INSTITUTE OF SPACE TECHNOLOGY

AVP PROJECT
Final Report
Muhammad Mohsin Siddiqui (75)
1/26/2017

Performance Analysis of VC10-1101

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Contents
List of Figures: ................................................................................................................. 6
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 7
1.1 AIRCRAFT INTRODUCTION................................................................................ 7
1.1.1 Technology and Concept ................................................................................... 7
1.1.2 Production and Usage ........................................................................................ 7
1.2 REASON FOR SELECTION ................................................................................... 8
1.3 BRIEF HISTORY ..................................................................................................... 8
1.3.1 Background ........................................................................................................ 8
1.3.2 Operators ............................................................................................................ 8
1.3.3 Accidents and Incidents: .................................................................................... 9
1.3.4 Hijackings: ....................................................................................................... 10
Hijacking is the term applied to the unlawful seizure of an aircraft by a person or persons.
The VC10's history shows four events where persons have taken control of a VC10 for
their own purposes. [5] ................................................................................................. 10
1.4 Methodology ........................................................................................................... 10
1.5 Aircraft Specifications ............................................................................................ 11
1.5.1 General Specification: ...................................................................................... 11
VC10 1101 ........................................................................................................................ 11
1.5.2 Performance Parameters: ................................................................................. 12
1.5.3 Power Plant Specifications: ............................................................................. 12
1.5.4 Performance Indicators: ................................................................................... 12
1.5.5 view diagram:................................................................................................... 13
1.6 Assumptions............................................................................................................ 13
Chapter 2: STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT PERFORMANCE.............................................. 14
2.1 Assumptions............................................................................................................ 14
2.2 Thrust Required ...................................................................................................... 14
2.2.1 Graphical Approach: ........................................................................................ 14
2.2.2 Analytical Approach: .................................................................................. 15
2.2.3 Comparison: ................................................................................................ 16
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2.3 Important Aerodynamic Ratios: ......................................................................... 16

2.3.1 L/D max: .......................................................................................................... 16
2.3.2: CL3/2/CD ........................................................................................................... 16
2.3.3 CL1/2/CD: ........................................................................................................... 16
2.3.4 Graphical Analysis ........................................................................................... 17
2.4 Thrust Available and Maximum Velocity: ........................................................ 17
2.4.1 Graphical Approach ......................................................................................... 17
2.4.2 Analytical Approach: ....................................................................................... 18
2.4.3 Comparison: ..................................................................................................... 18
2.5 Power Required:...................................................................................................... 19
2.5.1 Graphical Approach ......................................................................................... 19
2.5.2 Analytical Approach: ....................................................................................... 19
2.5.3 Comparison: ..................................................................................................... 20
2.6 Power Available and Maximum Velocity: ............................................................. 20
2.6.1 Graphical Approach: ........................................................................................ 20
2.6.2 Analytical Approach: ....................................................................................... 20
2.6.3 Comparison: ..................................................................................................... 21
2.7 Minimum Velocity: ................................................................................................. 21
2.7.1 Minimum Thrust Velocity: .............................................................................. 21
2.7.2 Stalling Velocity: ............................................................................................. 21
2.8 Rate of Climb (R/C):............................................................................................... 22
2.8.1 Graphical Approach: ........................................................................................ 22
2.8.2 Analytical Approach: ....................................................................................... 24
2.9 Glide Performance: ................................................................................................. 25
2.10 Service and Absolute Ceiling: .............................................................................. 26
2.11 Time to Climb: ...................................................................................................... 27
2.11.1 Graphical Approach: ...................................................................................... 27
2.11.2 Analytical Approach: ..................................................................................... 27
2.11.3 Comparison: ................................................................................................... 27
2.12 Range: ................................................................................................................... 27
2.13 Endurance: ............................................................................................................ 28
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CHAPTER 3: Accelerated Flight...................................................................................... 29

3.1 Assumptions:........................................................................................................... 29
3.2 Energy Calculations for Aircraft:............................................................................ 29
3.2.1 Excess Power (Ps): ........................................................................................... 29
3.2.2 Total Ps Contours: ............................................................................................ 30
3.3 Turn Performance: .................................................................................................. 30
Load Factor ............................................................................................................... 30
Analytical Approach ................................................................................................. 30
3.3.1 Minimum Turning Radius Parameters ............................................................. 31
Turning Velocity ....................................................................................................... 31
Load Factor ............................................................................................................... 31
Minimum Turning Radius......................................................................................... 31
Maximum Turning Rate Parameters ............................................................................. 32
Turning Velocity ....................................................................................................... 32
Load Factor ............................................................................................................... 32
Maximum Turn Rate ................................................................................................. 32
3.3.2 Pull up/Pull Down Maneuvers: ........................................................................ 33
Corner Velocity:........................................................................................................ 33
Minimum Radius for Maneuver: .............................................................................. 33
Maximum Turn Rate for Maneuver: ......................................................................... 33
3.4 Load Factor Calculation:......................................................................................... 34
3.4.1 nmax Thrust Constraint: ..................................................................................... 34
3.4.2 nmax Cl Max Constraint:....................................................................................... 34
3.4.3 nM: .................................................................................................................... 34
3.5 V-n Diagram: .......................................................................................................... 35
3.6 Takeoff Performance .............................................................................................. 36
Liftoff Velocity ......................................................................................................... 36
Ground Roll .............................................................................................................. 37
Calculation of KA ...................................................................................................... 37
Calculation of KT ...................................................................................................... 39
Airborne Distance ..................................................................................................... 39
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3.7 Landing Performance .............................................................................................. 41

Touchdown and Flare Velocity................................................................................. 42
Approach Distance .................................................................................................... 42
Flare Distance ........................................................................................................... 43
Ground Roll .............................................................................................................. 43
Calculation of JA ....................................................................................................... 44
Calculation of JT........................................................................................................ 44
CONCLUSION: .................................................................................................................... 46
7 References ...................................................................................................................... 46
Appendix A ........................................................................................................................ 46
Thrust Required: ........................................................................................................... 46
Cl/Cd Ratios: .................................................................................................................. 47
Thrust Available: ........................................................................................................... 48
Power Required: ........................................................................................................... 48
Power Available Vmax: ................................................................................................. 49
R/C:................................................................................................................................ 49
Ceiling:........................................................................................................................... 50
Ps: .................................................................................................................................. 51
Ps Contour:.................................................................................................................... 51
Vn: ................................................................................................................................. 52
Appendix B ........................................................................................................................ 53
For CD,0 Calculation ....................................................................................................... 53
CL,max For High Lift Devices ............................................................................................ 54
Limit Load Factor .......................................................................................................... 54
....................................................................................................................................... 54
Coefficient of Friction ................................................................................................... 55
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List of Figures:
Figure 1 # view Diagram ............................................................................................................... 13
Figure 2 Tr vs V ............................................................................................................................. 15
Figure 3 Cl/Cd ratios...................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 4 Tr vs V ............................................................................................................................. 18
Figure 5 Pr vs V ............................................................................................................................. 19
Figure 6 Pr vs V ............................................................................................................................. 20
Figure 7 R/c vs V ........................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 8 Hodogram ........................................................................................................................ 24
Figure 9 Altitude vs R/C ................................................................................................................ 26
Figure 10 Ps ................................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 11 Ps contour ...................................................................................................................... 30
Figure 12 V-n Diagram .................................................................................................................. 35
Figure 13: Takeoff Distance Schematic .......................................................................................... 36
Figure 14: Airborne Distance Schematic ........................................................................................ 40
Figure 15: Landing Distance Schematic ......................................................................................... 41
Figure 16: Approach Distance Schematic ...................................................................................... 42
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 AIRCRAFT INTRODUCTION

The VC-10 is a British airliner recognized for its long range flight capabilities, designed
and manufactured by Vickers-Armstrong (Aircraft) ltd. It was designed to work on long
routes from the airports having shorter runways. Although only a relatively small number
of VC10s were built, they provided long service with BOAC and other airlines from the
1960s to 1981. [1]

1.1.1 Technology and Concept

The design of VC-10 was new but it used some ideas and techniques and the Conway
engines, developed for the V.1000 and VC7. It had a wing equipped with
wide chord Fowler flaps and full span leading edge slats for good take-off and climb
performance; rear engines gave it efficient clean wing and reduced cabin noise. The VC10
was capable of landing and taking off at slower speeds than the rival 707 and its engines
could produce considerably more thrust, providing good 'hot and high' performance, and
was considered to be a safer aircraft.

