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Opportunities of Downhole Dielectric Heating in Venezuela: Three Case Studies

Involving Medium, Heavy and Extra-Heavy Crude Oil Reservoirs

Article · November 2002

DOI: 10.2118/78980-MS

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SPE/Petroleum Society of CIM/CHOA SPE 78980
Opportunities of Downhole Dielectric Heating in Venezuela: Three Case Studies
Involving Medium, Heavy and Extra-Heavy Crude Oil Reservoirs
Cesar Ovalles (SPE), Anyaleth Fonseca, Ali Lara, Vladimir Alvarado (SPE), Kerin Urrecheaga, Aaron Ranson and
Humberto Mendoza (SPE), PDVSA-INTEVEP, P.O. Box 76343, Caracas 1070A, Venezuela
Copyright 2002, SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA International Thermal Operations and Heavy Oil
Symposium and International Horizontal Well Technology Conference.
This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2002 SPE International Thermal Operations
and Heavy Oil Symposium and International Horizontal Well Technology Conference held in
Calgary, Alberta, Canada, 4–7 November 2002.
This paper was selected for presentation by the ITOHOS/ICHWT Program Committee
following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents
of the paper, as presented, have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers,
the Petroleum Society of CIM, or CHOA and are subject to correction by the author(s). The
material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum
Engineers, the Petroleum Society of CIM, or CHOA, its officers, or members. Electronic
reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper for commercial purposes
without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, Petroleum Society of CIM,
or CHOA is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not
more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain
conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper was presented. Write
Librarian, SPE, P.O. Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836, U.S.A., fax 01-972-952-9435.
Abstract
The use of electromagnetic radiation, radiofrequency (RF)
and microwaves (MW), for downhole dielectric heating has
potential applications in enhanced/improved oil recovery
processes (EOR). The Lambert’s equation was coupled to a
commercial simulator in order to model reservoir dielectric
heating. Using a MW heated (2.45 GHz) one-dimensional
reactor, this mathematical model was validated in the
presence of crude oil/sand cores. Three different conceptual
reservoirs were evaluated which involved a medium crude oil
(24°API), a shallow (1100 ft) Lake Maracaibo heavy oil
(11°API) and a thin payzone (20 ft) Orinoco Basin extra-
heavy crude (7.7°API). For all the cases evaluated, numerical
simulation results showed an important acceleration in the oil
production due to RF and MW heating which was attributed
to reduction of crude viscosity coupled with favorable
relative water-to-oil permeabilities. For example, in the
shallow heavy oil case, RF heating led to an increase of 86%
of the cumulative oil production in comparison with the cold
production case, using 140 MHz at 50 kW over a ten-year
period. Furthermore, calculated energy gains (measured as
the ratio between the energy extracted as crude oil equivalent
to energy added to the reservoir as electricity) were in the 8
to 20 range, indicating that the process is favorable from the
thermodynamic point of view. These conceptual numerical
simulation results indicate the high potential of dielectric
heating technology for medium, heavy and extra-heavy EOR
with possible field applications.
Introduction
The use of electromagnetic radiation, radiofrequency and
microwaves, for downhole dielectric heating has potential
applications in enhanced/improved oil recovery processes
(EOR)1-3. In general, radiations whose frequencies range
from 10 to 100 MHz are referred to as radio frequencies (RF)
and in the range 300 MHz to 300 GHz to microwaves
(MW)1-3. Specifically, the heating of formation fluids and
porous media can lead to improved mobility of the oleic
phase, relative to the aqueous and gas phases, with the
concomitant increase in oil production.
Four different approaches to take the electric energy
downhole have been reported in the literature1. These are
single and inter-well electromagnetic heating, resistive tubing
heating and RF or MW dielectric heating. In this article, only
the latter concept will be studied mainly for its advantages of
higher penetration into the reservoir and its compatibility to
shallow and thin payzone reservoirs (directionality)1-3.
As found in laboratory measurements, hydrocarbon-
containing sands can absorb RF and MW to reach very high
temperatures (300-400°C) very rapidly4-6. Wan et al. studied
the thermal decomposition of Canadian Tar Sands using
short-time microwave pulses (3-5 s) and one atmosphere of
pressure4. Several light hydrocarbons were detected (C2-C8)
and their molar distribution did not change in the presence of
water4. Milan studied the MW absorption of petroleum
containing sands using MW of 2450 MHz 5 and proposed an
empirical model in which the electromagnetic energy has a
maximum penetration of 15 meters5. Cambon et al. carried
out the extraction of crude oil from Canadian Tar Sand at
different times (3-20min) and powers (from 0 to 2.5 kW at
2.45 GHz)6. The authors reported up to 86% yield in
distillable products with similar quality as those obtained by
conventional methods6. All these results demonstrate at
laboratory scale, the feasibility of using RF and MW
radiation for dielectric heating of oil containing sands4-6.
Several concepts have been proposed to take the
electromagnetic energy downhole to heat the underground
formations and fluids. For example, Haagensen patented an
apparatus to generate the RF and/or MW at the surface and a
coaxial or waveguide to take the energy downhole7-8. Wilson
patented similar equipment with small modifications to be
used for microwave heating9. On the other hand, Jeambey
2 SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA 78980
uses a downhole MW generator in which the formation
