HEAT OF COMBUSTION. tne vax) 009 ‘SOF COMBU: Teor watt eats OF consuston: 0F tow reraoueum Att okay‘The viscdblly of some Non-Newtonlan fiquids ts dependent ‘pon time a& wel as shear rate. In other words, he viscosity at any particular time depends upon the amount of previous agita- tion or shearing ofthe liquid. A iquia whose viscosity decreases with time at a glven shear rate is called a thixotiopic liquid. Examples are asphalts, glues, molasses, paint, soap, starch, and (iease. Liquids whose viscosity increases with time are called faopectic iquics, but they are cekiom encountered in pumping applications. ‘There are two basie viscosity parameters: dynamic (or absolute) viscosity and kinematic viscosity. Dynamic viscosities are given in toms of force required 10 move a unit area a unit distance. ‘This Is usually expressed in pound-seconds per equare foot in the English system whieh Is equal to slugs per foot-secand, The Metric system is mare commonly used, howaver, in which the unitis the dyne-second per square centimeter called the Poise. ‘This is numerically equal to the gram per centimeter-second. For convenience, numerical values are normally expressed in Ccentipolse, which are equal to one-hundredth ofa poise. Most pipe friction charts and pump conection charts list kine- ‘matic viscosity. The basic unit of kinematic viscosity is the stoke which is equal to a squate centimeter per second in the ‘Metric system. The corresponding Englsh unit is square foot por second. The eontstoke which Is one-hundredth of a stoke is romally used in the charts, The following formula is used to ‘obiain the kinematic viscosity when the Gynamic or absolute viscosity is known: cantipoie oF ‘There are numerous types of viscometers available for deter- ‘ining iqud viseasities, most of which are designed for specific liguias or viscosity ranges. The Sayboltviscometers are probably the mast widely used inthe United States, The Saybolt Universal Viecomter measures low to medium viscosity, and the Saybott Furl Viscometer measures high viscosities. The corresponding units are the SSU (Seconds Saybolt Universal) and the SSF (Seconds Saybolt Furol) These units are found on most pipe {retin and purnp conection chars in addition to centistokes. A conversion. chart for these and other units is shown in Fig. 4. centistokes = 17D-2A Viscosity Conversion Table ‘The folowing table will give an approximate comparison of various viscosity ratings so that ifthe viscosity i given in terms other than ‘Saybolt Universal, it can be translated quickly by following horizontally to tne Saybolt Universa column. oat | 'vacoany | Seypot | Seconar | seconge | ongeet| Oeqrees| Second Seeante Segonde| Seeends eats | censsttes | “Pet | cesses | esceers | Weges"| SoRtS'| saan) See a | Sse om " sat (Stance) | (anys Ent | coro ca | cote a pe a 7: wef —= =| as] 2 Bl = seo | = | eee «| i] = x2 | So te | 2 | t Sale s]ore] > “a | fe me | 2 ff St ae « | 13 ai | a7 we | - | - 2 4t ra as] 30 | an] ds | 2 | = aed fe & e2 | ae | fs} | 2] = mele ry me] se | anf ae | 2 | 2 eal te sss | so | see] or | - | - eee 1 we | tes | te] | > |S Salie = as | ve | ite | sefe | o | Dt = mol ome | me | raf | @ | eels 0 ses | oe 20 an] ss | ses] ts a} » | & as | a | ds | tm] me] | a e| 2] se | woo | ste] a | a2 | no] ge] om | & | x oe | we | oa | Se | ssa | | fo] 2 | & =| 3 ro | ase | m1 | se | ue | mes} ao | roe | e| 6 gw | me | ao] o | me | as] Se] im | & nm | 2 we | ie | a0] me | ao | xa] aa | ms | & e| 5 woo | 2 | sor | ae | a | ma} |e | & =| 8 sso | an | ss | sz | saz | am] wer] - | m |» eo | to | ao | soe | tz | se] ve | S| im | ne : bo | so | zo | am | am | me | ma] = | om ze | ie | moo | Go | oo | Be | me | mee] la | > | Be | in wooo | ae | soo | amo | swe | ze | x05] - | a ar | | soo | eo | se | am | a fie | de! = | as | m | fo |i | oo | sm | so jis | ae) 2 | os 2 | @ | m woo | iso | 7m | sem | as | mts | to] > | de = | a | to woo | eo | ow | ore | mr | ms | ae) - | «| me | a» | om | ws foo | te | wo | mm | a | | onl > | aw |e | & | om | so | oom | 20 | veo | ooo | gr | ae | ae) = | & | & | | a | os som | smo | soo | tao | - | a | ae) - | oo |r | ss | io | a0 wom | wo | roo | too | >| st | te] = | | om | me | ins | ve Fig 44 - om 576SECTION 10 Physical Prop. erties of Fluids 000101 ! (966) cond wana ta coe Stars cu a “NORIO dosed vo wewous wale woe ae 969 slum meuwutenat aunto2sA OvvoKE MEY “S25ONRAI WaNaIsaY ty 00z 7 WO Nd WY ott (Ado OL avs) 110 auMt Kd COE BOND IgV OF 3ONVY HOIH ALISODSIA SUWWaND SNOWDVas WAEIOULTd GNY SNOBYYDONGAH