c
c

c
c
c
 

c

 c  c  c cc

Chinese Name : Kuan Ming Number:S20102218

  cc

Theoretical physics is a branch of physics which employs mathematical models and abstractions
of physics in an attempt to explain natural phenomena. Its central core is mathematical physics,[note 1]
though other conceptual techniques are also used. The goal is to rationalize, explain and predict physical
phenomena.

The advancement of science depends in general on the interplay between experimental studies
and theory. In some cases, theoretical physics adheres to standards of mathematical rigor while giving
little weight to experiments and observations. For example, while developing special relativity, Albert
Einstein was concerned with the Lorentz transformation which left Maxwell's equations invariant, but
was apparently uninterested in the Michelson-Morley experiment on Earth's drift through a
aluminiferous ether. On the other hand, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for explaining the
photoelectric effect, previously an experimental result lacking a theoretical formulation.

!c
A physical theory is a model of physical events. It is judged by the extent to which its predictions
agree with empirical observations. The quality of a physical theory is also judged on its ability to make
new predictions which can be verified by new observations. A physical theory differs from a
mathematical theorem in that while both are based on some form of axioms, judgment of mathematical
applicability is not based on agreement with any experimental results.͞

A physical theory involves one or more relationships between various measurable quantities.
Archimedes realized that a ship floats by displacing its mass of water, Pythagoras understood the
relation between the length of a vibrating string and the musical tone it produces, and how to calculate
the length of a rectangle's diagonal. Other examples include entropy as a measure of the uncertainty
regarding the positions and motions of unseen particles and the quantum mechanical idea that (action
and) energy are not continuously variable.

Sometimes the vision provided by pure mathematical systems can provide clues to how a
physical system might be modeled; e.g., the notion, due to Riemann and others, that space itself might
be curved.
 Theoretical advances may consist in setting aside old, incorrect paradigms (e.g., Burning consists
of evolving phlogiston, or Astronomical bodies revolve around the Earth) or may be an alternative model
that provides answers that are more accurate or that can be more widely applied.

Physical theories become accepted if they are able to make correct predictions and no (or few)
incorrect ones. The theory should have, at least as a secondary objective, a certain economy and
elegance (compare to mathematical beauty), a notion sometimes called "Occam's razor" after the 13th-
century English philosopher William of Occam (or Ockham), in which the simpler of two theories that
describe the same matter just as adequately is preferred. (But conceptual simplicity may mean
mathematical complexity.) They are also more likely to be accepted if they connect a wide range of
phenomena. Testing the consequences of a theory is part of the scientific method.

Ë
c
Physical theories can be grouped into three categories: mainstream theories, proposed theories
and fringe theories.

"#
c
c  c$c
cË 
c 
c
Science- physics in particular- can play a major role in solving the problems in facing humanity.
Of course science does not have all the answers and not all scientific advances have benefited society.
One need look no further than nuclear weapons, which remain a major international concern. Yet, on
balance, the contributions of science have been positive and significant. Being largely devoid of political,
economic and religious influences, science has the power to form consensus between people.

Moreover, only scientific knowledge can help governments decide which technologies are
needed to solve problems in a particular country. Although economics, politics, public acceptability,
technological simplicity and other socio-economic factors play a role, science and good engineering are
what ultimately count. From electricity and transport to computers and the internet, physics has laid the
foundations for numerous transforming technologies over the past 200 years. And with the need to
develop cleaner energy and mitigate the adverse effects of climate change, for example, society will
increasingly depend on physics to understand and solve its problems.

Yet scientific developments in developing countries are woefully inadequate. In the West, the
proportion of gross domestic product (GDP) devoted to research and develop averages between 2.5 %
and 4 %, with Sweden (3.7%), Japan(3.0%) and the US (2.6%) leading the way. However the equivalent
figures in the developing world are often substantially less than 0.5%, with Ecuador for example,
spending just 0.08% of its GDP on research. Only a handful of developing countries notably Brazil, China
and India have managed to boost their spending to above 1 %.