dielectric constants can be measured and the system
optimized to reach very high temperatures (up to 400°C)10-12.
In a field test in Oklahoma, Bridges and coworkers used
three waveguides inserted into the ground to heat a limited
amount of an oil-bearing formation in the beginning of the
90’s13-15. In this field test, a 300MHz radiation was used to
raise the temperature near the wellbore region from 18°C up
to 100°C. At 15 ft from the well, a temperature of 33°C was
reached. The authors reported an increased in the production
of crude oil (6°API) but no additional details were given1,13-
15
. Kasevich et al. carried out a field test in Bakersfield,
California in a 600-700 ft depth-reservoir in 199416. The
authors used a 25 kW surface generator (at 13.56MHz), a
coaxial line and an antenna to bring the energy downhole16.
Their results demonstrate the technical feasibility of
generating, transmitting and focusing the electromagnetic
energy into an oil bearing formation reaching 120°C at 10_ft
from the well in 20 h16.
In the last few years, several physical and numerical
simulation studies have been reported showing the potential
applications of this technology for EOR processes. Warre et
al. performed a numerical simulation of microwave (915
MHz) heating of an aquifer drive Saskatchewan reservoir17.
The authors found an increase in the cumulative oil produced
by MW heating (27%) in comparison to that calculated for
cold production (18%). This result was attributed to higher
oil/water mobility ratio and a reduction of water fingering17.
Soliman reported a theoretical study of using electromagnetic
energy for in situ steam generation18. His results indicated a
two-fold cumulative oil increase when a 100 kW energy
source is used to generate steam from an aquifer18. Hu and
coworkers reported physical simulation of Canadian thin pay
zone reservoirs19. The authors found an increase of more than
10% in the percentage of recovery (vs. OOIP) using 10 MHz
of RF energy along with nitrogen injection19. Sahni et al.
carried out numerical simulations of dielectric heating in
horizontal and vertical wells20. For the first ones, a
steamflood process in addition to RF and MW heating was
considered and better temperature distributions were found
than those using steam alone20. In the next case, a 60kW-
electromagnetic emitting antenna was placed 30 ft from a
vertical producing well and 80% increase in cumulative oil
was calculated in comparison with cold production20.
From the results presented in the previous publications it
can be concluded that the use of electromagnetic radiation,
RF and MW, for downhole dielectric heating has potential
applications in enhanced/improved oil recovery processes1-
3,21-22
. In this article, the Lambert’s equation was coupled to a
commercial simulator in order to model reservoir dielectric
heating and using a MW heated (2.45 GHz) one-dimensional
reactor, this mathematical model was validated in the
presence of a crude oil/sandstone core. Next, three different
conceptual reservoirs were studied which involved a medium
crude oil (24°API), a shallow (1100 ft) Lake Maracaibo
heavy oil (11°API) and a thin payzone (20 ft) Orinoco Basin
extra-heavy crude (7.7°API). Sensitivities to frequency and
power were carried out in order to demonstrate the potential
opportunities of this technology in Venezuelan reservoirs.
.
Experimental Procedure
A CEM microwave oven, model SAM-155 with 650W of
power, was used in the 1-D physical model (see Fig. 1). The
experimental apparatus consists of a 300 ml cylindrical
stainless steel reactor in which the top had been removed so
that the electromagnetic energy penetrates downward5. This
vessel is placed in the microwave oven cavity and securely
connected to ground to avoid electrical discharges. In a
typical procedure, 70 g of medium (25°API) or extra-heavy
(7.7 °API) oil-containing sands were used and temperature
profiles were measured with a four-point thermocouple after
0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 min heating periods for the medium crude oil
(see Fig. 1). For the extra-heavy oil the times were 1, 5 and
10 min. Temperature readings were done after the MW
energy was disconnected. The results of the temperature
recordings were verified with optical sensors and no
significant differences between them were observed.
.
Mathematical model
The traveling and absorption of RF and MW radiation as well
as all electromagnetic radiations are described by Maxwell’s
equations23. These equations are available in the
electromagnetic textbooks and they will not be discussed in
this work23.
Maxwell’s equations can be simplified for the electro-
magnetic heating case, in which the absorbed power is
proportional to the magnitude of the sample electric field
distribution, according to Poynting theorem23. In this case,
the correct electric field expression for electroneutral
materials with temperature independent properties is the
wave or Helmholtz equation:
G G
∇ 2 E (r ) + k 2 E (r ) = 0 .................................................(1)
ω
k= ε*
c ................................................................ (2)
Where the propagation constant, k, receives contributions
from the electrical conductivity and permittivity through the
complex dielectric constant ε * (ω ) 23. To describe the
absorption of the waves by the sample, two mathematical
expressions can be considered. They are: the Maxwell’s and
Lambert’s equations. The first one considers waves traveling
in opposite directions, which include reflection effects at the
interfaces that delimit the medium, as well as interference
contributions that may cause resonances. On the other hand,
Lambert’s law ignores all the effects that result from
reflection at the interfaces. Both equations can be used to
determine the dependence of the radiation power on the
distance and are derived from the classic electromagnetic
theory23.
For numerical simulation of the 1-D physical model, the
analytical equation that describes the heating of oil-
SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA 78980 3

