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Cheongcheng (1996) - Total Techer Effectiveness New Conception and Improvement
Cheongcheng (1996) - Total Techer Effectiveness New Conception and Improvement
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complexity of teacher tion of teacher effectiveness has its limita- morass of ill-defined and changing concepts.
effectiveness and narrow the tions and can no longer meet the needs of To different people, the definition of teacher
concept to the individual
changing school environments, particularly effectiveness could be very different.
teacher, particularly in a
classroom context. Proposes when parents and the public are demanding Approaches to presenting this concept are
a new conceptual framework high quality in school education. also very different. Some researchers focus
of total teacher effectiveness, In the last two decades, in order to improve on teacher personalities, traits, behaviours,
whereby the total quality of the performance of teachers, policy-makers, attitudes, values, abilities, competences and
the teacher competence layer teacher training institutions and schools many other personal characteristics. Some
contributes to the total have designed and implemented a great other researchers are more concerned with
quality of the teacher number of innovations in teaching tech- the teaching process (including factors such
performance layer and the
latter contributes to the total niques, methodologies and supervision. In as teaching styles, teacher-student interac-
quality of the student learning Hong Kong, although a huge amount of tions and classroom climate, etc.) or the
experience layer and then to resources had been invested into teaching outcomes (including factors such as
the quality of the student educational reforms initiated by a number of students’ academic achievements, personal
learning outcomes layer. educational policies in the past decade[4], development and learning experiences, etc.).
Explains that the framework the performance of students as a whole was Despite thousands of studies conducted in the
suggests a holistic approach declining at a significant rate. The policy- last 50 years, it is difficult, if not impossible,
to improving teacher
makers and the public began to be aware of to arrive at generally accepted conclusions.
effectiveness with the
emphasis on the improvement the importance of teacher performance stu- Few powerful generalizations concerning
of whole layers of teacher dents’ educational outcomes and tried to teacher effectiveness have been estab-
competence and performance make policy efforts for improving teacher lished[6,7]. In different times during the past
instead of fragmentary quality and effectiveness[3]. Inevitably, there decades, the studies might emphasize differ-
improvement of teaching is an urgent need to understand the complex ent aspects of teacher effectiveness[8,9]. Some
behaviour. Advises that in nature of teacher effectiveness and to scholars have given criticisms on the underly-
order to ensure total layer develop new strategies to improve it if we ing philosophy, methodologies and findings in
quality and maximize teacher
effectiveness, a congruence wish to achieve better student learning these studies of teacher effectiveness. They
development cycle should be outcomes. Therefore, this paper aims to suggested that the existing perspectives of
established within the teacher establish a framework for understanding teacher effectiveness, such as the teacher
layers to ensure congruence the nature and development of teacher effec- trait perspective, the teacher behaviour
and pursue total teacher tiveness. perspective and the process-product of
effectiveness. Suggests that This paper will first review and identify teaching perspective could not be successful
the proposed conceptual the strategies and their limitations for in explaining or analysing the complexity of
framework can provide a new
improving teacher effectiveness that are teacher effectiveness[8-10].
direction for studying and
improving teacher effective- based on traditional concepts. Then it will Some key traditional concepts of teacher
ness in particular and school develop a framework of total teacher effectiveness can be summarized and
effectiveness in general. effectiveness, for understanding the discussed before strategies for improving
process and development of teacher teacher effectiveness are reviewed. As
effectiveness, including multi-levels and suggested by Anderson[11], effective teachers
International Journal of
multi-domains, to understand the complex are those who achieve the goals they set by
Educational Management nature of teacher effectiveness in school themselves or the goals set for them by others
10/6 [1996] 7–17 organization. It is hoped that this framework such as school principles, education adminis-
© MCB University Press can bring a holistic approach to studying trators and parents. According to
[ISSN 0951-354X] Ornstein[5], effective teachers must have a
and improving teacher effectiveness.
[7]
Yin Cheong Cheng and body of knowledge essential for teaching, and 5 Student behaviour or learning outcomes –
Kwok Tung Tsui know how to apply it. By integrating these the progress students make towards a
Total teacher effectiveness: two conceptions, effective teachers may be defined educational goal.
new conception and assumed to be those who possess the relevant
improvement 6 Teacher training – for building up teacher
competence (including necessary pro- competence.