The onboard avionics and flight-deck technology was extremely advanced; a

quadruplicated automatic flight control system (a "super autopilot") was intended to enable
fully automatic zero-visibility landings. Capacity was up to 135 passengers in a two-class
configuration. Vickers designer Sir George Edwards is said to have stated that this plane
was the sole viable option unless he were to reinvent the 707 and, despite misgivings on
operating cost, BOAC ordered 25 aircraft. [2]

1.1.2 Production and Usage

The VC10 was produced form 1962-1970 and only 54 aircrafts were manufactured with
BOAC as main buyer. It performed its duties as a narrow body jet liner and aerial refueling
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tanker. Its first flight was on 29th April 1964 and it was retired on 20th September 2013.
Four major users of this aircraft were

1. BOAC
2. East African Airways
3. Ghana Airways
4. Royal Air Force

It had a price tag of £1.75 million per unit.

1.2 REASON FOR SELECTION

The aircraft I have selected for AVP project is a VC 10 variant named VC10-1101. I
selected this aircraft because of two main reasons.

1. Most of the data for this aircraft was available.

2. It is a subsonic aircraft hence easier to analyze.

1.3 BRIEF HISTORY

1.3.1 Background
In the early 1950's Vickers were already working on designs for a 4 engine jet airliner,
originally known as the V1000. It had a similar layout to the Comet, but it was a more
modern design, featuring a wider fuselage, slotted flaps and much better performance. The
government's action stopped the aircraft from becoming the commercial success that it
could be.

BOAC stated that it still wanted the aircraft, but only to fly their 'Empire routes' to Africa
and Australia. They stated specifically that they did not want a transatlantic airliner. Their
strict requirements had to be incorporated by Vickers and the project continued as the re-
designed VC10. BOAC ordered 35 in 1957, with an option for 20 more. The prototype first
flew on 29th June 1962 and it entered service with BOAC in April 1964. [3]

1.3.2 Operators
Following is the list of civilian operators that used VC 10

 BOAC
 British Airways
 British Caledonian
 British United Airways
 Laker Airways
 Rolls Royce
 Air Ceylon
 Nigeria Airways
 Air Malawai
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 Middle East Airlines

 Ghana Airways
 East African Airways
 Gulf Air

It was also used by military and government organizations

 Oman Royal Flight

 Military of Qatar
 The Government of United Arab Emirates
 Royal Air Force (UK)

1.3.3 Accidents and Incidents:

During the short course of its deployment in civil and military airlines the VC 10 aircraft
met with a number of accidents. Two of the crashed resulted in death of passengers while
in other cases the aircraft structure was damaged. Following is the list of accidents and
incidents that VC10 suffered. [4]

Accidents and Incidents:

 9G-ABP Beirut 28 December 1968

 5N-ABD Lagos 20 November 1969
 G-ASGN 'Dawsons Field' Jordan 12 September 1970
 G-ARTA London Gatwick 28 January 1972
 5X-UVA Addis Ababa 18 April 1972
 G-ASGO Amsterdam Schiphol 3 March 1974
 XR806 Brize Norton 18 December 1997
 G-ARTA elevator flutter during testing - 31 December 1963
 G-ARVK door opens in flight - 20 June 1965
 5Y-ADA Fuel starvation incident - 30 May 1967
 G-ARVB ice encounter - 2 February 1968
 Landing with burst tires at RAF Tengah - 29 April 1968
 VC10 incident - Navigation error over the North Atlantic G-ASGK Engine
Disintegrates
 Super VC10 low fuel diversion - 1970
 G-ASIX The Andes incident - 18 June 1971
 G-ASGL Fuel starvation incident - 4 December 1974
 ZA141 tail damage during test flight - 1982
 Approach incident at Washington XV109 two engine landing - 8 December 1988
 ZA148 bird strike - June 1999
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1.3.4 Hijackings:

Hijacking is the term applied to the unlawful seizure of an aircraft by a person or persons.
The VC10's history shows four events where persons have taken control of a VC10 for
their own purposes. [5]

 G-ASGN 'Dawson's Field' Jordan 12 September 1970

 BOAC VC10 Libya 22 July 1971
 G-ASGO Amsterdam Schiphol 3 March 1974
 G-ASGR Dubai 21 November 1974
 Gulf Air Standard VC10 29 June 1977

1.4 Methodology
As Cdo was not available we calculated it by using the following formula

𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡
𝐶𝑑𝑜 = 𝐶𝑓𝑒 ×
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓

Value of 𝐶𝑓𝑒 is taken as 0.0030

𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡 is calculated using formula

𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡 ) = 𝑐 + 𝑑(𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑊𝑇𝑂 ))

Here c=0.0199
d=0.7531
𝑊𝑇𝑂 = max takeoff weight

𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 + 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

After performing the above calculations

𝐶𝑑𝑜 = 0.012

Next we use this value of 𝐶𝑑𝑜 to calculate Oswald’s efficiency coefficient e, we use the
following formula

1
𝑒=
1
𝑢. 𝑠 + 𝑘𝐶𝑑𝑜 𝜋𝐴
In this equation
u=0.99
𝑑𝑓
𝑠 = 1 − 2( )
𝑏
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K=0.38
A= aspect ratio= 7.49

Plugging in these values and value of 𝐶𝑑𝑜 we get

e = 0.88

After this we calculate the value of K3 using formula

1
𝐾3 =
4𝜋𝑅𝑒
And then we calculate K1 using ratio

𝐾1
= 0.2
𝐾3

From above calculations we find that

K3=0.012

K1=0.0024

K= K1+ K3=0.0144

1.5 Aircraft Specifications

1.5.1 General Specification:
Parameters Aircraft

Model/ Name VC10 1101

Aircraft Role Narrow-body jet airliner

General Info.

Country of Origination UK

Manufacturer Vickers Armstrongs

Status Retired

First Flight Date 29th June1962

Aspect Ratio 7.49

Prop.
Wing

Sweep Angle 32.5

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1.5.2 Performance Parameters:

Parasite Drag Coefficient - CD0 0.01650

k1 0.0024

Induce Drag k2 0
Factors k3 0.012
Performance Parameters

K 0.01764

Thrust to Weight Ratio-T/W 0.27

Wing Loading-W/S 534 kg/m2

Lift to Drag Ratio- L/D 29.30

Maximum Takeoff Weight-MTOW 141,523 kg

Empty Weight- We 66,670 kg

Maximum Mach. (Mmax) 0.75

Cruising Mach. (Mcruise) 0.72

Cruising Altitude(hcruise) 7620 m

1.5.3 Power Plant Specifications:

Engine Type Rolls-Royce Conway Mk 301 Turbofan
Propulsion

Number of Engines 4

Thrust per Engine 100.1 kN

1.5.4 Performance Indicators:

Range 9,765 km
Performance
Indicators

Endurance 28.8 hrs

Landing Distance 1,945 m

Take-off Distance 2,524 m

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Rate of Climb 525m/min

Maneuver Radius

1.5.5 view diagram:

Figure 1 # view Diagram

1.6 Assumptions
Following conditions were assumed while doing different calculations

 Steady level flight

 Assuming fuselage to be circular while calculating diameter
 K2 is equal to zero as the aircraft is subsonic
 Ratio of K1 and K3 is taken 0.2 because it is between 0.1-0.3
 14

 The values of coefficients c, d, Cfe and k are taken from different books and
literatures. These are average values for subsonic narrow body jets.