containing sands is based on the energy balance equation by c 2 (10)

conduction. This equation (eq. 3) is used to determine the
temperature profile in the sample.
Dp =
2πf ( )
κ ' 1 + tanδ 2 − 1

∂T ∂ 2T (3) In which tanδ=ε’’/ε’.

ρCp = k 2 + p ( x)
∂t ∂x In this work, Dp, ε’ and ε’’were measured from medium,
Here p(x) is the dissipated power by the radiation and is heavy and extra-heavy core samples by the company
treated as a volumetric source of heat in W/m3. The boundary Microwave Properties North, Deep River, Ontario Canada.
conditions represented by eqs. 4 and 5 describe the These values were determined in the 50-150°C-temperature
convection heat loss from the top and bottom of the reactor. range at one atmosphere and corrected for reservoir pressure.

dT Model validation
kair − h0 (T − T∞ ) = 0 x=0
dx (4) Microwave (MW) heating was modeled using the STARS
simulator from CMG, Calgary, Canada by assigning a
constant heating value to each block of the experimental
dT apparatus. For the one-dimensional reactor, the amount of
=0 x=L
dx (5) heat was calculated using eq. 6 and a cylindrical grid (2 x 1 x
4) shown in Fig. 2. To determine the temperature profile, a
Where h0 is the convective heat transfer coefficients at porosity of 24%, permeability of 350 mD and an oil
x=0 and, T∞ is the surrounding temperature in the oven. In saturation of 99% (water saturation of 1%) were used.
the case of heating the sand containing medium or heavy Thermal (heat capacities, thermal conductivities, etc.) and
crude oils, the power cannot be represented by Lambert’s other physical (viscosity, gas/liquid equilibrium constants,
equation, since this expression is only valid for semi-infinite etc.) properties of sands, and medium (24°API), and an
samples. However, eq. 6 can be used, which takes into Orinoco Basin extra-heavy (7.7°API) crude oils were
consideration the effects of reflection and resonances caused calculated using a procedure described elsewhere25.
by the interaction of the electromagnetic waves with the In order to simulate as close as possible the experimental
reactor’s material. conditions, heat losses by convection through the top surface
of the sample were considered. This flux of energy was
  x   ( x − 2L)   calculated by multiplying the coefficient of heat transfer with
exp − 2 + exp 2 +  the transversal area of the reactor that contains the mixture of
  Dp (ω )   D (ω ) 
 p   oil and sand.
p( x) = p0  
  L    4  (6) In Fig. 3, temperature profiles calculated with STARS
 
