circulate the required current even with
low supply voltage.

Procedure

(i) Unity Power Factor:

For testing energy meter at UPF condition connections are done as shown in fig 1. Keep the
autotransformer position in minimum and loading rheostat position in maximum. Supply is
given and apply rated voltage (mentioned on energy meter) across pressure coil of energy
meter and wattmeter. Current in the current coil of the circuit is adjusted by varying auto
transformer. First adjust auto transformer to low value of current (say 1A) and increase the
current to rated current (mentioned on energy meter) (say up to 5A). The voltmeter, ammeter,
wattmeter and time for 5 revolutions of energy meter are noted for various load currents.

(ii) 0.5 lagging / 0.5 leading Power Factor:

Note: For this connection, you should not use same three phase autotransformer for both
current coil and pressure coil.

For a power factor of 0.5, connections are made as shown in figure 2. Keep the
autotransformer position in minimum. The current coil of wattmeter and energy meter is
connected in series to R-phase and pressure coil to Y-phase for lag and B-phase for lead.
Switch on the supply and apply rated voltage (mentioned on energy meter) across pressure
coil of energy meter and wattmeter. If the wattmeter reads negative the pressure coil
connections are interchanged. Current in the current coil of the circuit is adjusted by varying
auto transformer. First adjust auto transformer to low value of current (say 1A) and increase
the current to rated current (mentioned on energy meter) (say up to 5A). The voltmeter,
ammeter, wattmeter and time for 5 revolutions of energy meter are noted for various loads
current. Plot indicated power vs actual power. Also plot the indicated power vs % correction.

29
 PHANTOM LOADING

Power Voltmeter Ammeter Wattmeter Time for 5 Indicated % Error % Correction

revolutions
factor Reading Reading Reading- Power- *100 = - % Error
W1 (W) (Sec) W2 (W)
(V) (A)

Unity

0.5

lag

0.5

lead

*W1-Actual power (Wattmeter), W2-Indicated power (Energy meter)

PRE-EXPERIMENT QUIZ

a. Aluminium is preferred to copper in making the rotating disc in energy meter. Why?
b. What is the purpose of providing copper shading bands on the central limb of the core
on which the pressure coil is wound in induction type energy meters?
c. What do you mean by inductive load adjustment? What are the methods to do this?
Briefly explain.
d. What is meant by „creeping‟ in energy meters? How is it avoided?
e. What do you mean by „phantom‟ loading and why is it resorted to?
f. Draw a neat phasor diagram to suit this loading situation in your experiment?
Answer the following Questions:

1. Is it possible to reverse the direction of rotation of the disc in energy meter? If yes, how
?
2. If the induction type energy meter runs fast, what is to be done to slow it down?
3. After conducting this experiment, will you be able to check whether the energy meter in
your house is reading correctly, you can use only a stop watch and no additional meters
can be connected (at least approximately).
4. Is it possible to calibrate the energy meter at 0.5 lead and lag? If yes, how?
5. Even in phantom loading, a resistance is connected in series with the current coil. Is it
necessary for the conduct of the experiment?
Result:

30
 Exp No: 8

Date:………….

CALIBRATION OF THREE PHASE ENERGY METER USING

STANDARD WATTMETER
Aim: To calibrate the given three phase energy meter using standard wattmeter.

Apparatus required:

Quantity Specifications

1. Ammeter (0-5) A, MI 1
2. Voltmeter (0-500) V, MI 1
3. Three phase variable resistance load 15 Ω/ 10 A 1
4. Dynamometer type Wattmeter UPF 2
5. Stop watch Digital 1
6. Three phase energy meter Induction 1

Procedure:

1. Choose a three phase energy meter, note down its rating and choose apparatus
accordingly.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
3. Initially keep the three phase autotransformer at the minimum potential position and
turn off all the loads in three phase variable resistance load.
4. Switch on the supply and gradually increase the supply by varying three phase
autotransformer till voltmeter reads rated voltage (specified on the three phase energy
meter).

31
 5. Now see the disc, if it is rotating without turning on any load then it is having
creeping error. Note down the time taken for 1 revolution.
6. Gradually increase the load in steps up to the rated current (indicated on the three
phase energy meter) and note down the readings of voltmeter, ammeter, wattmeters,
and time taken for 5 revolutions in each step.
7. Switch off all the loads in three phase variable resistance load, bring back the three
phase autotransformer to its minimum potential position, and switch off the supply.
8. Convert the energy meter reading into indicated power in watts and plot indicated
power vs true power. Also plot the indicated reading in watts Vs % error.