Unfortunately, many countries fail to appreciate benefits of science. Instead they associate it
with some of the negative effects of modern life, such as fumes from incessant traffic, the population of
land by oil refineries, and the use of increasingly deadly weapons they shy away from science because of
such dark images.

cc c%c 
c%cË 
c 
c

Developing countries themselves are not unaware of the impact and challenges of science
education; however, it may be worthwhile to make the following recommendations that could benefit
their science and technology base:

1. Commitment of funding to science through prioritization by developing countries and the

establishment of graduate research institutes driven by local needs and trends in globalization.

2. Sustainable partnerships and collaboration with scientists in developed countries, especially

those with ethnic ties to developing countries, who could also be encouraged through creation of a
conducive intellectual environment to take their sabbatical or study leave in developing countries and
may even encourage them to return eventually.

3. An ethnically and culturally diverse peer review approach in internationally recognized

journals to encourage the communication of scientific ideas, regardless of their source.

4. The assistance of international courier companies in the shipment of equipment, laboratory

support materials, spare parts, books, and other supplies (often surplus in developed countries) at an
affordable rate for the development of science education in developing countries.

5. Facilitation of science communication in developing countries and access to information

resources. For instance, some university libraries in developing countries do not have easy access to
year-old copies of high-impact-factor journals, either as hard copies or online access. Even with online
editions, the paper versions remain relevant and, as such, collaborations between local publishers and
others could make them available at affordable rates (Tyokumbur 2008), while local authorities could
take the necessary steps to strengthen and enforce copyright laws to protect this support mechanism.

6. Strengthening of existing science efforts and infrastructures



c
Physics education in developing countries really counts through significant impacts on the local
and international arenas and should be encouraged by private and public institutions, individuals, and
charities through diverse funding options and support mechanisms. By mentoring junior scholars,
enhancing the stream of science communication, and enhancing the role of government and
philanthropists to provide the services of monitoring, supervising, and setting standards of education,
science education in developing countries will remain relevant. The Least Developed Countries (LDCs)
Report 2007 of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) also suggests that
industrialized countries can help by supporting policies that will help to dampen their demand for those
professionals most needed by LDCs through measures such as favoring temporary recruitment rather
than permanent immigration, establishing and enhancing programs to assist qualified emigrants in
returning to their home countries, and using official aid programs to improve working conditions in
specific professions in LDCs, such as education and health. The UNCTAD report also cites the example of
the United Kingdom in policies to reduce the impact of brain drain in the health sector through
restrictions on the international recruitment of nurses from countries where their emigration would
have negative consequences for the home country. Such policies could be adopted by other developed
countries. Hira (2009) corroborates the impact of the brain drain; for example, U.S. universities have
been a magnet for talented young people around the world interested in acquiring the world͛s best
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education. Many, if not most, of these
people have remained in the United States, become citizens, and made enormous contributions to the
productivity of the U.S. economy as well as its social, cultural, and political life. Furthermore, these
universities are now beginning to think of themselves as global institutions that can deliver their services
anywhere in the world, such as Cornell, which operates a medical school in Qatar at a modest cost for
local students. Wadhwa (2009), who studied the impact of reverse brain drain, supports the claim that
despite local challenges, returnees are spurring a technology boom in their home countries by
expanding their capacity to provide outsourcing services for foreign companies in Research and
Development (R&D) capability in knowledge-based industries that are becoming increasingly
sophisticated. Science education in developing countries therefore really counts and should be
supported. Hartnett (2010), writing about promoting international ecological research and training in
the developing world, sheds light on the benefits and challenges of these efforts. Tyokumbur (2010) in
his book, Practising Ecology: Chances and Choices, has equally and succinctly discussed ecological
problems from the perspective of developing countries, the challenges and benefits of managing
ecosystem services for the benefit of all.