International Journal of
fessional knowledge, skills and attitudes) and
Educational Management 7 External teaching context – including
10/6 [1996] 7–17 use the competence appropriately to achieve
school organizational structure,
their set goals. From this line of thinking, the
management, culture, teaching facilities,
understanding of teacher effectiveness must
be based on the linkages between teacher resources, curriculum, school goal and
competence, teacher performance and set mission, etc.
goals or expected educational outcomes. 8 Internal teaching context – including class
size and composition, pupil abilities, class-
room climate, teacher-pupil
Structure of teacher effectiveness relationship, etc.
Medley’s[12] structure of teacher effective- 9 Individual student characteristics –
ness is a very comprehensive framework individual students’ previous learning
which can integrate the teacher trait perspec- experience, physical and intellectual
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tive, the teacher behaviour perspective and abilities, learning styles and other per-
the process-product of teaching perspective to sonal characteristics.
explain the relationships between teacher
Cheng[9] further developed Medley’s[12]
competence, teacher performance, student
learning experience and educational out- structure by the inclusion of two more com-
comes. He explained that: ponents, namely teacher evaluation and pro-
The term “teacher effectiveness” will be fessional development, as shown in Figure 1.
used to refer to the results a teacher gets or The structure indicates the procedural inter-
to the amount of progress the pupils make relationships among the components of
toward some specified goals of education.
teacher effectiveness:
One implication of this definition is that
teacher effectiveness must be defined, and 1 Student learning outcomes are the product
can only be assessed, in terms of behaviours of the interaction between students’
of pupils, not behaviours of teachers. For learning experience and individual
this reason, and because the amount that characteristics.
pupils learn is strongly affected by factors 2 Student learning experience is affected by
not under the teacher’s control, teacher
effectiveness will be regarded not as a stable
both teacher performance and internal
characteristic of the teacher as an individ- teaching context.
ual but as a product of the interaction 3 Teacher performance is determined by the
between certain teacher characteristics and interaction between teacher competence
other factors that vary according to the and external teaching context.
situation in which the teacher works…
4 Teacher training and pre-existing teacher
According to this conception, Medley[12] characteristics can contribute to teacher
proposed that the structure of teacher effec- competence.
tiveness should include nine important com- 5 Teacher evaluation activities that
ponents: are based on the information from
1 Pre-existing teacher characteristics – the teacher performance, student learning
knowledge, abilities and beliefs that a
experience and learning outcomes can
teacher possesses on entering into the
facilitate the development of teacher
teacher training programme).
2 Teacher competence – the set of know- competence.
ledge, abilities and beliefs that a teacher 6 Professional development activities which
possesses and brings to the actual teaching are supported by the characteristics of
environment on completion of the teacher external and internal teaching context,
training programme. teacher performance, students’ individual
3 Teacher performance – the behaviour of a characteristics, learning experience and
teacher when teaching that may change outcomes can contribute to development
when the teaching environment is of teacher competence and teacher
changed. education.
4 Student learning experience – the
experience from interactions between All the components of the structure can
teacher and the students in the process of directly or indirectly relate to teacher
teaching and learning. effectiveness.
[8]
Yin Cheong Cheng and Figure 1
Kwok Tung Tsui Structure of teacher effectiveness
Total teacher effectiveness:
new conception and
improvement Teacher evaluation
activities
International Journal of
Educational Management
10/6 [1996] 7–17
Professional
development
activities
[9]
Yin Cheong Cheng and diagnostic teacher evaluation, teachers may education reforms. In other words, improving
Kwok Tung Tsui learn continuously and develop repertoires of teacher effectiveness should be a long-term
Total teacher effectiveness: professional competence which can be used and dynamic process involving not only
new conception and to adapt to different teaching contexts and teachers’ professional growth and also
improvement
carry out teaching tasks effectively[14]. schools’ continuous change and development.