2 exp − 2 D (ω )  cosπ  λ (ω ) ( x − L) − 1 (lines) were compared with the results obtained
  p     experimentally (points). As can be seen, the mathematical
model developed in this work predicts well the temperature
Where p0 is the initial transmitted power calculated by eq. profile measured inside the reactor during microwave heating
7 from the experimental value for the average heating. performing energy, mass, and momentum balances26. For the
medium crude oil, the average standard deviation is 1.7°C,
2 L ρ Cp (dT / dt )
p0 = (7) whereas for the extra-heavy crude oil it is 4°C. These
[
D p 1 − exp (− 2 L / D p ) ] differences can be attributed to experimental errors during
temperature reading. Similar results were obtained for the
For the numerical simulation of the three conceptual experiments with other periods of heating. It is important to
Venezuelan reservoirs, an equation (eq. 8) first reported by point out that both oils were heated at the maximum
Abernethy24 and later studied by Fanchi3 and Soliman18 temperatures at which no distillation or thermal
was used. decomposition should take place. This was done in order to
p = p o ⋅ exp(− 2α (r − ro )) (8) model exclusively the electromagnetic energy absorption
phenomena and no other physical or chemical effect.
In this eq. the parameter α is calculated from the From the presented data, it can be safely concluded that
penetration depth (eq. 9) which in turn, is obtained from the the model can predict, in a first approximation, the dielectric
relative dielectric and dielectric loss constants, ε’ and ε’’ of heating of petroleum containing sand. In the next section,
the studied material, respectively (eq. 10): three different Venezuelan conceptual reservoirs will be
evaluated in order to illustrate the potential use of this
α = ln(2 ) (2 ⋅ D p ) (9) technology in Enhanced Oil Recovery.
4 SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA 78980
Venezuelan Reservoirs
As before, a similar methodology was followed to simulate
the dielectric heating of the Venezuelan reservoirs. A
cylindrical grid with typical Venezuelan conditions was used
for each case. Their dimensions and petrophysical
characteristics vary in each case and they will be described
later. The STARS simulator was used and a constant heating
value for each block of the reservoir was calculated, but in
these case, using the Lambert’s equation (eq. 8)3, 18, 24. Then,
the energy distribution was fed to the simulator in the radial
direction and an axial symmetry was assumed, i.e. each block
in the z-direction has the same electromagnetic
energy absorption.
Gas/liquid equilibrium constants were calculated using
the PRO/II simulator27. Crude oil viscosities vs. temperatures
were measured in the laboratory up to 80°C and extrapolated
to higher temperatures using known correlations27. The
values for each crude oil can be found in the Annex. Changes
in the relative permeability as well as end point saturations
were calculated using the methods reported by Hong28 and
Frizzel29, respectively. Comparisons with a Base Case (cold
production) were carried out for the different frequencies and
generator powers for a time period of 10 years.
Case N°1. Medium Crude Oil Reservoir
For the simulation of a conceptual medium crude oil
reservoir (24°API), a cylindrical grid (24 x 1 x 10) with
typical Venezuelan conditions (porosity of 24%, permeability
of 350_mD, 30 ft of pay zone and a radius of 900 ft) was
used. Initial temperature and pressure were 150°F and 2500
psi respectively, with oil and gas saturations of 85 and 5%,
respectively. The producing well and the electromagnetic
emitting antenna are located at the center of the grid. The
heating and the oil production are occurring at the same time.
In Fig. 4, the temperature profile is shown from the top of
the grid for different times during the simulation. As
expected, the temperature decreases with the distance from
the well and increases with the time reaching values up to
390°F (199°C) at the center and 205°F (96°C) at
approximately 50 ft into the reservoir. Cumulative oil
production for different frequencies at a constant power of
100 kW (10 kW per vertical layer) is shown in Fig. 5. As can
be seen, an acceleration of the oil production in comparison
with the base case (cold production) was found for all the
frequencies studied. This acceleration can be attributed to a
viscosity reduction mechanism (from 15 cP at 150°F to 1.5_
