Chemistry PROJECT REPORT

GRADE – XII

HOSUR PUBLIC SCHOOL

2019 – 2020
 CHEMISTRY PROJECT REPORT
GRADE – XII

NAME OF THE STUDENT: …………………………………

ROLL NUMBER : …………………………………

TOPIC : …………………………………

…………………………………

HOSUR PUBLIC SCHOOL

2019 – 2020

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project work

entitled“…………………………………………….……………
……………………………………………..” is a bonafide
record of work done by
…………………………………… , Roll no: ……………… in
partial fulfillment for the award of 12th
standard during the academic year 2019-
2020.

Viva voce held on:

Subject In-charge Internal Examiner

External Examiner Principal

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to take this opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude to all

those people without whom this project could have never been completed. First and

foremost I like to thank God for giving me such a great opportunity to work on this project,

and I would like to express my special thanks and gratitude to the Management, the

Directors and the Correspondent of Hosur Public School, for their constant guidance and

providing a very nice platform to learn.

I would also like to thank our Principal – Dr. V. Bindhu and CEO- Dr. P.

Muthukumar, Hosur Public School, for their constant encouragement and moral support

without which I would have never be able to give my best.

I would also like to thank Mr. M. Naveenkumar, Chemistry Teacher, Hosur Public

School, who gave me the wonderful opportunity to do this project, which also helped me in

doing a lot of research and I came to know about so many new things from this study I am

really thankful to all.

I am particularly in-debited to my Parents and Friends who inspired me to this work,

and helped me a lot in finalizing this project within the limited time frame.

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SOAPS AND
DETERGENTS

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 INDEX.
1. INTRODUCTION

2. HISTORY

3. PREPARATION

4. WORKING AND USES

5. DETERGENT

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 INTRODUCTION

Soap is a salt of a fatty acid used in a variety of

cleansing and lubricating products. In a domestic
setting the term usually refers toilet soap, used
for washing, bathing, and other types
of housekeeping. In industry, soaps are used
as thickeners, components of some lubricants, and
precursors to catalysts.
When used for cleaning, soap solubilizes particles
and grime, which can then be separated from the
article being cleaned. Where soaps act
as surfactants, emulsifying oils to enable them to be
carried away by water.
Soap is created by mixing fats and oils with a base,
as opposed to detergent which is created by
combining chemical compounds in a mixer.
Humans have used soap for cleaning for millennia.
Evidence exists of the production of soap-like
materials in around 2800 BC in ancient Babylon.

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Since they are salts of fatty acids, soaps have the general
formula (RCO2−)nMn+ (Where R is an alkyl, M is a metal and n
is the charge of the cation). The major classification of soaps
is determined by the identity of Mn+. When M is Na or K, the
soaps are called toilet soaps, used for handwashing. Many
metal dications (Mg2+, Ca2+, and others) give metallic soap.
When M is Li, the result is lithium soap (e.g., lithium
stearate), which is used in high-performance greases.

Non-toilet soaps
Soaps are key components of most lubricating greases and
thickeners. Greases are usually emulsions of calcium
soap or lithium soap and mineral oil. Many other metallic
soaps are also useful, including those of aluminium, sodium,
and mixtures thereof. Such soaps are also used as
thickeners to increase the viscosity of oils. In ancient times,
lubricating greases were made by the addition of lime to
olive oil.
Metal soaps are also included in modern artists' oil paints
formulations as a rheology modifier.

Production of metallic soaps

Most metal soaps are prepared by neutralization of purified
fatty acids:

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 2 RCO2H + CaO → (RCO2)2Ca + H2O

Toilet soaps
In a domestic setting, "soap" usually refers to what is
technically called a toilet soap, used for household and
personal cleaning. When used for cleaning, soap solubilizes
particles and grime, which can then be separated from the
article being cleaned. The insoluble oil/fat molecules become
associated inside micelles, tiny spheres formed from soap
molecules with polar hydrophilic (water-attracting) groups on
the outside and encasing a lipophilic (fat-attracting) pocket,
which shields the oil/fat molecules from the water making it
soluble. Anything that is soluble will be washed away with
the water.