Observation Table

P Voltmeter Ammeter Wattmeter Wattmeter True power Time for 5 Indicated % Error
F WT =W1 + W2 revolutions
Reading Reading Reading Reading Power *100
(V) (W) t (Sec)
(A) W1 (W) W2 (W) WI (W)

U
N
I
T
Y

Note:

Meter Constant of energy meter (MC) =

kWh =

Power in watts (W) = = =

PRE EXPERIMENTAL QUIZ

1. How is compensation for static friction provided in induction type energy meters?

2. What do you mean by 'phantom' loading and why is it resorted to?

32
3. Explain the necessity and principle of creep test at higher voltage?

4. Explain clearly the adjustments to be made on a multi element meter used on three phase
energy circuit?

4. Draw a neat phasor diagram to suit this loading situation.

POST EXPERIMENTAL QUIZ

1. Is it necessary that the meter disc should rotate in normal direction for energy to be
recorded correctly?

2. In many houses, three phase supply is provided even though there are no three phase loads
in use. Why?

3. When three phase supply is used in a domestic circuit, is it better to use three single phase
energy meter instead of a three phase energy meter?

4. Is it possible to calibrate the energy meter at 0.866 lag and 0.866 lead. If yes, how?

5. Study the various types of error adjustments provided in the given three phase energy
meter.

Results

33
 Exp No: 9
Date:………….

DETERMINATION OF HYSTERESIS LOOP OF AN IRON RING

SPECIMEN USING SIX POINT METHOD
Aim:
To obtain the hysteresis loop of a given iron ring specimen by six point method.

Apparatus required:
1. Iron ring specimen
2. Ammeter
3. Rheostat
4. DPST Switch
5. Fluxmeter
6. DC source
7. Fuse

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
 Make connections as shown in the figure.
 Demagnetise the iron specimen.
 The flux meter is reset and a current is passed through a coil . The fluxmeter reading
is noted and current is changed to i2 in the same direction.

34
  After fluxmeter is reset after a series of demagnetising method of opening and
reversing DPST switch,the current is taken through following series without any
fluxmeter resetting in between fluxmeter reading is noted down
0-1A,1-2A,2-1A,1-0A,0 to -1A, ,-1 to -2A, ,-2 to -1A, ,-1 to 0A, 0-1A,1-2A.
 The change in the fluxmeter reading is noted down ,plotted and hysteresis curve is
then obtained by suitable adjustments.

Pre-experimental report:
1. List different types of a flux meter, which type of flux meter are you using in the
laboratory?
2. How will you extend the range of a flux meter?
3. What is linkage factor?
4. What is a magnetic potentiometer?
5. What is permeameter, what is its importance?
6. Discuss how a flux meter is differ from a moving coil ammeter or galvanometer?
7. What is the importance of the area under hysteresis loop?

Post -experimental report:

1. What measures are used to reduce hysteresis losses in rotating electrical machines and
transformers?
2. One of the use of reactors is in devices like magnetic amplifiers which use the
property of abrupt saturation at a flux density above a threshold .These are called
saturable reactors or transducers. What type of hysteresis loops is useful for such
devices?
3. What are the desirable properties of materials used in permanent magnets and
temporary magnets ?

Tabular column
Sl no. Current Flux meter reading H Φ B

(A) Initial Final Difference (AT/m) (Wb) (Wb/m2)

Result:

35
The hysteresis loop of given iron specimen was determined by six point method and
hysteresis loop was plotted .The total energy loss due to hysteresis is ………J

36
 Exp No:10
Date:………….

PHOTOMETRY
Aim:

i. To determine the candle power of a given test lamp to various operating voltage up to
230V, using photometric bench.
ii. To determine the polar curves of the candle power distribution in a horizontal plane
passing through the lamp source operating at a voltage of 230V and hence the
determination of MHCP of lamp.
iii. To determine the MSCP of the given test lamp of 230V using Rousseau‟s
construction and hence calibrate the given integrating sphere.

Apparatus Required:

Apparatus Specifications Quantity

Test lamp 250V,40W 1

Standard lamp 250V,40W 1

wattmeter (0-250)V 1

Auto transformer (0-230)V,5A,1phase 1

AC power supply 230V,50Hz,1 phase 1

DPST switch 1

Fuse 5A 1

Procedure:

To determine the candle power of the test lamp

1. Two lamps (standard and test) are placed at some distance apart with photometric
head in between them.
2. “S” is standard lamp whose intensity is known and T is the test lamp whose intensity
is to be measured.
3. Photometric head is moved between the lamps till the illumination on the both the
sides is equal.
4. Distances are noted from the photometric bench.
5. For different values of applied voltage null power is measured.