International Journal of Through systematic professional develop- The effects of this strategy on teachers and
Educational Management
10/6 [1996] 7–17 ment teachers can grow and develop to schools are long term, systematic and can be
acquire new knowledge, skills and attitudes internalized and institutionalized.
which in turn promote or improve their Based on the above discussions, the charac-
teaching performance at different stages of teristics of the short-term, long-term and
their careers. Obviously, this strategy is dynamic strategies are summarized in
much better than the short-term strategy Table I. Of the three, the dynamic strategy
because it may have long-term, systematic appears to be preferable.
and internalized effects on teachers’ compe-
tence and performance. But the strategy still
has limitations. Similar to the short-term Limitations of the traditional
strategy, it assumes that the external and concepts and strategies
internal contexts of teaching are “givens”
and static. Teachers are considered as devel- Since all the above strategies are based on the
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oping implementers, and they need to adapt traditional concepts of teacher effectiveness,
their teaching behaviours to teaching con- with the focus primarily on individual teach-
texts. To some extent, the role of the teacher ers, particularly in a classroom context,
is passive and moderately externally man- inevitably there is a serious conceptual
aged. Therefore, this strategy does not expect barrier limiting the effectiveness of these
the active role of teachers in changing the strategies, even the dynamic strategy.
internal and external contexts of teaching Traditionally, the teaching process is often
and creating an improved environment for assumed to happen only at the individual
teaching and learning. In other words, level. That is, individual teachers perform
teacher effectiveness may not be maximized. teaching and individual students receive
teachers’ instruction and learn. This simplis-
The dynamic strategy tic approach is reflected in most studies on
In view of the limitations of short-term and teacher effectiveness, which examine teacher
long-term strategies, a dynamic strategy can effectiveness mainly at an individual level.
be proposed for improving teacher effective- However, this narrow conception of teacher
ness. It assumes that most of the components effectiveness is changing, owing to the induc-
associated with the structure of teacher tion of broader concepts of educational
effectiveness (Figure 1) can be altered. In processes[16,17]. First, school education is
order to maximize teacher effectiveness, both usually planned and implemented at the
teachers’ competence and performance and programme level or the whole school level.
teaching contexts should be changed. Also, Currently, school management reforms and
teachers should not only adapt to the teach- effective school movements emphasize the
ing contexts but also adopt the role of change whole school approach to the improvement of
agent. Therefore, this strategy aims at school performance and student learning
empowering teachers as change agents, outcomes[18-20]. It assumes that students are
educational leaders and professional taught not only by individual teachers but
implementers, such that they can play an also by groups of teachers or by whole school
active role in improving both external and teachers. In order to maximize school effec-
internal teaching contexts and maximizing tiveness, more attention should be paid to
their effectiveness at both organizational overall teacher effectiveness at group and
level and classroom level. The activities of school levels. Second, based on our previous
professional development and teacher evalua- discussion, a successful teacher effectiveness
tion should be further developed and programme relies on a staff development
strengthened to help teachers to develop not programme which brings about not only
only knowledge, skills and attitudes but also individual teacher development but also
critical minds and self-reflection and self- group and school development[21]. Therefore,
management skills[15]. Following this line of teacher effectiveness should not be studied
thinking, the concept of teacher effectiveness solely at the individual level but also at the
should not be confined to teacher behaviour group, programme and school levels. Obvi-
or performance in the classroom. It should be ously, the strategies based on the traditional
extended to incorporate organizational concept at the individual level have limita-
aspects such as teacher involvement and tions and are not sufficient to enhance
leadership in curriculum changes and teacher effectiveness at the group and school
[ 10 ]
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Table I
improvement
Kwok Tung Tsui
International Journal of
The characteristics of
Educational Management
teaching effectiveness
strategies for improving
Total teacher effectiveness:
Concerns Change teacher performance Strengthen teacher competence so that teacher Develop teacher competence so that teacher can
performance is improved improve teaching contexts and maximize
effectiveness
Assumption about teaching context External and internal context are “givens” External and internal context are “givens” External and internal contexts are alterable and
and static and static dynamic
Design Discrete, piecemeal Systematic, long-term planning Systematic and dynamic, long-term planning
Focus on overt performance Facilitate professional development Aims at long-term dynamic professional
Means Provide short-term training or piecemeal Establish teacher evaluation system Develop teacher evaluation system
practical advice Facilitate professional development Enhance professional development
Ends Help teacher adapt to internal context Help teacher adapt to external and internal Facilitate teacher to change and adapt to external
contexts and internal
Role of teacher Very passive, adjusted to teaching context Passive, to adapt to teaching context Active, to change teaching contexts
As implementer to be improved As developing implementer As developing leader, professional implementer and
Externally managed Externally managed Moderately externally managed change agent
Self-managing
[ 11 ]
Yin Cheong Cheng and teacher effectiveness at the group and school could have achieved alone. In fact, teachers
Kwok Tung Tsui levels. who work as teams or groups not only use
Total teacher effectiveness: their energy effectively but also create new
new conception and energy[29,30]. It is obvious that when teach-
improvement
Conceptual framework of total ers act together they may have a better
International Journal of teacher effectiveness chance of influencing and changing the con-
Educational Management
10/6 [1996] 7–17 straints given by the external and internal
Taking the limitations of the traditional
teaching contexts. Therefore, the considera-
concepts into consideration, a new concep-
tion of teacher effectiveness should include
tual framework of total teacher effectiveness
not only the individual level but also the
can be proposed, as follows.
group and school levels.