Production of toilet soaps

Production of toilet soaps usually entails saponification of

fats (triglycerides). Triglycerides are vegetable or animal oils
and fats. An alkaline solution (often lye or sodium hydroxide)
induces saponification whereby the triglyceride fats
first hydrolyse into salts of fatty acids. Glycerol (glycerine) is
liberated. The glycerine can remain in the soap product as a
softening agent, although it is sometimes separated.

The type of alkali metal used determines the kind of soap

product. Sodium soaps, prepared from sodium hydroxide,
are firm, whereas potassium soaps, derived from potassium
hydroxide, are softer or often liquid. Historically, potassium

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hydroxide was extracted from the ashes of bracken or other
plants. Lithium soaps also tend to be hard. These are used
exclusively in greases.

For making toilet soaps, triglycerides (oils and fats) are

derived from coconut, olive, or palm oils, as well as
tallow.[9] Triglyceride is the chemical name for the tri-esters of
fatty acids and glycerine. Tallow, i.e., rendered beef fat, is
the most available triglyceride from animals. Each species
offers quite different fatty acid content, resulting in soaps of
distinct feel. The seed oils give softer but milder soaps. Soap
made from pure olive oil, sometimes called Castile
soap or Marseille soap, is reputed for its particular mildness.
The term "Castile" is also sometimes applied to soaps from a
mixture of oils, but a high percentage of olive oil.

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 HISTORY
Ancient Middle East

The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like

materials dates back to around 2800 BC in ancient Babylon.
A formula for soap consisting of water, alkali, and cassia oil
was written on a Babylonian clay tablet around 2200 BC.

The Ebers papyrus (Egypt, 1550 BC) indicates the ancient

Egyptians bathed regularly and combined animal and
vegetable oils with alkaline salts to create a soap-like
substance. Egyptian documents mention a similar substance
was used in the preparation of wool for weaving.

In the reign of Nabonidus (556–539 BC), a recipe for soap

consisted of uhulu [ashes], cypress [oil] and sesame [seed
oil] "for washing the stones for the servant girls".

In ancient Israel, the ashes from barilla plants, such as

species of Salsola, saltwort (Seidlitzia rosmarinus)
and Anabasis, were used in soap production, known as
potash. Soap made from potash (a concentrate of burnt
wood or vegetable ashes mixed with lard or olive oil) is

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alkaline. If animal lard were used, it was heated and kept
lukewarm (not boiling hot; neither cold). Lard, collected
from suet, needed to be rendered and strained before being
used with ashes (with the recommended consistency of 1
cup of lard to 3/8 cup of concentrated ash water).
Traditionally, olive oil was used instead of animal lard
throughout the Levant, which was boiled in a copper
cauldron for several days. As the boiling progresses, alkali
ashes and smaller quantities of quicklime were added, and
constantly stirred. In the case of lard, it required constant
stirring while kept lukewarm until it began to trace. Once it
began to thicken, the brew was poured into a mould and left
to cool and harden for 2 weeks. After hardening, it was cut
into smaller cakes. Aromatic herbs were often added to the
rendered soap to impart their fragrance, such
as yarrow leaves, lavender, germander, etc. The ancient
method here described is still in use in the production
of Nabulsi soap.

Roman Empire

The word sapo, Latin for soap, likely was borrowed from an
early Germanic language and is cognate with Latin sebum,
"tallow". It first appears in Pliny the Elder's account, Historia
Naturalis, which discusses the manufacture of soap from
tallow and ashes, but the only use he mentions for it is as
a pomade for hair; he mentions rather disapprovingly that
the men of the Gauls and Germans were more likely to use it
than their female counterparts. The Romans avoided
washing with harsh soaps before encountering the milder
soaps used by the Gauls around 58 BC. Aretaeus of

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Cappadocia, writing in the 1st century AD, observes among
"Celts, which are men called Gauls, those alkaline
substances that are made into balls called soap". The
Romans' preferred method of cleaning the body was to
massage oil into the skin and then scrape away both the oil
and any dirt with a strigil. The Gauls used soap made from
animal fat.
Zosimos of Panopolis, circa 300 AD, describes soap and
soap making. Galen describes soap-making using lye and
prescribes washing to carry away impurities from the body
and clothes. The use of soap for personal cleanliness
became increasingly common in the 2nd century AD.
According to Galen, the best soaps were Germanic, and
soaps from Gaul were second best.