Chapter 2: STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

2.1 Assumptions
Following conditions were assumed while doing different calculations

 Steady level flight.

 Assuming fuselage to be circular while calculating diameter
 K2 is equal to zero as the aircraft is subsonic
 Ratio of K1 and K3 is taken 0.2 because it is between 0.1-0.3
 The values of coefficients c, d, Cfe and k are taken from different books and
literatures. These are average values for subsonic narrow body jets.
 Other examples are included in respective sections.

2.2 Thrust Required

2.2.1 Graphical Approach:
𝟏 𝟐𝑲𝑺 𝑾 𝟐
𝑻𝑹 = 𝑫 = 𝝆∞ 𝑽𝟐∞ 𝑺𝑪𝑫,𝟎 + ( )
𝟐 𝝆∞ 𝑽𝟐∞ 𝑺
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Figure 2 Tr vs V

𝑇𝑟(𝑚𝑖𝑛)=4.735 x 104 N

At sea level:
𝑉𝑇𝑟(𝑚𝑖𝑛) = 94 𝑚/𝑠

At 7640 m:

𝑉𝑇𝑟(𝑚𝑖𝑛) = 141 𝑚/𝑠

2.2.2 Analytical Approach:

𝑇𝑟(𝑚𝑖𝑛) = √4𝐶𝑑,𝑜 𝐾 × 𝑊

𝑇𝑟(𝑚𝑖𝑛)=4.732 x 104 N

𝟏/𝟐
𝟐 𝑲 𝑾
𝑽𝑻𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏 = ( √ )
𝝆∞ 𝑪𝑫,𝟎 𝑺

At sea level:

𝑉𝑇𝑟(𝑚𝑖𝑛) = 94.06 𝑚/𝑠

At 7620 m:
 16

𝑉𝑇𝑟(𝑚𝑖𝑛) = 140.85 𝑚/𝑠

2.2.3 Comparison:
The values calculated from graphical and analytical approach are very close to each other
the slight difference is due to limited MATLAB knowledge for reading a value from
graph and also rounding off errors.

2.3 Important Aerodynamic Ratios:

2.3.1 L/D max:
𝑳 𝟏
( ) =
𝑫 𝒎𝒂𝒙 √𝟒𝑪𝑫,𝟎 𝑲

𝑳
( ) = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟑𝟎
𝑫 𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝟏/𝟐
𝟐 𝑲 𝑾
𝑽(𝑳/𝑫)𝒎𝒂𝒙 =( √ )
𝝆∞ 𝑪𝑫,𝟎 𝑺

𝑽(𝑳/𝑫)𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 145.9 𝑚/𝑠

2.3.2: CL3/2/CD
3/2 3/4
𝐶 1 3
( 𝐿 ) = ( 1/3 )
𝐶𝐷 4 𝐾𝐶
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐷,0

3/2
𝐶
( 𝐿 ) = 32.85
𝐶𝐷
𝑚𝑎𝑥

1/2
2 𝐾 𝑊
𝑉(𝐶 3/2 /𝐶 =( √ )
𝐿 𝐷) 𝜌∞ 3𝐶𝐷,0 𝑆
𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑉(𝐶 3/2 /𝐶 = 107.03 𝑚/𝑠

𝐿 𝐷)
𝑚𝑎𝑥

2.3.3 CL1/2/CD:
1/2 1/4
𝐶 3 1
( 𝐿 ) = ( 3 )
𝐶𝐷 4 3𝐾𝐶𝐷,0
𝑚𝑎𝑥

1/2
𝐶
( 𝐿 ) = 33.97
𝐶𝐷
𝑚𝑎𝑥
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1/2
2 3𝐾 𝑊
𝑉(𝐶 1/2 /𝐶 =( √ )
𝐿 𝐷) 𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐷,0 𝑆
𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑽(𝑪𝟏/𝟐/𝑪 = 185.37
𝑳 𝑫)
𝒎𝒂𝒙

2.3.4 Graphical Analysis

Figure 3 Cl/Cd ratios

2.4 Thrust Available and Maximum Velocity:

2.4.1 Graphical Approach
𝑇𝐴,0 = 400400 𝑁

At 7620 m:

𝑇𝐴 𝜌
=
𝑇𝐴,0 𝜌0

𝑇𝐴 0.5463
=
400400 1.225

𝑇𝐴 = 178562 𝑁
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Figure 4 Tr vs V

2.4.2 Analytical Approach:

1/2
2
[𝑇𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥 /𝑊](𝑊/𝑆) + (𝑊/𝑆)√[𝑇𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥 /𝑊] − 4𝐶𝐷,0 𝐾
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐷,0
{ }

At 7620 m:
1/2
[0.1287](5241.2) + (5241.2)√[0.1287]2 − 4(0.0165)(0.01764)
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 ={ }
(0.5463)(0.0165)

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 383.39 𝑚/𝑠

2.4.3 Comparison:
The values calculated from graphical and analytical approach are very close to each other
the slight difference is due to limited MATLAB knowledge for reading a value from
graph and also rounding off errors.
 19

2.5 Power Required:

2.5.1 Graphical Approach

𝑃𝑅 = 𝑇𝑅 𝑉∞

At 7620 m

Figure 5 Pr vs V

2.5.2 Analytical Approach:

𝟐𝑾𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝑫
𝑷𝑹,𝒎𝒊𝒏 = √
𝝆∞ 𝑺𝑪𝟑𝑳

3/2
𝐶 𝐶𝐷2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ( 𝐿 ) =( )
𝐶𝐷 𝐶𝐿3 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚𝑎𝑥

At 7620m:

𝑃𝑅,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 7816 𝐻𝑝
 20

2.5.3 Comparison:
The values calculated from graphical and analytical approach are very close to each other
the slight difference is due to limited MATLAB knowledge for reading a value from
graph and also rounding off errors.

2.6 Power Available and Maximum Velocity:

2.6.1 Graphical Approach:
𝑷𝑨 = 𝑻𝑨 𝑽∞

At 7620m:

𝑷𝑨 = 178562𝑽∞

Figure 6 Pr vs V

2.6.2 Analytical Approach:

1/2
2
[𝑇𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥 /𝑊](𝑊/𝑆) + (𝑊/𝑆)√[𝑇𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥 /𝑊] − 4𝐶𝐷,0 𝐾
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐷,0
{ }

At 7620 m:
 21

1/2
[0.1287](5241.2) + (5241.2)√[0.1287]2 − 4(0.0165)(0.01764)
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 ={ }
(0.5463)(0.0165)

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 383.39 𝑚/𝑠

𝑷𝑨 = 𝑻𝑨 𝑽∞

𝑷𝑨 = 178562𝑽∞

𝑷𝑨(𝒎𝒂𝒙) = 178562𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙

𝑷𝑨(𝒎𝒂𝒙) = 178562 × 383.39

𝑷𝑨(𝒎𝒂𝒙) = 9.176 × 104 𝐻𝑝

2.6.3 Comparison:
The values calculated from graphical and analytical approach are very close to each other
the slight difference is due to limited MATLAB knowledge for reading a value from
graph and also rounding off errors.

