Actual Cycle and their analysis

ME 432 ICE
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Learning Objectives
• Introduction

• The Major Loss of Actual Cycle

• Time loss factor

• Heat loss factor

• Exhaust blowdown factor

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Introduction
The actual cycles for internal combustion engines differ
from air- standard cycles in many respects
i. The working substance being a mixture of air and fuel vapor or
finely atomized liquid fuel in air combined with the products of
combustion left from the previous cycle
ii. The change in chemical composition of the working substance
iii. The variation of specific heats with temperature
iv. The change in the pressure, temperature and actual amount of
fresh charge because of the residual gases
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Introduction
v. The progressive combustion

vi. The heat transfer to and from the working medium

vii. The substantial exhaust blowdown loss, i.e., loss of work on the
expansion stroke due to early opening of the exhaust valve

viii. Gas leakage, fluid fiction etc., in actual engines

Points (i) to (iv), are similar to fuel-air cycles.

Points (v) to (viii) are the difference between fuel-air cycles and actual
cycles
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The Major Loss of Actual Cycle

 Time loss factor
 Loss due to time required for mixing of fuel and air and also
for combustion

 Heat loss factor

 Loss of heat from gases to cylinder walls

 Exhaust blowdown factor

 Loss of work on the expansion stroke due to early opening
of the exhaust valve
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Time Loss Factor

 In air-standard cycles the heat addition is an
instantaneous process whereas in an actual cycle
it is over a definite period of time

 The crankshaft will usually turn about 30° to

40° between the time the spark occurs and the
time the charge is completely burnt (time
loss due to progressive combustion)
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Time Loss Factor

 Due to the finite time of combustion,
peak pressure will not occur when the
volume is minimum (TDC) but will
occur some time after TDC

 The pressure, therefore, rises in the first

part of the working stroke from b to c as
shown in Fig.

 This loss of work reduces the efficiency

and is called time loss due to
progressive combustion
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Time Loss Factor

 The time taken for combustion depends upon
 The flame velocity which in turn depend up on the type of
fuel and the fuel-air ratio

 The shape and size of the combustion chamber.

 The distance from the point of ignition to the opposite side
of the combustion space.
 In order that the peak pressure is not reached too late in the
expansion stroke, the time at which the combustion starts is
varied by varying the spark timing or spark advance
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Time Loss Factor

Case : Too Early
• If the spark is advanced to
achieve complete combustion
close to TDC additional work
is required to compress the
burning gasses
• Again the work area is less
and the power output and
efficiency are lowered 35o Spark advance
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Time Loss Factor

Case : Too Late

 With spark at TDC (0o spark

advance) or late, the combustion
process will be completed later
in the expansion stroke

 The peak pressure is low due to

the expansion of gases

 The work area is less and the

power output and efficiency are
lowered
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Time Loss Factor

• With or without spark advance the
work area could be less and the power
output and efficiency are lowered
• Moderate or optimum spark advance
(15°-30°) is the best compromise
resulting minimum losses on both the
compression and expansion strokes
• Timing at which the engine
performance is maximum --- MBT
(Maximum Brake Torque) spark timing
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Time Loss Factor

 Table shows the engine performance for various
ignition timings (rc =6).
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Time Loss Factor

 The effect of spark advance on the power output by
means of the p-V diagram
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Time Loss Factor

 As seen from fig., when the ignition
advance is increased there is a drastic
reduction in the imep and the
consequent loss of power.
 Some times a deliberate spark
retarded from optimum may be
necessary in order to
• avoid knocking
• reduce exhaust
• reduce emission of hydrocarbons
and carbon monoxide
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Time Loss Factor

• It is impossible to obtain a perfect homogeneous mixture with fuel-vapor
and air, since, residual gases from the previous are present in the clearance
volume of the cylinder

• Very limited time is available between the mixture preparation and ignition

• Under these circumstances, it is possible that a pocket excess oxygen is

present in one part of the cylinder and a pocket of excess fuel in another
part

• Therefore, some fuel does not or burns partially to CO and the unused O2
appears in the exhaust
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Heat Loss factor