JYVHD BUNLVEIEWIL — ALISODSIA > 7 ‘514 rsoqueserphg v0 le prea, so fx “capers “9p Buena pun ysiosey "gg uD ay y as aah yo aaa 02 ny os loo ioe Hot * 167 STANDARDS OF TUBULAR EXCHANGER MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATIONsteam / Sources of chemical energy | Table 25 Range of analyses of fuel olls Grade of Feel Of Not No.2 Nod Nos No.6 ‘Weigh, percent ‘uli 0.05 051.0 0220 oss0 oras Hiyrogen laser 11638 130) (osiao)* (S120) Carbon ssos87 = gates (885-502) (885822) (855-03) Nisogen Ni. NiLod = = = = 001 002 coos cavity Deg APL soe 25.40 1500 142 1-29 Seco 08050500 ass7ase §—osssanTs §— ogee —.028-0.onn oer esem = 783887 = 808750 B10-788 ‘351-708 Pour paint, F 0-8 = 0m 10D IO HD HS tS Viscosity Centstches @ 100F Lena 19.30 oss 5.200 200.150 SUS @ 1008 = 2.38 ‘0-000 — 7 SSP 9 IF = za os 240 45300 Water & sediment, vol % 7 oon ewlo — anst0 005.20 Heating valve BE perl, gos 39670-19860 19170-10750 1828019409 18,100-19020 17410-18900 (Galea) Tia 109 ae Hi 220 ek ‘ato 3 x0 101 % ae) 3 200 a) a feet z 5 I seage, 514 2 oA foo { + i323 $ set mange, 1894 é toa ce Pepe 40 a oor} - ] 3s ae =k | om a 6B 100 Tie) Tie tant aot ao ae X Ps rr a {= Temperature, F Fig. 8 Temperature-volume correction factor for fuel ol However, despite this low percentage content, ash con- taining compounds of vanadium, sodium and sulfur can be responsible for a number of serious operating prob- tems (Chapter 18). Fuel oils generally avilable on the Eastem seaboard © produced from varying amounts of Venezuelan and Middle East crudes, depending on the relative quantities of shipments and on the blending at the refineries to meet No, 6 fuel-oil viscosity specifications. Fuel oils used Temperature, F Note: On the sealeat the left, fad the SUS viscority at OOF (standerd test temperature) for the given oil ‘move horizontally to the verted line for 100F. From this intersection move parallel to the diagonal lines tothe \scorty required for atornization; the temperature neces sary t achieve th vison can be sea on the boom scale. The ebart, based on US. Commerical Standard | 12-48 has been developed from data for many fuels and should be suiciendly accurate for most applications Fit. 9 Approximate viscosity of fuel oll at various tempers: tures. (Source, ASTM.) a iesteam / Sources of chemical energy D407) is made by deducting 1050° Btu/lb of water Gezved from the fuel including bath the rate origi nally present as moisture and that formed by consber ton, In America the gross calorific value is commonly used in heat balance calculations, while in Europe the net value is generally used. Grindabitity of coat Grindability is a term used to measure the ease of pul- verizing a coal in comparison with a standard. Coal chosen ‘as 100 grindability. For a description of the method of testing to determine grindability of a coal, see “Grindability’ Index (ASTM D 409)” Chapter 8 Fig. 6 of the same chapter shows the machine used in raking the test The grindabilit ofthe 17 representative coals in Table 16 is tabulated in the last column of Table 21, +The value of 1090 Btu/Ib of water, an average Sgure, corrects {or both the Tatent eat of vaporization and conversion from con stant volume conditions of the calorimeter to an equivalent con. ‘tant pressure basis, 5.17 Free-swelling index The ASTM Standard Method D 720 is used for obtaining information regarding the free-sweling property of = fuel Since it 8 a measure of the behavior of rapidly heated coal, it may be used as an indication of the caking characteristics of coal bumed as a fuel. Coal ash ‘The nature, composition, discussed in Chapter 15. Characteristics of fuel oit EX common practice in refining petroleum to produce ful lls complying with several speciications prepared by the ASTM and adopted as a commercial standard by the U.S. Bureau of Standards. These standards have bees, revised several times in order to meet and demand and further changes may be expected. The curent flandards are tabulated in Table 8, Fuel oils are graded according to gravity and viscosity, the lightest Een No 1 sad the Rent No, Sees and properties of coal ash are Table 23 ‘ASTM standard specifications for fuel ols* No.1 A dite ci intended for and other bares requiring tho grade of oad No.4 distillate ofr general purpose damesve eating for we ‘a burners to! requiring No. T fel off No.4 Prebeating not usually required for banding or burning Pot-type bumers No.5 (Lig) Peet may 7) ceig may be gui Na 5 (Hey) Breet may be regu for bring an, a cold Liats, may be vequred Br handling