cP at 390°F, see Annex, Table A-1) produced by the
dielectric heating. For the 915 MHz case, an additional
production of 114 MBBL of crude oil (13% increase, see Fig.
5) can be calculated in comparison with the cold
production simulation.
The effect of the generator power on the oil production
can be seen in Fig. 6 for a frequency of 915 MHz. As
expected, an acceleration of the cumulative oil can be
observed with an increase in the energy injected in the
reservoir in a similar manner as a steam stimulation
process30. At 200 kW (20 kW per vertical layer) a maximum
acceleration was observed but the simulation had to be
stopped around the 8th year because of the excessive
production of gas due to the high temperature reached. Based
on the presented calculations, dielectric heating can be used
to accelerate the production of a medium crude oil reservoir
and its magnitude depends on the frequency and the energy
power used.
Case N°2. Heavy Crude Oil Reservoir
A typical Lake Maracaibo Heavy crude Oil Reservoir (11
°API) with 36% porosity, 1000 mD of permeability and an
initial oil saturation of 0.84 was simulated. As in the previous
case, a cylindrical grid (22 x 1 x 10) was used (50 ft of
payzone and radius of 1000 ft) and the producing well and
the emitting antenna are located at the center. Initial
temperature and pressure were 115°F and 750
psi, respectively.
In Fig. 7, the temperature profile vs. distance from the
well is shown corresponding to electromagnetic heating at
different frequencies at 3600 days. As can be seen, at this
generator power (50 kW, 5 kW/vert. layer), temperatures up
to 240°F are reached near the wellbore for the 915 and 2450
MHz cases. However, these values decline rapidly down to
the reservoir temperature (115°F) around 100 ft from the
antenna. Using 140 MHz, a more balanced temperature
distribution can be observed (Fig. 7) than with the other
frequencies reaching a maximum penetration of
approximately 200 ft,.
Cumulative oil production for different frequencies at a
constant power of 50 kW is shown in Fig. 8. As in the
medium crude oil case, an important acceleration of the
heavy oil production in comparison with the base case (cold
production) was found for all the frequencies studied. An
increase of 86% of the total oil production can be calculated
at the end of the 10-year project. This acceleration can be
explained in terms of viscosity reduction due to an increase
in temperature (from 2163 cP at 115°F to 14 cP at 300°F, see
Annex, Table A-2).
It is important to point out that similar cumulative oil
productions were obtained for frequencies higher than 140
MHz. This can be attributed to the fact that a maximum
temperature around the wellbore (160-180°F) was reached
for these electromagnetic energies so no significant decrease
in heavy oil viscosity with the concomitant increase in
production was obtained.
In order to determine the technical feasibility of the
dielectric heating process, the energy gain (EG) was
calculated dividing the energy extracted as equivalent
incremental oil (in comparison with the Base Case) vs. the
energy added into the reservoir as RF or MW (see eq. 11).
KWh
0.5 × (Inc. Cum. Oil vs. Cold Prod.) × 6.36 × 10 2 (11)
EG = BBL
h
Power used (kW) × days × 24
d
SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA 78980
In eq. 11, a conversion factor of 6.36 × 102 kWh of
electricity per barrel of oil was used as reported for a modern
power generation plant31. Also, an efficiency of 50% was
assumed for transforming electric energy into
electromagnetic energy32. As can be seen, the top and the
bottom of eq. 11 are expressed in kWh of electricity (energy
unit) so valid comparison can be made between simulations
with different electromagnetic frequencies and powers.
For a frequency of 140 MHz, energy gain as a function of
the power of the electromagnetic generator can be observed
in Fig. 9. As seen, a maximum around 10 kW can be
estimated with values ranging between 8 and 12 kW of
incremental crude oil equivalent per kW of electricity for
power sources as high as 100 kW. These results clearly
indicate that the dielectric heating process can produce
approximately ten times more energy (as crude oil
equivalent) than that used as electricity, as compared to cold
production. Therefore, RF or MW heating is, from the
thermodynamic point of view, a favorable process.