2.7 Minimum Velocity:

2.7.1 Minimum Thrust Velocity:
1/2
[𝑇𝐴 /𝑊](𝑊/𝑆) − (𝑊/𝑆)√[𝑇𝐴 /𝑊]2 − 4𝐶𝐷,0 𝐾
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 ={ }
𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐷,0

At 7620 m:
1/2
[0.1287](5241.2) − (5241.2)√[0.1287]2 − 4(0.0165)(0.01764)
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 ={ }
(0.5463)(0.0165)

𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 51.75 𝑚/𝑠

2.7.2 Stalling Velocity:

𝟐 𝑾 𝟏
𝑽𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍 = √
𝝆∞ 𝑺 (𝑪𝑳 )𝒎𝒂𝒙

Vc10-1101 has triple slotted fowler flaps in trailing edge and full length leading edge
slats. So from (table included in Appendix B) we use the average value from the landing
category to choose CLmax :
 22

𝐶𝐿,𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 3.2 − 3.5
cos⋀

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 3.35

𝐶𝐿,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (3.35) cos(32.5)

𝑪𝑳,𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟑

2 1387866.53 1
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = √ ( )
0.5463 264.8 (2.83)

𝑽𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍 = 𝟖𝟐. 𝟑𝟒 𝒎/𝒔

2.8 Rate of Climb (R/C):

𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑅/𝐶 =
𝑊
𝑻𝑽∞ − 𝑫𝑽∞ 𝑷𝑨 − 𝑷𝑹
𝑹⁄𝑪 = =
𝑾 𝑾

2.8.1 Graphical Approach:

At 7620m:
 23

Figure 7 R/c vs V

Hodograph at 7620m:
 24

Figure 8 Hodogram

2.8.2 Analytical Approach:

Maximum climb angle at 7620m:

𝑻
𝜽𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 ( − √𝟒𝑪𝑫,𝟎 𝑲)
𝑾

𝜽𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟓. 𝟒𝟐°

Maximum climb angle velocity at 7620m:

𝟏/𝟐
𝟐 𝑲 𝑾
𝑽𝜽𝒎𝒂𝒙 =√ ( ) 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝝆∞ 𝑪𝑫,𝟎 𝑺

𝑽𝜽𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏𝟒𝟎 𝒎/𝒔

Maximum Rate of Climb R/Cmax at 7620m:

𝟏/𝟐
(𝑾/𝑺)𝒁 𝑻 𝟑/𝟐 𝒁 𝟑
(𝑹/𝑪)𝒎𝒂𝒙 =[ ] ( ) [𝟏 − − ]
𝟑𝝆∞ 𝑪𝑫,𝟎 𝑾 𝟔 𝟐(𝑻/𝑾)𝟐 (𝑳/𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝟐 𝒁

3
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑍 = 1 + √1 +
(𝑇/𝑊)2 (𝐿/𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 )2

3
𝑍 = 1 + √1 +
(0.1287)2 (29.30)2

𝑍 = 2.100
 25

(𝑅/𝐶)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 18.31 𝑚/𝑠

Maximum Rate of Climb velocity at 7620m:

𝟏/𝟐
(𝑻/𝑾)(𝑾/𝑺)(𝒁)
𝑽(𝑹/𝑪)𝒎𝒂𝒙 ={ }
𝟑𝝆∞ 𝑪𝑫,𝟎

𝑽(𝑹/𝑪)𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟐𝟕𝟗. 𝟑 𝒎/𝒔

2.9 Glide Performance:

Minimum glide angle:

𝟏
𝜽𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( )
(𝑳/𝑫)𝒎𝒂𝒙

𝜽𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟓°

Minimum glide velocity:

1/2
2 𝐾 𝑊
𝑉(𝐿/𝐷)𝑚𝑎𝑥 =( √ )
𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐷,0 𝑆

𝑽(𝑳/𝑫)𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 145.9 𝑚/𝑠

Maximum glide range:

𝒉
𝑹𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽𝒎𝒊𝒏

7620
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑡𝑎𝑛(1.95)

𝑹𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 223807 𝑚

Minimum sink rate:

2 𝑊
𝑉𝑉,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √
𝜌∞ (𝐶𝐿3 /𝐶𝐷2 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑆

𝑉𝑉,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 25.03 𝑚/𝑠

Minimum glide angle sink rate:

 26

𝑽𝑽 = (𝑽∞ )𝜽𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒎𝒊𝒏

𝑉𝑉 = 4.96 𝑚/𝑠

2.10 Service and Absolute Ceiling:

When the R/Cmax =0 ft/min, the maximum flyable altitude is achieved. This maximum
altitude corresponds to the absolute ceiling of the aircraft. Another significant altitude
value corresponds to the R/Cmax = 100 ft/min, known as the service ceiling. This
corresponds to the practical maximum limit to maintain a steady, level flight.

Figure 9 Altitude vs R/C

From Graph:

𝑺𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝑪𝒆𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝟐𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒇𝒕 = 𝟖𝟓𝟑𝟒. 𝟒 𝒎

𝑨𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑪𝒆𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝟓𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒇𝒕 = 𝟏𝟔𝟒𝟓𝟗. 𝟐 𝒎

 27

2.11 Time to Climb:

2.11.1 Graphical Approach:
ℎ2 𝑛
𝑑ℎ 𝛥ℎ
𝑡=∫ = ∑( )
0 𝑅/𝐶 (𝑅/𝐶)𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑖
𝑖−1

From MATLAB:

𝑡 = 285.2 𝑠

𝑡 = 4.75 𝑚𝑖𝑛

2.11.2 Analytical Approach:

(𝑅/𝐶)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑏ℎ

ℎ
𝑑ℎ
𝑡=∫
0 𝑎 + 𝑏ℎ

ℎ 𝑑ℎ 1
𝑡 = ∫0 = [ln(𝑎 + 𝑏ℎ2 ) − ln(𝑎)]
𝑎+𝑏ℎ 𝑏

From MATLAB:

𝑎 = 42.3

𝑏 = −0.0017

𝑡 = 268 𝑠

𝑡 = 4.47 𝑚𝑖𝑛

2.11.3 Comparison:
The values calculated from graphical and analytical approach are very close to each other
the slight difference is due to limited MATLAB knowledge for reading a value from
graph and also rounding off errors.

2.12 Range:
The maximum distance the aircraft can cover on one full load of fuel is called Range. For a
turbojet/turbofan engine, the range is calculated by the formulae:
 28

𝟏/𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝑪𝑳 𝟏/𝟐 𝟏/𝟐
𝑹= √ (𝑾𝟎 − 𝑾𝟏 )
𝒄𝒕 𝝆∞ 𝑺 𝑪𝑫

For maximum range:

1/2
2 2 𝐶𝐿 1/2 1/2
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √ ( ) (𝑊0 − 𝑊1 )
𝑐𝑡 𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐷
𝑚𝑎𝑥

For Rolls-Royce Conway Mk 301:

1 1
𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑐𝑡 = 0.87 = 2.42 × 10−4
ℎ𝑟 𝑠
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑊0 = 1387866.53 𝑁

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑊𝑓 = 799130.2 𝑁

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑊1

= 𝑊0 − 𝑊𝑓

𝑊1 = 588736.33 𝑁

2 2
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −4
√ (33.97)(1387866.530.5 − 588736.330.5 )
2.42 × 10 (1.225)(264.8)

𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 9055524.9 𝑚 = 9055.52 𝐾𝑚

2.13 Endurance:
Endurance is calculated using the formulae:

1 𝐿 𝑊0
𝐸= 𝑙𝑛
𝑐𝑡 𝐷 𝑊1

Hence for maximum endurance:

1 𝐿 𝑊0
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( ) 𝑙𝑛
𝑐𝑡 𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑊1

𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 103826.6 𝑠 ≈ 28.8 ℎ𝑟𝑠

 29

CHAPTER 3: Accelerated Flight

3.1 Assumptions:
Following conditions were assumed while doing different calculations

 Assuming fuselage to be circular while calculating diameter

 K2 is equal to zero as the aircraft is subsonic
 Ratio of K1 and K3 is taken 0.2 because it is between 0.1-0.3
 The values of coefficients c, d, Cfe and k are taken from different books and
literatures. These are average values for subsonic narrow body jets.
 Other assumptions are included in respective sections.