37
To determine MHCP and polar curve:

1. This may be determined for a given source by turning it about a vertical axis and
measuring intensity in the direction of the line joining the source under test and
standard source.
2. The readings are taken after 10 to 15 rotations
3. MHCP may be obtained by plotting intensity against roatation on rectangular axis
4. Mean ordinate of the curve given the value of MHCP gives the value to MSCP.

Post Experimental Work:

Q1.what are the compact fluorescent lamps and their advantages?

Q2.What are the laws of illumination required on

a) Factory floors
b) Rooms
c) Street lighting

Q3.How do you select light fittings and lamp shaders in domestic lighting? What are the
criteria used?

Q4.On what all factors does illumination from a given lamp depends?

Q5.Define luminous intensity, luminous and candle power?

Q6.What is MHCP, MSCP?

Q7. State and explain laws of illumination?

Q8.Explain lumen Brodhum Photometer head?

Q9.Define point source, line source, extended source, and solid angle point?

Q10.What is integrating sphere?

Circuit Diagram:

38
[1] To determine candle power of test lamp

Sl.no Applied Distance of photometer head Candle

power I2
voltage Test lamp(cm)r2 Standard lamp(cm)r1

[2] To determine MHCP and MSCP

Sl.no Angle of Distance of photometer head Candle

rotation power I2
Test lamp(cm)r2 Standard lamp(cm)r1

Result

39
 Exp No: 11 A
Date:………….

MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITANCE USING SCHERING BRIDGE

AIM

To measure the value of unknown capacitance using Schering bridge and dissipation
factor

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Sl. Name Specification Quantity

No

1 Decade condenser box 2

2 Rheostat 200 Ω, 1.7 A 2

3 Function Generator 1

4 Galvanometer 1

5 Multimeter 1

THEORY

Schering bridge are most popular used these days in industries for measurement of
capacitance, dissipation factor and loss angles.

Under balanced condition

) =( )( )

j/ =( )( )

40
 j/ )( j/ )= )( j/ )

(- / )-( )= / )-

By equating real and imaginary parts on both sides we get

41
PROCEDURE

1. Set up the circuit as shown in figure

2. and are unknown resistance and capacitance
= standard capacitance which is loss free

=non inductance resistance

3. Find the value of , and to get the values of

4. Adjust the unknown capacitance to get the minimum deflection in CRO and
accordingly vary
5. Note down and values and calculate and
6. These errors are due to error in unknown capacitance and resistance

INFERENCE

Error in the resistor and capacitor values may be because of the resistance of standard
capacitor used.

POST EXPERIMENTAL QUESTIONS

1. What do you understand by the quality factor of the capacitor

2. Discuss the use of wagners earthing arrangement in connection with AC bridge

RESULT

The value of unknown capacitance has been measured using Schering Bridge

42
 Exp No: 11 B
Date:………….

MEASUREMENT OF INDUCTANCE USING MAXWELL’S BRIDGE

AIM

To measure the value of unknown inductance using Maxwell‟s capacitance bridge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Sl. Name Specification Quantity

No

1 Decade condenser box 1

2 Rheostat 3

3 Function Generator 1

4 Galvanometer 1

5 Multimeter 1

THEORY

In this bridge, an inductance is measured by comparison with a standard variable capacitance

Under balanced condition

[ ]

Separating the real and imaginary parts,

And

43
The expression for Q factor of the coil is,

L1 – Unknown inductance
R1 – Effective resistance of inductor,
C4 – Variable standard capacitor
R2, R3, R4 – Known non-inductive resistance

Phasor Diagram

PROCEDURE

1. Set up the connection as per the diagram shown above.

2. Connect the unknown inductance at the Lx (unknown) point.
3. Obtain the balance condition by adjusting the capacitance in the bridge
4. Note down all the values in the bridge and calculate L1 and R1.

44
INFERENCE

Error in the inductor and resistor values may be because of the resistance of variable
capacitor used.

POST EXPERIMENTAL QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Maxwell‟s capacitance bridge.

RESULT

The value of unknown inductance has been measured using Maxwell‟s capacitance
bridge.

