Heat Thermal pollution is the raising or lowering
● the flow of energy between two objects,
from the warmer one to the cooler one,
because of a difference in their
temperatures.
● a process and not a quantity
Work
● the transfer of energy accomplished by a
force moving a mass some distance against
resistance
Another traditional unit for energy is the
calorie​, which was originally defined as the
amount of energy required to heat 1 g of
water from 14.5 to 15.5°C.
The SI ​unit of energy is the ​joule ( J), and
1 joule is equal to 1 kg-m² /s².
1 ​Calorie​ is equivalent to 4184 J.
1 ​BTU (British Thermal Unit) is defined as
1055 J.
ΔE = q + w​, where ΔE is the change in
energy, q is heat, and w is work
Note: For all the proceeding equations that
involve heat (q) and work (w)
+q = heat flows into a system from the
surroundings
+w​ = work is done on a system
-q​ = heat flows out of a system
-w = work is done by the system on the
surroundings
ΔE = E​final​ – E​initial
ΔE​universe​ = ΔE​surrounding​ + ΔE​system =
​ 0,
ΔE​surrounding ​ = – ΔE​system
of water temperature in streams, lakes, or
oceans above or below normal seasonal
ranges from the discharge of hot or cold
waste streams into the water.
Example of efficiencies of energy
conversion devices:
Electric Heater: electrical➝thermal ~100%
Hair Dryer: electrical➝thermal ~100%
Specific heat capacity is a physical
property of a material that measures how
much heat is required to raise the
temperature of one gram of that material by
1°C. Specific heat capacity is different for
each material.
q = mcΔT​, q is heat, m for mass of material,
ΔT is change in temperature (°C/K)
Molar heat capacity is a physical property
that describes how much heat is required to
raise the temperature of one mole of a
substance by 1°C
q = nC​p​ΔT​, q for heat, p in C​p indicates that
this is the heat capacity at constant
pressure, n for moles of substance, ΔT is
change in temperature (°C/K)
Note: Heat capacity will have the same
numerical value whether the temperature is
expressed in K or °C. The heat depends
only on the temperature difference, not on
the temperature itself.
Calorimetry ​is the term used to describe
the measurement of heat flow
q = C​calorimeter × ΔT​, q is heat, C​calorimeter ​is the
calorimeter constant, ΔT for change in
temperature
Note: The calorimeter constant is the heat
capacity of a particular object (or set of
objects) rather than that of a material. The
calorimeter constant allows us to determine
the amount of heat released or absorbed in
a reaction inside a calorimeter apparatus.
ENTHALPY
The ​change in enthalpy (ΔH) will be equal
to the ​heat flow under constant pressure
conditions​. ​That is, ΔH = q​p​.
ΔH = H​final​ – H​initial
Important notes:
For a process at constant volume, the
measurable heat flow is equal to ΔE, the
change in internal energy. ​ΔE = q​v
For a process at constant pressure, the
measurable heat flow is equal to the change
in enthalpy, ΔH​. ΔH = q​p
When ​heat evolves or comes from a
system, the process is said to be
exothermic and the value of ΔH is less
than zero (negative), ​–ΔH​. The said system
is ​hot​.
When ​heat is absorbed by the system, the
process is said to be ​endothermic​, and the
value of ΔH is greater than zero (positive),
+ΔH. Endothermic processes feel ​cold
because they draw heat from their
surroundings.
Bonds and Energy
Chemical reactions involve energy changes
because chemical bonds are broken and
formed when reactants are transformed into
products. Consider a fairly simple
reaction—the combustion of methane:
CH​4​(g) + 2 O​2​(g) : CO​2​(g) + 2 H​2​O(ℓ)
All bonds in the reactants must be broken,
and that will require an input of energy. All
bonds in the products must be formed, and
that will release energy. (Note that ​bond
formation is always exothermic and ​bond
breaking is always endothermic​). If the
energy released in forming new bonds is
greater than the energy required to break
the original bonds​, then the overall
reaction should be ​exothermic​. Conversely,
if the ​energy needed for bond breaking is
greater than that released in bond
making​, then the reaction will be
endothermic​. Because methane is the
principal component of natural gas, we
know that burning it must release energy.
So we should anticipate that this particular
reaction must be exothermic, and
calorimetric measurements bear this out;
ΔH for the combustion of one mole of
methane is –890.4 kJ.
Hess’s Law
To obtain information about heats of
reaction indirectly, we use what is known as
Hess’s law: the ​enthalpy change for any
process is ​independent of the particular
way the process is carried out.​ The
underlying concept upon which this idea is
built is that ​enthalpy is a state function.​ A
state function is a variable whose value
depends only on the state of the system and
not on its history.
-hamer