Ancient China

A detergent similar to soap was manufactured in ancient

China from the seeds of Gleditsia sinensis. Another
traditional detergent is a mixture of pig pancreas and plant
ash called "Zhu yi zi". True soap, made of animal fat, did not
appear in China until the modern era. Soap-like detergents
were not as popular as ointments and creams.
Islamic Middle East

Hard toilet soap with a pleasant smell was produced in

the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age, when soap-
making became an established industry. Recipes for soap-
making are described by Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-
Razi (854–925), who also gave a recipe for

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producing glycerine from olive oil. In the Middle East, soap
was produced from the interaction of fatty
oils and fats with alkali. In Syria, soap was produced using
olive oil together with alkali and lime. Soap was exported
from Syria to other parts of the Muslim world and to Europe.

A 12th-century Islamic document describes the process of

soap production. It mentions the key ingredient, alkali, which
later becomes crucial to modern chemistry, derived from al-
qaly or "ashes".
By the 13th century, the manufacture of soap in the Islamic
world had become virtually industrialized, with sources
in Nablus, Fes, Damascus, and Aleppo.

Medieval Europe

Soap makers in Naples were members of a guild in the late

sixth century (then under the control of the Eastern Roman
Empire), and in the eighth century, soap-making was well
known in Italy and Spain. The Carolingian capitulary De
Villis, dating to around 800, representing the royal will
of Charlemagne, mentions soap as being one of the
products the stewards of royal estates are totally. The lands
of Medieval Spain were a leading soap maker by 800, and
soap making began in the Kingdom of England about
1200. Soap making is mentioned both as "women's work"
and as the produce of "good workmen" alongside other
necessities, such as the produce of carpenters, blacksmiths,
and bakers.
In Europe, soap in the 9th century was produced from
animal fats and had an unpleasant smell. Hard toilet soap

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with a pleasant smell was later imported from the Middle
East.
15th–18th centuries
In France, by the second half of the 15th century, the semi-
industrialized professional manufacture of soap was
concentrated in a few centres of Provence—Toulon, Hyères,
and Marseille—which supplied the rest of France. In
Marseilles, by 1525, production was concentrated in at least
two factories, and soap production at Marseille tended to
eclipse the other Provençal centres. English manufacture
tended to concentrate in London.
Finer soaps were later produced in Europe from the 16th
century, using vegetable oils (such as olive oil) as opposed
to animal fats. Many of these soaps are still produced, both
industrially and by small-scale artisans. Castile soap is a
popular example of the vegetable-only soaps derived from
the oldest "white soap" of Italy.
Industrially manufactured bar soaps became available in the
late 18th century, as advertising campaigns in Europe and
America promoted popular awareness of the relationship
between cleanliness and health. In modern times, the use of
soap has become commonplace in industrialized nations
due to a better understanding of the role of hygiene in
reducing the population size of pathogenic microorganisms.
19th century
Until the Industrial Revolution, soap making was conducted
on a small scale and the product was rough. In 1780, James
Keir established a chemical works at Tipton, for the
manufacture of alkali from the sulphates of potash and soda,
to which he afterwards added a soap manufactory. The
method of extraction proceeded on a discovery of Keir's. In