Furthermore as shown in Fig. 9, the estimated cost for
this utility is between one and two US$ per incremental
barrel of oil (assuming a cost of 0.05 US$/kWh) which is not
considered very high by international standards. These
conceptual numerical simulations indicate a very good
potential of this technology for heavy oil EOR.
Case N°3. Extra-Heavy Crude Oil Reservoir
A typical Orinoco basin Extra-Heavy crude Oil Reservoir
(7.7 °API) was simulated with 32% porosity, 12000 mD of
permeability and an initial oil saturation of 0.87. A
cylindrical grid (19 x 1 x 8) was used (160 ft of payzone and
radius of 1230 ft) and the producing well and the emitting
antenna are located at the center. The payzone consists of
four oil-containing sands of 30 ft each separated by four clay
layers of 10 ft each. A lateral view of the conceptual
reservoir can be seen in Fig. 10. Initial temperature and
pressure were 129°F and 1000 psi, respectively. As before,
the heating and the oil production are occurring at the
same time.
The effect of the electromagnetic frequency on
cumulative oil production for the dielectric heating at a
constant power of 160kW is shown in Fig. 11. As in the
previous cases, an important acceleration of the extra-heavy
oil production in comparison with the base case (cold
production) was found for all the frequencies studied. An
increase of 76% of the total oil production can be calculated
at the end of the 10-year project for a frecuency of 915 MHz.
As before, this acceleration can be explained in terms of a
viscosity reduction mechanism (from 2700 cP at 130°F to 92
cP at 275°F, see Annex, Table A-3).
Also in Fig. 11, the cumulative production increases with
frequency except for the run at 2450 MHz. Analyzing the
temperature profile (see Fig. 12), it can be seen that the
simulation at 915 MHz has a more even distribution of
temperature than that at 2450 MHz. For the latte run, higher
temperatures (260°F) than the former (240°F) can be reached
5
near the wellbore region but they decrease very rapidly
moving away from the antenna. After approximately 10 ft
(Fig. 11), the temperatures for the simulation at 915 MHz are
higher than at 2450 MHz which can explain the differences
in cumulative oil (1300 MBbl vs. 1200 MBbl) as shown in
Fig. 11.
At 915 MHz, energy gain as a function of the power of
the electromagnetic generator can be observed in Fig. 13. As
seen, a maximum around 20 kW can be estimated with values
ranging from 10 to 20 kW of incremental crude oil
equivalent/ kW of electricity for power sources as high of
250 kW. Also, the estimated cost for electricity needed to
produce each incremental oil barrel is between one and 1.5
US$ (assuming a cost of 0.05 US$/kWh). As in the previous
case, these results indicate the potential of dielectric heating
technology for heavy and extra-heavy enhanced oil recovery.
Conclusions
• A mathematical model was developed to simulate
dielectric heating using the Lambert’s equation coupled to
a commercial simulator.
• Using a one-dimensional MW (2.45 GHz) heated reactor,
this model was validated in the presence of a medium
(24°API) and extra-heavy crude (7.7°API) crude oil/sand
core with average standard deviations of ±1.7°C and
±4°C, respectively.
• The numerical simulation of three different conceptual
reservoirs, medium (24°API), heavy (11°API) and extra-
heavy crude oils (7.7°API), showed an important
acceleration in the oil production due to RF and MW
heating which was attributed to a reduction of crude
viscosity.
• Energy gains ranging between 8 and 20 kW of
incremental crude oil equivalent per kW of electricity for
power sources as high of 100kW can be calculated
indicating that the dielectric heating process can produce
approximately ten times more energy than it uses as
electricity. These results show the high potential of
dielectric heating technology for medium, heavy and
extra-heavy EOR with possible field applications.
Nomenclature and acronyms
BBL: Barrel of Oil, 159 liters
MW: Microwave energy
RF: Radio frequency energy
OOIP: Original oil in place
ft : feet
psi : Pounds per square inch, 14.7 psi = 1 atm
c: velocity of light, m/s
Cp: Specific heat capacity, J/Kg K
Dp: Penetration depth, m
E: Electric field, V/m
h0: Heat transfer coefficient at the top of the reactor, W/m2.C
hL: Heat transfer coefficient at the bottom of the reactor,
W/m2.C
k: Propagation constant, m-1
6 SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA 78980