3.2 Energy Calculations for Aircraft:

3.2.1 Excess Power (Ps):

Figure 10 Ps
 30

3.2.2 Total Ps Contours:

Figure 11 Ps contour

3.3 Turn Performance:

Load Factor
Analytical Approach
The maximum of maximum values of the load factor denotes the peak of the graph, as
indicated above. It can also be calculated by the following formulae:

𝑳 𝑻
𝒏𝑴 = ( ) ( )
𝑾 𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑾 𝒎𝒂𝒙

At Sea Level:

𝑛𝑀 = (29.30)(0.2885)

𝒏𝑴 = 𝟖. 𝟒𝟓

At 7620 m:

𝑛𝑀 = (29.30)(0.1075)

𝒏𝑴 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟓
 31

3.3.1 Minimum Turning Radius Parameters

Turning Velocity
For the ideal turning performance, the velocity is aimed to be as low as possible with a
highest possible load factor. For the level turn at minimum radius, the velocity is:

𝟒𝑲(𝑾⁄𝑺)
(𝑽∞ )𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏 = √
𝝆∞ (𝑻⁄𝑾)

4(0.01764)(5421.2)
(𝑉∞ )𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √
(1.225)(0.2885)

(𝑽∞ )𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟗 𝒎/𝒔

VRmin is greater than the Vstall calculated in section … and therefore the aircraft can fly at
this speed to perform a level turn with minimum radius.

Load Factor
For the level turn at minimum radius, the value of the load factor varies with that of the
maximum value obtained. Thus the value of the load factor for minimum turn radius is
calculated as:

𝟒𝑲𝑪𝑫,𝟎
𝒏𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏 = √𝟐 − 𝟐
(𝑻⁄𝑾)

4(0.01764)(0.0165)
𝑛𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √2 −
(0.2885)2

𝒏𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟐

Minimum Turning Radius

For an ideal level turning performance, the radius needs to be as small as possible,
calculated by the formulae:

(𝑽∞ )𝟐𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏 =
𝒈√𝒏𝟐𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏 − 𝟏

Substituting the values of velocity and load factor as found above, we obtain the
minimum radius for a level turn.
 32

(32.9)2
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
(9.8)√1.22 − 1

𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟏𝟔𝟔. 𝟓 𝒎

Maximum Turning Rate Parameters

Turning Velocity
The minimum turning velocity to obtain maximum turn rate is different than the one for
minimum turn radius. It can be found through the formulae:
𝟏 𝟏
𝟐(𝑾⁄𝑺) 𝟐 𝑲 𝟒
(𝑽∞ )𝝎𝒎𝒂𝒙 =[ ] ( )
𝝆∞ 𝑪𝑫,𝟎
1 1
2(5241.2) 2 0.01764 4
(𝑉∞ )𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 =[ ] ( )
1.225 0.0165

(𝑽∞ )𝝎𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟗𝟒. 𝟎𝟔 𝒎/𝒔

Load Factor
Similarly the load factor to obtain the maximum turning rate also varies from that of the
minimum turning radius.

(𝑻⁄𝑾)
𝒏𝝎𝒎𝒂𝒙 = √ −𝟏
√𝑲𝑪𝑫,𝟎

(0.2885)
𝑛𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √ −1
√(0.01764)(0.0165)

𝒏𝝎𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟖

Maximum Turn Rate

Hence using the above velocity and load factor, we can calculate the maximum turn rate
for a level turn.

𝒈√𝒏𝟐𝝎𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝟏
𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑽𝝎𝒎𝒂𝒙
 33

(9.8) √(3.98)2 − 1
𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
(94.06)

𝝎𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔 ≈ 𝟐𝟑 𝒅𝒆𝒈/𝒔

3.3.2 Pull up/Pull Down Maneuvers:

Corner Velocity:
The velocity at which maximum instantaneous turn rate and minimum instantaneous turn
radius, is obtained for an aircraft represents its Corner’s Velocity V*. At this instant, the
load factor is the maximum positive limit load factor with maximum value of CLmax . The
positive limit load factor was found through table (Appendix B) under the category of
civil transport. Thus the Corner’s velocity is calculated as:

𝟐𝒏𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑾
𝑽∗ = √
𝝆∞ (𝑪𝑳 )𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑺

𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 3.5

𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 3.03

2(3.5)
𝑉∗ = √ (5241.2)
(1.225)(3.03)

𝑽∗ = 𝟗𝟗. 𝟒𝟐 𝒎/𝒔

Minimum Radius for Maneuver:

𝟐 𝑾
𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏 =
𝝆∞ 𝒈(𝑪𝑳 )𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑺

𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 3.03

2
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (5421.2)
(1.225)(9.8)(3.03)

𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟐𝟗𝟖 𝒎

Maximum Turn Rate for Maneuver:

𝝆∞ (𝑪𝑳 )𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒏𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝝎𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒈√
𝟐(𝑾⁄𝑺)

𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 3.5
 34

𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 3.03

(1.225)(3.03)(3.5)
𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (9.8)√
2(5241.2)

𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝝎𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟒 ≈ 𝟏𝟗. 𝟖 𝒅𝒆𝒈/𝒔
𝒔

3.4 Load Factor Calculation:

3.4.1 nmax Thrust Constraint:
1⁄ 𝜌 𝑉 2 𝑇 1 𝐶𝐷,0 1⁄
∞ ∞
𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 ={ 2 [( ) − 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 2 ]} 2
𝐾(𝑊⁄𝑆) 𝑊 𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 𝑊⁄
𝑆

𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 8.3

3.4.2 nmax Cl Max Constraint:

1 (𝐶𝐿 )𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 2
2 𝑊⁄
𝑆

𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 20.16

3.4.3 nM:
𝐿 𝑇
𝑛𝑀 = ( )𝑚𝑎𝑥 ( )𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷 𝑊

𝑛𝑀 = 8.4
 35

3.5 V-n Diagram:

Figure 12 V-n Diagram

 36

3.6 Takeoff Performance

The total takeoff distance is divided into two parts, namely, ground roll and airborne
distance.

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑻𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒐𝒇𝒇 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝒔𝒈 + 𝒔𝒂

Figure 13: Takeoff Distance Schematic

For the takeoff performance, the CLmax changes as the flaps deployed angle is less than
that of the landing. From table (Appendix B), the range for CLmax is picked for the triple
slotted flaps.

𝐶𝐿,𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 2.4 − 2.7
cos⋀

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 2.55

𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑓 = (2.55)cos(32.5)

𝑪𝑳𝒎𝒂𝒙,𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒐𝒇𝒇 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟓

Liftoff Velocity
Liftoff velocity is the velocity at which the airplane takes off from the ground. It is
approximately 1.1 times Vstall of the aircraft. For the calculation of Vstall the CLmax
coefficient changes and corresponds to the maximum value of coefficient of life at the
takeoff, which is different from that during steady and level flight (section…)
 37

2 𝑊 1
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = √
𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑓

𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 63.09 𝑚/𝑠

𝑽𝑳𝑶 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝑽𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍

𝑽𝑳𝑶 = 𝟔𝟗. 𝟒 𝒎/𝒔

Ground Roll
The ground roll is the distance covered till the aircraft lifts off.