Levels of teacher effectiveness Domains of effectiveness
Traditional teacher effectiveness improve-
Medley[12] suggests that teacher competence
ment programmes focus on individual
refers to the set of knowledge, abilities and
teacher performance in a classroom.
beliefs a teacher possesses and that teacher
Principals and administrators try to manipu- performance is the use of knowledge and skill
late individual teachers’ competence and in the classroom. Ornstein[5] claims that
performance in an attempt to improve every teacher has his/her own teaching style,
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Group level
School level
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Teacher Student
teaching processes and students’ learning individual, group and school levels. This
processes. Therefore, the concept of teacher layer represents the total static quality of
effectiveness involves two important teachers. The teacher performance layer is
categories of actors (teachers and students) at the total performance of teachers in the three
three different levels (individual, group and domains at the three levels. It represents the
school). The processes and effects of teaching dynamic quality of teachers in the teaching
and learning may occur in the behavioural, process. In general, the quality of teacher
affective and cognitive domains of different performance layer is positively associated
actors at different levels. Specifically, teacher with the quality of the teacher competence
effectiveness should involve the behavioural, layer. In addition, the relationship between
affective and cognitive performance of all these two layers can be moderated by the
teachers and students at individual, group influence of the external teaching context
and school levels. This concept of teacher (e.g. organizational factors, leadership and
effectiveness is different from the traditional school environment, etc.). The student experi-
thinking, which focuses mainly on the indi- ence layer represents the total learning expe-
vidual level of teacher or student and ignores rience of students in the three domains at the
the multiplicity of performances of teachers individual, group and school levels. The
and students. The new concept can be called student learning outcomes layer represents
total teacher effectiveness because it can the total learning outcomes of students in the
provide a holistic picture of the nature of three domains at the three levels. In general,
teacher effectiveness by taking into consider- the quality of the teacher performance layer
ation multi-domains of competence and per- as a whole has a positive impact on the
formance of teachers and students at the quality of the student learning experience
multi-levels. The characteristics of this total layer, and the latter has a positive relation-
teacher effectiveness framework are further ship with the quality of the student learning
illustrated in the following sections. outcomes layer. Again, these relationships
may be affected by the characteristics of
internal teaching context (including student
subculture, classroom climate, student ability
Layers of teacher effectiveness grouping, learning environment etc.).
As shown in Figure 2, teacher effectiveness is
related to the teaching and learning pro- Teacher competence layer
cesses involving teacher competence, teacher The teacher competence layer, interacting
performance, student experience and student with the external teaching context, affects the
learning outcome layers. The teacher compe- teacher performance layer. When teachers
tence layer is the total behavioural, affective work independently as individuals, the exter-
and cognitive competence of teachers at the nal teaching context may often dominate the
[ 13 ]
Yin Cheong Cheng and performance of individual teachers. Individ- nal teaching context (e.g. students’ peer
Kwok Tung Tsui ual teachers may have to adapt to the environ- groups, classroom climate, class size, etc.). In
Total teacher effectiveness: ment in order to achieve a certain level of order to have a stronger influence on the
new conception and teaching performance. In this respect, the internal teaching context and the student
improvement
role of teachers tends to be passive and learning experience layer, the improvement
International Journal of teacher effectiveness is limited. It is not sur- of the whole teacher performance layer, not
Educational Management
10/6 [1996] 7–17 prising that most improvement and enrich- just individual teachers, should be important.
ment programmes implemented to improve In short, when teacher performance as a
some behavioural aspects of individual whole layer can act on the students at the
teacher performance are often not successful, same time and in the same direction, there
if not failures[21]. Therefore, we suggest that will be a greater chance to develop a greater
the teacher competence layer should be learning environment and have better stu-
improved (including competence in multi- dent learning experiences and outcomes.