k: Thermal conductivity, W/m K 16. KASEVICH, R. S., PRICE, S. L., FAUST, D. L., FONTAINE,
L: Height of the reactor, m M. F., “Pilot Testing of a Radio Frequency System for
p0: Incident power, W/m3 Enhanced Oil Recovery from Diatomaceous Earth”, SPE
28619, presented at 69th Annual Tech. Conf. New Orleans, LA,
p: Absorbed power, W/m3
USA, September 25-28 (1994).
T: Temperature, °C or °F 17. WARRE, G. M., BEHIE, G. A., TRANQUILLA, J. M.,
t: Time, s “Microwave heating of Horizontal Wells in Heavy Oil with
T∞: Surroundings temperature, °C or °F Active Water Drive”, SPE 37114, presented at Int. Conf. on
x: Distance, m Horizontal Well Tech., Calgary, Canada, Nov. 18-20 (1996).
f: Frequency, 1/s 18. SOLIMAN, M., “Approximate Solutions for Flow of Oil
Heated Using Microwaves”, J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 18, 93 (1997).
19. HU, Y., JHA, K. N., CHARMA, A., “Heavy-Oil Recovery
Greek letters from Thin Pay Zones by Electromagnetic Heating”, Energ.
ρ: Density, Kg/m3 Sources, 21, 63 (1999).
ε*: Complex dielectric constant, Farad/m 20. SAHNI, A., KUMAR, M., KNAPP, R. B., “Electromagnetic
κ: Dielectric constant, dimensionless Heating for Heavy Oil Reservoirs”, SPE 62550, presented at
SPE/AAPG Western Regional Meeting, Long Beach,
λ: Wavelength, m California, 19-23 Junio (2000).
ω: Angular frequency, rad/s 21. MARSDEN, S., “Microwave Heating Oil Reservoir as a
Viable Method of EOR”, presented at “5th UNITAR Intern.
Acknowledgements Conf. on Heavy Crude and Tar Sands”, 3, 515, (1991).
The authors would like to thank PDVSA-INTEVEP for 22. KASEVICH, R., “Understanding the Potential of Radio
permission to publish this manuscript. Frequency Energy”, Chem. Eng. Prog., 94, 1, (1998)
23. AYAPPA, K. G. “Modeling Transport Processes during
Microwave Heating: A Review”. Rev. Chem. Eng., 13, 2
References
(1997) and references therein.
1. DUNCAN, G., “Enhanced Recovery Engineering”, World Oil,
24. ABERNETHY, E. R., “Production Increase of Heavy Oils by
March, 86 (1996).
Electromagnetic Heating”, Can. Pet. Techn., 15, 3 (1976).
2. FANCHI, J. R., “Feasibility of Reservoir Heating by
25. OVALLES, C., ALVAREZ, C., RODRIGUEZ, E., “Estado del
Electromagnetic Irradiation”, SPE 20483 presented at “65th
arte y simulación numérica conceptual en el área inyección de
Annual Tech. and Exhibition of SPE”, New Orleans, LA,
vapor en yacimientos de crudos livianos y medianos”, Visión
September 23-26 (1990).
Tecnológica., 8, 75-90 (2000).
3. ISLAN, M. R., “Emerging Technologies in Enhanced Oil
26. STARS User’s Guide, Computer Modeling Group Ltd,
Recovery”, Energy Sources, 21, 97 (1999).
Calgary, Alberta Canada, (2000).
4. DEPEW, M C., LEM, S., WAN, J. K. S., “Microwave Induced
27. PRO/II Process Simulator, Simulation Sciences, Version 4.0
Catalytic Decomposition of Some Alberta Oil Sands and
(1994).
Bitumens”, Res. Chem. Interm., 16, 213 (1991).
28. HONG, K. C., “Numerical Simulation of Light Oil
5. MILAN, A. C., “In Situ Extraction of Bitumen from Alberta´s
Steamflooding in the Buena Vista Hills Field, California, SPE
Tar Sand by Microwave Heating”, B. S. Thesis, University of
49016, presented at “Int. Meeting on Pet. Eng.”, Beijing,
Windsor, (1978).
China, 17-20 March (1986).
6. CAMBON, J. L., KYVANA, D., CHAVARIE, C., BOSISIO,
29. FRIZZELL, D. F., “Analysis of 15 Years of Thermal
R. G., Can. J. Eng. Chem., 56, 735 (1978).
Laboratory Data: Relative Permeability and Saturation
7. HAAGENSEN, D. B., “Oil Well Microwave Tools”, US
Endpoint Correlations for Heavy Oils”. Society of Petroleum
Patent 3,170,519 (1965).
Engineers, SPE 20528, 1990.
8. HAAGENSEN, D. B., “Oil Recovery System and Method”,
30. PRATS, M., “Procesos Térmicos de Extracción de Petróleo”,
US Patent 4,620,593 (1986).
Ed. Tec. Intevep, Los Teques (1987) and references therein.
9. WILSON, R., “Well Production Method Using Microwave
31. British Petroleum Company, “Statistical Review of World
Heating” US Patent Nº4,485,868 (1984).
Energy”, London, June (1986).
10. JEAMBEY, C. G., “System for Recovery of Petroleum from
32. OVALLES, C., URBANO, N., CARRIZO, M., MORALES,
Petroleum Impregnated Media”, US Patent 4,912,971 (1990).
A., “Uso de Radiación de Microondas en la Conversión de
11. JEAMBEY, C., “Apparatus for Recovery of Petroleum from
Hidrocarburos”, Rev. Soc. Venezol. Catal., 13, 1, (1999).
Petroleum Impregnated Media”, US Patent 4,187,711 (1989).
12. JEAMBEY, C. G., “System for Recovery of Petroleum from
Petroleum Impregnated Media”, US Patent 4,187,711 (1989).
13. BRIDGES E. A., “Method for In-situ Heat Processing of
Hydrocarbonaceus Formations”, US Patent 4,140,180 (1979).
14. SRESTY, G. C., SNOW, R. H., BRIDGES, J. E., “Recovery of
Liquids Hydrocarbons from Oil Shale by Electromagnetic
Heating in situ”, US Patent 4,485,869 (1984).
15. BRIDGES J. E., Electromagnetic Stimulation of Heavy Oil
Wells”, 3rd Int. Conf. Heavy Crude and Tar Sands, Calif.,
July (1985).
SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA 78980 7