No.6 Preheat rege for barag ted handy be required depending on climate _ wae | coon reat, ease Vien, Gone St | Re ad | See | Tas Seok Yh, =a r| Se | PSR sect Bet S| Se SEG ae Be | $e Re) ee eee ce ce & SEN i siete PE ede] RS | reas [us] ee | er] |e a EE ‘io | Ma Neo ted] °F [ae fae) ope eet cee ‘egal 2153] ~ | cs | (38) 1 wee eee em] M2 [035 | = T= gee gee Vizanjarant 1 > ap ae Pp ta legal | (=7) (282)] (338) 1 & Mee peer] 28,,[ 80 [= Poa [Tass a en Vega] Sy LS | : Use figge’ | ~ | 28° [= F030 |) en a re pe eS ase) ia’ | ss] | | ea feggt] = [28 [= [eae seo aay a aa fae tem eS fier laa & | Noe | iso [— T2008 | — = - | - | = | 1900) Treo! es [soot = [e929 ]c638)) ~ T= Le | oi ‘Resopsiting the necessity for low-sulfur fuel els used iy connewion SEE Mesttteatment, nonferous metal, gash, and ceramic teases SIRE Bisa ses, «sulfa repitement maybe specibed in soeoeanes ‘ith te fllowing table 0 nt ‘ihe llr tnite may be specited only by mutual agreement between Duicharer andthe ale, neat 2M intent of these classfations that failure to meet eny requre- ‘mest of 3 given grade docs nt automaticaly Blace anol et eeee lower grade unless fact it meets all requirments of the lower grade ‘Lone: or higher nour points may be specited whenever required f conditons of storage er tse {be 105 distilation temperatute point may be speciied at 4407 (226) maximum for tein other than atomiang bureens tex pour pott tess than OF i specie, the inion viscosity shall be 28 (98.0 sc, Susbolt Universal) and the mintmumn DOE sore ah Bewaned 4 Niscony values in parentheses are for information only and not neces: sani esting. The amount of water by distillation shall no sxeeed 2008, The amount of ‘exceed 0.50%. A decoction in quanti lus the eadinent by exteaction sediment by extraction tall not all be wade for al water and Source, ASTAED 396,: VISCOSITY — TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIPS FOR HEAVY FUEL OILS oer rt — a z ret pee ON ae ‘VISCOSITY, SAYBOLT UNIVERSAL SECONDS Ia i i t * mm me ‘TEMPERATURE, DEGREES FAHRENHEIT 7 Fel?Fuel Oil - Temperature Versus Viscosity Heaters can be operated just as efficiently burning fuel of] as burning gas; however, this is dependent on burner design and the quality of fuel oi burned. A most important factor in fuel of burning is viscosity at the burner. No matter what atomization system is utilized, the viscosity of the of] as atomized is quite critical. Changes in fuel of? viscosity can have a tremendous effect upon how well the of1 is atomized or broken into fine particles thus having a tremendous effect upon the flame quality. It should be noted at this time that the fuel oi] burning systems vary quite widely as to their tolerance for viscosity of the of] as atomized. The greatest tolerance for viscosity is characteristic of steam atomization. Normally, the heavier the fuel oil, the more potential trouble there is in burning it. In general, as the density of the fuel ofl increases so does the viscosity of the fuel ei1. To reduce the viscosity to a point at which it can be readily atomized requires heating the ofl, in some cases to quite high temperatures. In many cases this can mean ‘insulating and even steam tracing the of] lines. The flash point of the fuel oi] is important. If the flash point of the 011 is too ow, flashing will occur either at the burner or in the fuel tank. When this condition occurs, the proper operating temperature to achieve 200 SSU viscosity cannot be reached. Poor operations result from firing the cold oi]. When the oil is too cold, larger oil droplets are produced in the atomizer, The larger droplets of oi] produce sparks or "fireflies" in the of1 flame,~ JOHN ZINK SERIES EA OIL GUNS CBASED ON 20@ SSU OIL) 3@ PSIG STEAM DIFFERENTIAL io. 30 40 80 60 704030! Tei seer eee Me F s 20 25 & fa 100 150 20 2's0 300 400 500 600 700s OIL PRESSURE IN PSIGImportance of Fuel Oil Pressure Fuel ofl pressure to the burner is very important. The greater the fuel of] pressure, the greater the flexibility in burner operation. Atomization of fuel of1 is obtained through the expenditure of eneray. The energy may be supplied by steam suitably injected into the ofl or it may be supplied by high oi1 pressure. Of] burners will turndown to about 40-45 psig (3.0 Ko/Cm®) of? Pressure, As the of1 pressure is lowered on the of] gun, atomization gets worse due to lower pressure. The oil particle sizes increase resulting in slower burning. The slower burning lifts the flame out of the primary tile, Pulsation will occur and the flame will go out.