domains at multi-levels) so that teachers can
be empowered to work collaboratively, as a Student experience layer and student
group or as a whole school team. In these learning outcomes layer
circumstances, teachers can act as a strong Under the influence of the teacher perfor-
collective force to influence and change the mance layer and internal teaching context,
conditions of the external teaching context, all students at individual, group and school
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not just adapt to it. The higher quality of levels can achieve learning experience in
teacher competence layer can promise better their affective, behavioural and cognitive
opprtunities for teachers to act as a change domains. Through students’ further learning
agent and initiate education reforms which, processes, the learning experience can be
in turn, promote overall teacher performance converted into student learning outcomes in
and student learning outcomes. multi-domains at multi-levels. The student
learning outcomes layer in Figure 2 repre-
Teacher performance layer sents the total student learning outcomes.
The teacher performance layer, interacting Obviously, the pre-existing student character-
with the internal teaching context, influences istics (e.g. IQ, family background, etc.) may
the student learning experience layer. also affect the conversion process of learning
Currently, the most common approach to experience into learning outcomes and the
improving the quality of students’ learning quality of outcomes. The assessment of total
experience and outcomes is to improve and teacher effectiveness is based mainly on the
change the behaviours of a certain teacher at quality of the student learning experience
a certain point in or period of time. This layer and the student learning outcomes
approach is often ineffective. There are two layer, taking the teacher competence layer
reasons for this. First, student performance and teacher performance layer into consider-
at any point in time is the cumulative effect of ation. The results of assessment can be used
the performance of a number of teachers. Let to improve the learning experience layer, the
us take a local secondary school as an exam- teacher performance layer and the teacher
ple. There are about ten to 12 subject teachers competence layer. In other words, there
teaching the same class at secondary one, should be feedback loops from the latter
another ten to 12 subject teachers at layers to the former: the student learning
secondary two, and some more teachers at the outcomes layer to the student learning expe-
remaining years. It is clear that individual rience layer to the teacher performance layer
student performance at any point in time
to teacher competence layer, as shown in
should be a cumulative effect of his or her
Figure 2.
past and present teachers; and should not be
the sole effect of any particular teacher.
Therefore, if we want to improve students’
A holistic approach to improving
learning experience, we should improve the
teacher effectiveness
whole teacher performance layer, including
the three levels and the three domains. The above framework of total teacher effec-
Second, in a normal teaching environment, tiveness provides a holistic approach to
teaching and learning processes take place in improving teacher effectiveness. In order to
the classroom. This means that, most of the maximize teacher effectiveness, improve-
time, the teacher will teach a group of stu- ment of whole teacher competence layer and
dents as a whole. If we take the teacher-stu- whole teacher performance layer should
dent ratio into consideration, we can see that replace fragmentary improvement of teacher
an individual teacher’s influence on individ- competence or performance. In other words,
ual students may not be as strong as when the improvement effort on teacher compe-
compared with the influence from the inter- tence and performance should cover the
[ 14 ]
Yin Cheong Cheng and affective, behavioural and cognitive domains between the values and beliefs of education
Kwok Tung Tsui at the individual, group and school levels. and management in school and the congru-
Total teacher effectiveness: According to the concept of congruence in ence of performance in their affective, behav-
new conception and system[17,32,33], whether teacher competence ioural or technical, and cognitive domains.
improvement
is congruent across the affective, behavioural The development programme supports them
International Journal of
and cognitive domains and across the individ- to make a continuous learning cycle for their
Educational Management
10/6 [1996] 7–17 ual, group and school levels (i.e. congruence own development and improvement. This is
within the teacher competence layer) can in line with the literature in the field of
affect the contribution of the teacher compe- teacher development and school changes
tence layer to the teacher performance layer. [24,34-37].
The greater the congruence of teacher compe- The development cycle may start at the
tence across domains and across levels, the individual teacher level and focus on overt
greater the contribution of the teacher com- performance, mastering teaching and class-
petence layer to the teacher performance room management techniques. Then,
layer. The congruence across domains repre- teachers should be supported to have
sents the extent to which affective compe- opportunities at the individual, group and
tence, behavioural competence and cognitive school levels to reflect on their values, beliefs
competence of teachers are mutually sup- and the meanings of education and school
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The total quality of the teacher competence practice of this new framework.
layer contributes to the total quality of the
teacher performance layer, and the latter References
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