The basic equation for the calculation of ground roll is as follows:

𝟏 𝑲𝑨 𝟐
𝒔𝒈 = 𝒍𝒏 (𝟏 + 𝑽 ) + 𝑵𝑽𝑳𝑶
𝟐𝒈𝑲𝑨 𝑲𝑻 𝑳𝑶

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑉𝐿𝑂 = 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑁 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓

𝑁 = 3𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑠; 1𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑠

𝜌∞
𝐾𝐴 ≡ − [𝐶 + ∆𝐶𝐷,0 + (𝑘1 + 𝐺𝑘3 )𝐶𝐿2 − 𝜇𝑟 𝐶𝐿 ]
2(𝑊/𝑆) 𝐷,0

𝑇
𝐾𝑇 ≡ − 𝜇𝑟
𝑊
Calculation of KA
For the calculation of KA, the changes in the drag of the aircraft during takeoff are catered
for. The drag polar of the aircraft is different than that of steady and level flight. For the
ground roll the value of CL is a standard value equivalent to:

𝑪𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟏

Zero-lift drag coefficient

One of the reasons for the change in CD,0 is due to the additional landing gear down
configuration. Hence the change in the coefficient is found as:

𝑾
∆𝑪𝑫,𝟎 = 𝑲 𝒎−𝟎.𝟐𝟏𝟓
𝑺 𝒖𝒄
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 = 141523𝑘𝑔

𝐾𝑢𝑐 = 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑝 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 4.49 × 10−5

 38

𝑊 ⁄𝑆 = 5241.18 𝑁/𝑚2

∴ ∆𝐶𝐷,0 = (5241.18)(4.49 × 10−5 )(141523)−0.215

∴ ∆𝑪𝑫,𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟖𝟒

Lift induced drag coefficient

The lift induced drag during takeoff decreases as there is reduction in reduced drag sue to
lower level of wings with respect to the ground.

From conventional drag polar equation (section..), the value of k:

𝑘1 = 0.0024 𝑘2 = 0 𝑘3 = 0.012

To calculate the value of G:

(𝟏𝟔𝒉/𝒃)𝟐
𝑮=
𝟏 + (𝟏𝟔𝒉/𝒃)𝟐

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, ℎ = 6.02𝑚 ∗∗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 44.55 𝑚

(16(6.02)/(44.55))2
𝐺= = 0.8237
1 + (16(6.02)/44.55)2

Therefore the total lift inducing parameter equation becomes:

(𝒌𝟏 + 𝑮𝒌𝟑 ) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟒 + (𝟎. 𝟖𝟐𝟑𝟕)(𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟑

Friction effects
The effect of friction during takeoff plays a significant role and hence the coefficient of
rolling friction effects the CL during ground roll. From table … appendix B, the value of
coefficient of friction for dry concrete with no brakes is taken as:

𝝁𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒

Therefore substituting the values found above into the main equation:
𝜌∞
𝐾𝐴 = − [𝐶 + ∆𝐶𝐷,0 + (𝑘1 + 𝐺𝑘3 )𝐶𝐿2 − 𝜇𝑟 𝐶𝐿 ]
2(𝑊/𝑆) 𝐷,0

1.225
𝐾𝐴 = − [0.0165 + 0.0184 + (0.0123)(0.1)2 − (0.04)(0.1)]
2(5241.2)

𝑲𝑨 = −𝟑. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔
 39

Calculation of KT
KT accounts for the change in the thrust to weight ratio of the turbofan with velocity and
hence the frictional effects.

𝑇
𝐾𝑇 = − 𝜇𝑟
𝑊
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜇𝑟 = 0.04

Thrust variation with velocity

Thrust of the turbofan varies with velocity especially during ground effect, as it is more
prominent than that in steady, level flight. We take T as constant equal to its thrust
available:

𝑇𝐴 = 400400 𝑁

𝑇 = 400400 𝑁

𝑇
∴ = 0.2885
𝑊

Hence the final value of KT is:

𝐾𝑇 = 0.2885 − 0.04

𝑲𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟖𝟓

The total ground roll is hence found by substituting the above values:

1 −3.6 × 10−6
𝑠𝑔 = −6
𝑙𝑛 (1 + (69.4)2 ) + (3)(69.4)
2(9.8)(−3.6 × 10 ) 0.2485

𝒔𝒈 = 𝟏𝟐𝟑𝟑 𝒎

Airborne Distance
The distance when the aircraft lifts off and goes beyond the height of 50ft is known as the
airborne distance. It is measured horizontally with respect to the ground. The airborne
distance is calculated as:
 40

6.96(𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 )2
𝑅=
𝑔

ℎ
𝜃𝑂𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (1 − )
𝑅

∴ 𝒔𝒂 = 𝑹 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽𝑶𝑩 )

Figure 14: Airborne Distance Schematic

Substituting the values from above, the approach distance is:

𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 63.09 𝑓𝑡/𝑠

6.96(63.09)2
𝑅=
9.8
𝑅 = 2826.9 𝑚

50
∴ 𝜃𝑂𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (1 − )
2826.9

𝜃𝑂𝐵 = 10.8°

𝑠𝑎 = (2826.9) sin(10.8)

𝒔𝒂 = 𝟓𝟐𝟗. 𝟕 𝒎

Therefore, the total takeoff distance is:

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 1233 + 529.7

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑻𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒐𝒇𝒇 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟏𝟕𝟔𝟐. 𝟕 𝒇𝒕

 41

3.7 Landing Performance

Landing analysis outlines the distance needed to land for the aircraft without
overshooting and in time to brake. Lansing distance of an aircraft comprises of approach
and flare distance and ground roll.

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑳𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝒔𝒂 + 𝒔𝒇 + 𝒔𝒈

Figure 15: Landing Distance Schematic

For the landing performance, the CLmax changes as the flaps are deployed to the maximum
limit to obtain maximum braking effect. From table (Appendix B), the range for C Lmax is
picked for the triple slotted flaps.

𝐶𝐿,𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 3.2 − 3.5
cos⋀

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 3.35

𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = (3.35)cos(32.5)

𝑪𝑳𝒎𝒂𝒙,𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟐
 42

Touchdown and Flare Velocity

The stalling velocity for landing is also different than that of the takeoff or for steady,
level flight.

2 𝑊 1
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = √
𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 55.08 𝑚/𝑠

Therefore, for the landing analysis, the touchdown velocity is:

𝑽𝑻𝑫 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝑽𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍

𝑉𝑇𝐷 = 1.1(55.08)

𝑽𝑻𝑫 = 𝟔𝟎. 𝟓𝟗 𝒇𝒕/𝒔

Similarly the flare velocity for the landing is:

𝑽𝒇 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟓𝑽𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍

𝑉𝑓 = 1.15(55.08)

𝑽𝒇 = 𝟔𝟑. 𝟑𝟒 𝒇𝒕/𝒔

Approach Distance
The approach distance mainly depends
on the flare height hf and the approach
angle θa,

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, ℎ𝑓 = 𝑅(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑎 )

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃𝑎 ≤ 3°

Therefore the approach distance is

calculated from the diagram as:

𝑉𝑓2
𝑅=
0.2𝑔
Figure 16: Approach Distance Schematic
𝟏𝟓. 𝟐𝟒 − 𝒉𝒇
𝒔𝒂 =
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽𝒂
 43

Hence for the calculated Vf above and approach angle assumed to be 3°, the approach
distance is:

(63.34)2
𝑅=
0.2(9.8)

𝑅 = 204.7 𝑚

ℎ𝑓 = 204.7(1 − cos(3))

ℎ𝑓 = 0.28 𝑚

15.24 − 0.28
∴ 𝑠𝑎 =
tan(3)