During combustion fromthe
cylinder gases through
 Cooling water

 Lubricating oil

 Conduction and convection

and radiation
 Heat loss during combustion
will have the maximum effect
on the cycle efficiency
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Heat Loss factor

• Heat loss during combustion will naturally have the
maximum effect on the cycle efficiency while heat loss just
before the end of the expansion stroke can have very little
effect because of its contribution to the useful work is very
little

• About 15 per cent of the total heat is lost during

combustion and expansion

• If all the heat loss is recovered only about 20% of it may

appear as useful work
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Exhaust Gas Blowdown

• The actual exhaust process consists of two phases:

▫ Blowdown

▫ Displacement

• Blowdown–

At the end of the power stroke when the exhaust valve

opens the cylinder pressure is much higher than the
exhaust manifold pressure which is typically at 1atm
(P4>Pe), so the cylinder gas flows out through the
exhaust valve and the pressure drops to Pe

• Displacement–Remaining gas is pushed out of the

cylinder by the piston from BDC moving to TDC
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Exhaust Gas Blowdown

 The cylinder pressure at the end of expansion stroke is high as
7 bar depending on the compression ratio employed
 If the exhaust valve is opened at BDC, the piston has to do
work against high cylinder pressure during the early part of
the exhaust stroke
 If the exhaust valve is opened too early, a part of the expansion
stroke is lost
 The best compromise is to open the exhaust valve 400 to 700
before BDC thereby reducing the cylinder pressure to halfway
before the exhaust stroke begins
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Exhaust Gas Blowdown

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Loss Ratio
Ratio of loss area to the fuel-
air cycle area

i. Time Loss Ratio

ii. Heat Loss Ratio

iii. Blowdown Loss Ratio

iv. Lost Work Ratio

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Loss Due to Gas Exchange Processes

• The difference of work done in
expelling the exhaust gases and the work
done by the fresh charge during the
suction stroke is called the pumping work
• The pumping loss increases at part
throttle because throttling reduces the
suction pressure
• Pumping loss also increases with speed
• Pumping loss affect the Volumetric
efficiency when Pi less than Pe
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Volumetric Efficiency
 Volumetric efficiency affected by
 The density of fresh charge

 The exhaust gas in the clearance volume

 The design of intake and exhaust manifold

 The timing of intake and exhaust valves

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Volumetric Efficiency
 The density of fresh charge
 As the fresh charge arrives in the hot cylinder, heat is transferred to it
from
 The hot chamber walls
 The hot residual gases
 Temperature rise reduces the density, which decrease the
mass of fresh charge admitted and a reduction in volumetric
efficiency
 The volumetric efficiency increased by
 Low temperature
 High pressure of fresh charge
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Volumetric Efficiency
 Exhaust gas in the clearance volume
 The residual gas occupy a portion of piston
displacement volume, thus reducing the space
available to the incoming charge

 These exhaust products tend to rise the temperature of

the fresh charge, there by decreasing its density
and further reducing volumetric efficiency
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Volumetric Efficiency
 The design of intake and exhaust manifold
 The exhaust manifold should be designed to enables the
exhaust products to escape readily,
 The intake manifold should be designed so as to bring in
maximum possible fresh charge flowing in to the cylinder.
 This implies minimum restriction is offered to the fresh
charge flowing into the cylinder, as well as to the exhaust
products being forced out.
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Volumetric Efficiency
 The timing of intake and exhaust valves
 Valve timing is the regulation of the points in the cycle
at which the valves are set to open and close.

 Valves requires a finite period of time to open or close

for smooth operation.
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Loss due to Friction

 The losses are due to friction between
 the piston and the cylinder walls
 In various bearings
 Energy spent in operating the auxiliary equipment (cooling
pump, ignition system, fan…)

 The piston ring friction increases rapidly with engine speed

 The efficiency of an engine is maximum at full load and decreases at

part loads. It is because the percentage of direct heat loss,
pumping loss and rubbing friction loss increase at part loads
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Loss at Part & Full Load (rc = 8)