MW Radiation
T∞

Thermocouple x=0
Teflon cap ∆x T1
Quartz
Liner T2 h

T3
1cm
T4
10 cm 2 cm x=L

4 cm T∞
6 cm

Fig. 2. Cylindrical grid used for the numerical simulations of 1-D

Stainless Steel Reactor experimental apparatus

250

200
Temp. (°C)

150

100

50

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Distance from Top (cm)

Fig. 3. Comparison between experimental (points) and calculated

Fig. 1. Diagram and photograph of the experimental apparatus (lines) temperatures for a medium (ligher trace, 1.5 min heating) and
used for model validation extra-heavy oil (darker trace, 10 min heating) sand mixture.
Microwave heating at 2.45 GHz
8 SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA 78980

Initial
Inicial 1000000
900000

Cumulative Oil (BBL)

800000
Temp. (F)
700000
600000
500000
790 Days
790 días de 400000
calentamiento
of Heating 300000 Base Case
50 kW
200000
100 kW
100000 200 kW
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
1470
1470 díasDays
de
Time (years)
calentamiento
of Heating

Fig. 6. Effects of the power of the electromagnetic source on

the cumulative medium crude oil (24°API) production of a
conceptual Venezuelan reservoir. Frequency: 915 MHz
2200
2200días de
Days
calentamiento
of Heating

260
Fig. 4. Temperature profile (Top view) of the Base case (Cold)
240 50 KW @ 13,56 MHz
electromagnetic heating of a conceptual Venezuelan medium
crude oil reservoir (24°API). Power 200 kW (20 kW/vert. 220 50 KW @ 140 MHz
50 KW @ 915 MHz
layer) at 915 MHz
Temp. (°F)

200 50 KW @ 2450 MHz

180
1000000
160
140
800000
120
Cumulative Oil (BBL)

100
600000
0 100 200 300

400000 Dist. from well (feet)

B ase C ase
200000 10 0 k W @ 3 0 M H z
10 0 k W @ 14 0 M H z
Fig. 7. Temperature profile vs. distance from the well for
10 0 k W @ 9 15 M H z

0 electromagnetic heating at different frequencies at 3600 days.

0 2 4 6 8 10
Venezuelan Heavy Crude oil reservoir (11°API). Power 50
kW (5 kW/vert. layer)
Time (Years)

Fig. 5. Effects of the electromagnetic radiation frequency

during dielectric heating on the cumulative medium crude oil
(24°API) production of a conceptual Venezuelan reservoir
SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA 78980 9

450
Cold Production
400 50 kW @ 13.56 MHz
50 kW @ 140 MHz
350 50 kW @ 915 MHz
Oil Sand
Cumalative Oil (Mbbl)

50 kW @ 2450 MHz
300

250 86% Clays

Inc.
200

150

100

50

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (years)
Fig. 10. Lateral view of the conceptual reservoir used for the
numerical simulation of during dielectric heating in an
Orinoco basin extra-heavy crude oil (7.7°API)
Fig. 8. Effects of the electromagnetic radiation frequency
during dielectric heating on the cumulative heavy crude oil
(11°API) production of a conceptual Venezuelan reservoir

Base Case
1600 160 kW @ 27 Mhz
160 kW @ 40 Mhz
14 2.00 1400 160 kW @ 915 Mhz
160 kW @ 2450 Mhz
1.80 1200
12
Cumul. Oil (MBbl)
Ener. gain (crude eq/kWh)

1.60 76%
1000
10
Cost ($/Inc. BBL)

1.40
1.20 800
8
1.00 600
6 0.80
400
4 0.60
0.40 200
2
0.20 0
0 0.00 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0 50 100 Time (Years)
Power (kW)

Fig. 11. Effects of the electromagnetic radiation frequency

Fig. 9. Energy Gain vs. power of the electromagnetic during dielectric heating on the cumulative extra-heavy crude
generator and vs. Cost in $/Incremental oil barrel produced oil (7.7°API) production of a conceptual Venezuelan
by dielectric heating for the heavy crude oil reservoir reservoir
(140MHz). Cost of electricity = 0.05 US$/kWh
10 SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA 78980

Annex
280
Table A-1. Oil Viscosity-Temperature for Case N° 1.
260
13 MHz Medium Crude Oil
240 40 MHz
E Temperature (°F) Oil viscosity (cp)
220 915 MHz
Temp. (°F)

120 19.8
2450 MHz
200 150 15.4
190 12.2
180
374 2.0
160
554 0.6
140
Table A-2. Oil Viscosity-Temperature for Case N° 2.
120
Heavy Crude Oil
100
Temperature (°F) Oil viscosity (cp)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
33.0 80000
Distancie from well (ft)
40.0 49000

Fig. 12. Temperature profile vs. distance from the well for 70.0 12600
electromagnetic heating at different frequencies at 3600 days. 100 3780
Venezuelan extra-heavy crude oil reservoir (7.7°API). Power
115 2160
160 kW (40 kW/vert. layer)
140 910

24 2 180 260
210 113
20 260 33
1.5 300 14
16
$/BBl inc.
Ener. Gain

Table A-3. Oil Viscosity-Temperature for Case N° 3.

12 1 Extra-heavy Crude Oil

Temperature (°F) Oil viscosity (cp)

8
0.5
60 204000
4
77 53800

0 0 95 18800
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 113 7900
Generator Power (kW) 122 5390

Fig. 13. Energy Gain vs. power of the electromagnetic 140 2700
generator and vs. Cost in $/Incremental oil barrel produced 185 670
by dielectric heating for the Extra-heavy crude oil reservoir
(160MHz). Cost of electricity = 0.05 US$/kWh 230 226
275 92
320 43

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