𝒔𝒂 = 𝟐𝟖𝟓. 𝟒𝟓 𝒎

Flare Distance
The flare distance is simply the horizontal distance from the flare height to the
touchdown. From the figure 24, flare distance is:

𝒔𝒇 = 𝑹 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒇

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜃𝑓 = 𝜃𝑎

From the above calculated value of R, the flare distance is:

𝜃𝑓 = 𝜃𝑎 = 3°

𝑠𝑓 = 204.7 sin(3)

𝒔𝒇 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟕𝟏 𝒎

Ground Roll
The ground roll is similar to that of the takeoff, but with a deceleration and thrust reversal
effect. It is calculated as:

𝟏 𝑱𝑨
𝒔𝒈 = 𝑵𝑽𝑻𝑫 + 𝒍𝒏 (𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐𝑻𝑫 )
𝟐𝒈𝑱𝑨 𝑱𝑻

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑉𝑇𝐷 = 𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑁 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓

𝑁 = 3𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑠; 1𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑠

 44

𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑣
𝐽𝑇 ≡ + 𝜇𝑟
𝑊
𝜌∞
𝐽𝐴 ≡ [𝐶 + ∆𝐶𝐷,0 + (𝑘1 + 𝐺𝑘3 )𝐶𝐿2 − 𝜇𝑟 𝐶𝐿 ]
2(𝑊/𝑆) 𝐷,0

Calculation of JA
JA is found similar to that of the takeoff. All the parameters are same except for the
change in the zero lift drag coefficient of the aircraft, as the flaps are deployed fully.
Hence Kuc is a different value than that of the takeoff.

Hence the change in the coefficient due to full flap deployment is found as:

𝑾
∆𝑪𝑫,𝟎 = 𝑲 𝒎−𝟎.𝟐𝟏𝟓
𝑺 𝒖𝒄
𝑓𝑜𝑟, 𝐾𝑢𝑐 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑝 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 3.16 × 10−5

∴ ∆𝐶𝐷,0 = (5241.2)(3.16 × 10−5 )(141523)−0.215

∴ ∆𝑪𝑫,𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟗

Therefore substituting the values found above into the main equation:
𝜌∞
𝐽𝐴 = [𝐶 + ∆𝐶𝐷,0 + (𝑘1 + 𝐺𝑘3 )𝐶𝐿2 − 𝜇𝑟 𝐶𝐿 ]
2(𝑊/𝑆) 𝐷,0

1.225
𝐽𝐴 = [0.0165 + 0.0129 + (0.0123)(0.1)2 − (0.4)(0.1)]
2(5241.2)

𝑱𝑨 = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔

Calculation of JT
Thrust reversal
Similar to the takeoff ground roll, the constant JT caters for the thrust reversal of the
aircraft that aids in the braking action after touchdown. Thrust reversal for large aircraft
is usually 40-50% of the maximum forward thrust of the engine.

𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑣 = (0.45)(400400)

𝑻𝒓𝒆𝒗 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝑵
 45

Friction effects
The effect of friction during landing is more prominent than takeoff and hence the
coefficient of rolling friction effects the CL during ground roll. From table … appendix B,
the value of coefficient of friction for dry concrete with brakes applied is taken as:

𝝁𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟒

Therefore substituting the values above:

180180
𝐽𝑇 ≡ + 0.4
1387866.53

𝑱𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟐𝟗

Hence the total ground roll distance is:

1 −1.22 × 10−6
𝑠𝑔 = (3)(60.59) + 𝑙𝑛 (1 + (60.59)2 )
2(9.8)(−1.22 × 10−6 ) 0.529

𝑠𝑔 = 181.77 + 335.57

𝒔𝒈 = 𝟓𝟏𝟕. 𝟑 𝒎

Therefore the total landing distance is:

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 517.3 + 10.71 + 285.45

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑳𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟖𝟏𝟑. 𝟓 𝒎

The total landing distance for the IL-76 is about 3,937ft which slightly varies from the
calculated value. Variation in the calculation may arise due to difference in the actual
thrust reversal parameters of the engine.
 46

CONCLUSION:

The report deals with different aerodynamic feature which comes with the performance of
an aircraft. Every aerodynamic feature was separately analyzed first by analytical approach
and then by graphical approach. Analytical approach was based on mathematical formulae,
while graphical approach was based on graphs plotted by MALTAB. After performing the
complete performance analysis of VC10-1101, it can be said that I have grasp over every
learning outcome and content-of-course of Aero Vehicle Performance.

7 References

[1] "Vickers VC10 jetliners fly last mission from RAF Brize Norton," BBC, Oxford, 2013.

[2] (2016, Nov.) VC10. [Online]. http://www.vc10.net/History/historyBOAC.html

[3] (2016, Nov.) DM Flight SIM. [Online].

http://www.dmflightsim.co.uk/vickers_vc10_history.htm

[4] (2016, Nov.) VC 10. [Online]. http://www.vc10.net/History/AccidentsandIncidents.html

[5] (2016, Nov.) VC 10. [Online]. http://www.vc10.net/History/Hijackings.html

Appendix A

Thrust Required:
W=1387866.53; %Enter aircraft weight%
S=264.8; %enter wing area%
Cdo=0.01650; %enter Cdo%
 47

k=0.01764; %enter k %
p=0.5463;
X=(2*W)/(p*S);
Y=(0.5*p*S);
V=50:50:500;
Cl=X.*(1./(V.^2));
Cd=Cdo+((Cl.^2).*k);
Tr=Y*Cd.*(V.^2);
plot(V,Tr)
hold on
max(Tr)
disp('Min Thrust Required')
min(Tr)

Cl/Cd Ratios:
clc
disp('Cl/Cd ; Cl(3^2)/Cd ; Cl(1^2)/Cd curves vs Velocity')
disp('--------------------------------------------------')
W=1387866.53; %Enter aircraft weight%
S=264.8; %enter wing area%
Cdo=0.01650; %enter Cdo%
k=0.01764; %enter k %
p=0.5463;
disp('--------------------------------------------------')
const=(2*W)/(p*S);
const2=(0.5*p*S);
v1=50;
v2=1;
v3=400;
V=v1:v2:v3;
Cl=const.*(1./(V.^2));
Cd=Cdo+((Cl.^2).*k);
LDratio=Cl./Cd;
L32=(Cl.^(3/2));
L32D=(L32./(Cd));
L12=Cl.^(1/2);
L12D=L12./Cd;
plot(V,LDratio)
hold on
plot(V,L32D,'r')
plot(V,L12D,'k')
disp('Max Cl/Cd Ratio')
max(LDratio)
disp('--------------------------------------------------')
disp('Max (Cl^3/2)/Cd Ratio')
max(L32D)
disp('--------------------------------------------------')
disp('Max (Cl^1/2)/D Ratio')
max(L12D)
disp('--------------------------------------------------')
 48

Thrust Available:
clear
clc
disp('T Required vs Velocity')
disp('--------------------------------------------------')
W=1387866.53; %Enter aircraft weight%
S=264.8; %enter wing area%
Cdo=0.0165; %enter Cdo%
k=0.01764; %enter k %
p1=0.5463;
p2=1.225;
X=(2*W)/(p1*S);
X2=(2*W)/(p2*S);
Y=(0.5*p1*S);
Y2=(0.5*p2*S);
V=50:50:800;
Cl1=X.*(1./(V.^2));
Cl2=X2.*(1./(V.^2));
Cd1=Cdo+((Cl1.^2).*k);
Cd2=Cdo+((Cl2.^2).*k);
Tr1=Y*Cd1.*(V.^2);
Tr2=Y2*Cd2.*(V.^2);
plot(V,Tr1)
hold on
plot(V,Tr2)
hold on
disp('Max Thrust Required')
max(Tr1)
disp('--------------------------------------------------')
disp('Min Thrust Required')
min(Tr1)
hold on
xlabel('Thrust Required (N)')
ylabel('Velocity (m/s)')