45
 Exp No: 12
Date:………….

CALIBRATION OF PMMC TYPE AMMETER AND DYNAMOMETER

TYPE WATTMETER USING DC VERNIER POTENTIOMETER

Aim: To calibrate the given PMMC type ammeter and dynamometer type wattmeter using
vernier potentiometer.

Vernier Potentiometer:
This is a precision instrument for the measurement of voltages in the range of 0 to 1.901 volts
with a least count of 1 microvolt or 0.1 microvolt according to two different models.

Standardization:
1. Connect a freshly charged 2 volts lead accumulator to terminals marked “2 volts”

2. Connect a sensitive spot reflecting type of galvanometer or equivalent to pair of terminals

marked “GALVO‟.

3. Connect a cadmium standard cell of E.M.F. 1.0186 Volts to pair of terminals marked “STD
CELL” An auxiliary scale is provided to take into consideration temperature variation of
standard cell voltage. Set this scale equal to standard cell E.M.F. at the working temperature.
Please note that standard cells have a negative temperature coefficient of 40 microvolts per
degree centigrade.

4. Set the function switch in the “STD” position.

5. Standardization is independent of setting of 3 voltage dials and range multiplier used. Set
the range switch at X1, or X0.1, or X0.01. Standardization is same at all the 3 ranges.

6. Get the null point of galvanometer by pressing two galvanometer keys and by adjusting the
3 rheostats namely coarse, medium and fine. First press the coarse galvo key to get the null
point. When the null point approaches, press the fine key only to get the exact null point.
Now standardization is complete. And rheostats should not be disturbed now. But during
measurements, standardization should be checked off and rheostats should be slightly
adjusted if found necessary.

46
Measurements of Voltages:
1. The unknown voltage is connected to either of the test circuits marked 1, 2, 3.
2. The selector switch should be set according to the test circuit used.

3. Set the function switch in the “Test” position.

4. Check standardization as explained before and do not disturb the rheostat after
standardization.

5. Get the null point by pressing the two galvanometer keys one after another. To get the null
point, adjust three voltage dials only. The choice of voltage range depends on the magnitude
of the unknown voltage.

6. The sum of three voltage dials multiplied by the range multiplier chosen gives the value of
the unknown voltage in volts.

Schematic Diagram:

a. Calibration of a D.C (0-5 A) ammeter using precision type vernier

potentiometer

Apparatus required:

47
 Rheostat 50 Ω, 5 A
Ammeter (PMMC) (0-5) A
Standard Resistor 0.1 Ω, 10 A

Procedure:
Ammeter is of PMMC type. Standardize the potentiometer by setting the vernier dials to
marked position corresponding to the emf of the standard cell and adjust the potentiometer
current, until galvanometer shows the null deflection. Keep the current constant through the
entire range of the instrument.
Calculate,
i. % Error

ii. % Correction

Draw the curves with ammeter reading along x-axis and % error along y-axis and actual
reading vs true value plot. All points are to be joined with straight line.

Circuit Diagram:

48
Tabular column

Ammeter Voltage Current, % Error = %

Reading (A) Measured I=V/0.1 (A) ((Measured Correction =
(V) value – True -% Error
value)/True
value)*100

b. Calibration of a dynamometer type wattmeter using precision type

vernier potentiometer.

Apparatus required:
Rheostat 3000 W, 5 A
Ammeter (PMMC) (0-5) A
Voltmeter (PMMC) (0-250)V
Wattmeter (dynamometer type) 250 V, 5A
Standard Resistor 0.1 Ω, 10 A
Voltage ratio box Ouptut of 1.5 V

Procedure:

Wattmeter, W of dynamometer type and all other instruments are of PMMC type.
Standardize the potentiometer by setting the vernier dials to marked position corresponding to
the emf of the standard cell and adjust the potentiometer current, until galvanometer shows
the null deflection. Keep the current constant through the entire range of the instrument.

Calculate,
i. % Error

49
 ii. % Correction
Draw the curves with ammeter reading along x-axis and % error along y-axis and actual
reading vs true value plot. All points are to be joined with straight line.

Voltmet Ammet Wattme Voltage Current True % Error %

er er ter measure measure power= = Correcti
Reading Reading Reading d from d from V1*I1 ((Measu on = -%
(V) (A) (W) potentio potentio (W) red Error
meter meter value –
(V1) in (I1) in A True
volts value)/T
rue
value)*
100

50
Circuit Diagram:

Result:

51