Power Required:
clear
clc
disp('Power Required vs Velocity')
disp('--------------------------------------------------')
W=1387866.53; %Enter aircraft weight%
S=264.8; %enter wing area%
Cdo=0.0165; %enter Cdo%
k=0.01764; %enter k %
p=0.5463;
disp('--------------------------------------------------')
const=(2*W)/(p*S);
const2=(0.5*p*S);
v1=50;
v2=1;
v3=400;
V=v1:v2:v3;
 49

Cl=const.*(1./(V.^2));
Cd=Cdo+((Cl.^2).*k);
Tr=const2*Cd.*(V.^2);
Pr=Tr.*V;
HPr=Pr./746;
plot(V,HPr)
hold on
disp('Max Power Required')
max(HPr)
disp('--------------------------------------------------')
disp('Min Power Required')
min(HPr)

Power Available Vmax:

clear
clc
disp(' Power Required & Power Available vs Velocity')
disp('--------------------------------------------------')
W=1387866.53; %Enter aircraft weight%
S=264.8; %enter wing area%
Cdo=0.0165; %enter Cdo%
k=0.01764; %enter k %
p=0.5463;
Ta=178562;
const=(2*W)/(p*S);
const2=(0.5*p*S);
v1=50;
v2=1;
v3=400;
V=v1:v2:v3;
Cl=const.*(1./(V.^2));
Cd=Cdo+((Cl.^2).*k);
Tr=const2*Cd.*(V.^2);
Pr=Tr.*V;
HPr=Pr./746;
Pa=Ta.*V;
HPa=Pa./746;
plot(V,HPr)
hold on
plot(V,HPa)
disp('Max Power Required')
max(HPr)
disp('--------------------------------------------------')
disp('Min Power Required')
min(HPr)

R/C:
W = 312004.8; %total weight
S = 2850.3; %wing area
k = 0.017464; %constant of coefficient of lift
Cdo = 0.0165; %zero lift drag coefficient
TA0 = 90013.5; %Maximum thrust available by the engines
rho_1 = 0.002377; %density at sea level
 50

V = [0:1:1400];

for i = [0.002377, 0.002048, 0.001756, 0.001496, 0.001267, 0.001066,

0.000891, 0.000738]
% values of density at different heights with a step of 5000ft

Cl = (2*W)./(i.*(V.^2)*S);
Cd = Cdo + k.*Cl.^2;

TAmax_alt = TA0*(i/rho_1);% Maximum thrust available at different

altitudes for turbofan

PAmax = TAmax_alt.*V;

TR = 0.5*i.*(V.^2)*S.*Cd;
PR = TR.*V;
ROC = (PAmax - PR)/W;
plot(V,ROC)
hold on

end

Ceiling:
clear
clc
disp('---------------------Ceiling----------------------')
disp('--------------------------------------------------')
W=160808; %Enter aircraft weight%
S=1805; %enter wing area%
AR=7.5; %enter Aspect Ratio%
Cdo=0.02; %enter Cdo%
k=0.052; %enter k %
H=zeros(1,2);
RCmax=zeros(1,2);
Tao=81852;
dumb=zeros(1,1901);
po=0.002377;
for i=1:1:10
H(i)=input('enter the height = ');
p=input('enter the density at this height = ');
disp('--------------------------------------------------')
Ta=Tao*((p/po));
Ta=dumb+Ta;
const=(2*W)/(p*S);
const2=(0.5*p*S);
v1=100;
v2=1;
v3=2000;
V=v1:v2:v3;
 51

Cl=const.*(1./(V.^2));
Cd=Cdo+((Cl.^2).*k);
Tr=const2*Cd.*(V.^2);
Pr=Tr.*V;
Pa=Ta.*V;
RC=(Pa-Pr)/W;
max(RC)
RCmax(i)=max(RC);
end
plot(RCmax,H)
hold on
disp('--------------------------------------------------')

Ps:
W=312004.8; %Enter aircraft weight%
S=2850.3; %enter wing area%
AR=7.49; %enter Aspect Ratio%
Cdo=0.0165; %enter Cdo%
k=0.01764; %enter k %
for i=1:1:5
Tao=90013.5;
dumb=zeros(1,1901);
po=0.002377;
p=input('enter the density = ');
disp('--------------------------------------------------')
Ta=Tao*((p/po)^0.6);
Ta=dumb+Ta;
const=(2*W)/(p*S);
const2=(0.5*p*S);
v1=100;
v2=1;
v3=2000;
V=v1:v2:v3;
Cl=const.*(1./(V.^2));
Cd=Cdo+((Cl.^2).*k);
Tr=const2*Cd.*(V.^2);
Pr=Tr.*V;
Pa=Ta.*V;
RC=(Pa-Pr)/W;
plot(V,RC)
hold on
end

Ps Contour:
[M,h] = meshgrid(0:0.01:1.5,0:500:60000);
W = 11723; %total weight
S = 1175; %wing area
k = 0.09138; %constant of coefficient of lift
Cdo = 0.01880; %zero lift drag coefficient
TA0 = 20800; %Maximum thrust available by the engines
rho_1 = 0.002377; %density at sea level
g = 32.2;
 52

if h < 36152
T = 59 -(0.00356.*h);
P = 2116.*(((T+459.7)./518.6).^5.256);
else
T = -70;
P = 473.1.*exp(1.73 - 0.000048.*h);
end
rho = P./(1716.*(459.7+T));
speed_sound = sqrt((1.4)*1716.*(T+459.7));
V = speed_sound.*M;
TA_alt = (TA0).*((rho/rho_1).^0.6);
PA_alt = TA_alt.*V; % power available
Cl = ((2*W)./(rho.*S.*(V.^2))); % Coefficient of lift
Cd = 0.017 + (0.088.*(Cl.^2));% Coefficient of drag
TR_alt = (0.5.*rho.*S).*Cd.*(V.^2);
PR_alt = TR_alt.*V; % power required
Ps = (PA_alt-PR_alt)./W; % Specific excess power
% Calculating Energy height
He = h + ((V.^2)./(2*g));
% Making the contour of mach number, height and energy height
contour(M,h,He);
colormap('copper');
hold on
% labeling the constant specific excess power lines
[C,h] = contour(M,h,Ps,[0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140]);
text_handle = clabel(C,h);
hold off

Vn:
clc
W=1387866.53;
S=264.8;
rho_SL=1.225;
Cdo=0.0165;
K=0.01764;
To=400400;
rho=0.5463;
g=9.81;
Ta_max = To * (rho/rho_SL)^0.6;
Cl_max=2;
Cl_neg=Cl_max*0.75;
TbyW_max = To/W
LbyD_max = 12.0633;

V=0:200;
n = (V.^2)*0.5*rho_SL*(Cl_max/(W/S));
neg_n= -((V.^2)*0.5*rho_SL*(Cl_neg/(W/S)));
plot(V,n,V,neg_n)
axis([0,200,-6,8])
xlabel('Velocity (m/s)')
ylabel('Load Factor n')
title('The V-n Diagram (VC10-1101)')
hold on
plot([0 300],[0 0],'k')
 53

hold off

Appendix B

For CD,0 Calculation

Table 1: Skin Friction Coefficient

 54

CL,max For High Lift Devices

Table 2: CLmax for High Lift Devices

Limit Load Factor

Table 3: Limit Load Factor Range

 55

Coefficient of Friction

Table 4: Coefficient of Friction