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1790, Nicolas Leblanc discovered how to make alkali
from common salt. Andrew Pears started making a high-
quality, transparent soap in 1807 in London.
His son-in-law, Thomas J. Barratt, opened a factory
in Isleworth in 1862.
During the Restoration era (February 1665 – August 1714) a
soap tax was introduced in England, which meant that until
the mid-1800s, soap was a luxury, used regularly only by the
well-to-do. The soap manufacturing process was closely
supervised by revenue officials who made sure that soap
makers' equipment was kept under lock and key when not
being supervised. Moreover, soap could not be produced by
small makers because of a law which stipulated that soap
boilers must manufacture a minimum quantity of one
imperial ton at each boiling, which placed the process
beyond reach of the average person. The soap trade was
boosted and deregulated when the tax was repealed in
1853.
William Gossage produced low-priced, good-quality soap
from the 1850s. Robert Spear Hudson began manufacturing
a soap powder in 1837, initially by grinding the soap with
a mortar and pestle. American manufacturer Benjamin T.
Babbitt introduced marketing innovations that included sale
of bar soap and distribution of product samples. William
Hesketh Lever and his brother, James, bought a small soap
works in Warrington in 1886 and founded what is still one of
the largest soap businesses, formerly called Lever Brothers
and now called Unilever. These soap businesses were
among the first to employ large-scale advertising campaigns.
Liquid soap
Liquid soap was not invented until the nineteenth century; in
1865, William Shephard patented a liquid version of soap. In

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1898, B.J. Johnson developed a soap derived from palm and
olive oils; his company, the B.J. Johnson Soap Company,
introduced "Palmolive" brand soap that same year. This new
brand of soap became popular rapidly, and to such a degree
that B.J. Johnson Soap Company changed its name
to Palmolive.
In the early 1900s, other companies began to develop their
own liquid soaps. Such products as Pine-
Sol and Tide appeared on the market, making the process of
cleaning things other than skin, such as clothing, floors, and
bathrooms, much easier.
Liquid soap also works better for more traditional or non-
machine washing methods, such as using a washboard.

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 SOAP MAKING
A variety of methods are available for hobbyists to make
soap. Most soap makers use processes where the glycerol
remains in the product, and the saponification continues for
many days after the soap is poured into moulds. The
glycerol is left during the hot-process method, but at the high
temperature employed, the reaction is practically completed
in the kettle, before the soap is poured into moulds. This
simple and quick process is employed in small factories all
over the world.
Handmade soap from the cold process also differs from
industrially made soap in that an excess of fat is used,
beyond that needed to consume the alkali (in a cold-pour
process, this excess fat is called "super fatting"), and the
glycerol left in acts as a moisturizing agent. However, the
glycerine also makes the soap softer. Addition of glycerol
and processing of this soap produces glycerine soap. Super
fatted soap is more skin-friendly than one without extra fat,
although it can leave a "greasy" feel. Sometimes,
an emollient is added, such as jojoba oil or shea butter.
Sand or pumice may be added to produce a scouring soap.
The scouring agents serve to remove dead cells from the
skin surface being cleaned. This process is
called exfoliation.

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 WORKING AND
USES
Now, on to how soap works. Imagine a soap molecule as a
tadpole with a tail and a head. Soap is formed when a fatty
acid combines with an alkaline solution, usually one with
sodium or a potassium atom.

The black balls are carbon atoms, the red balls are
oxygen atoms, and the grey balls are hydrogen atoms.
This is an example of a fatty acid.

The 'tail' of the soap is made up of a hydrocarbon chain

(which just means carbon and hydrogen atoms bonded
together). This hydrocarbon chain is hydrophobic, meaning
it doesn't like water, but it does love oil. 'Hydro' means water
and 'phobic' means fear. Claustrophobic means you're
fearful of small spaces. Or arachnophobia means you're
scared of spiders. You get the idea.

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The 'head' of the soap is made up from either the sodium or
the potassium and the carboxylic group in which it combined
with (don't worry too much on the vocabulary here, just
realize that this end is different from the 'tail'). This end
is hydrophilic, meaning it loves water, but isn't a fan of oil.
'Philic' means to 'love'.
The oil on your hands, clothes, or hair and the water you use
to wash them won't mix. This is because the oil is
hydrophobic (just like the soap's 'tail'). You've probably
noticed that oil and water don't mix, right?
The two ends of soap act as a mediator, bringing the oil into
the water. Soap's hydrophobic tail can hook up with the oil
and soap's hydrophilic head can hook up with the water.
Imagine you have an oily shirt. You throw it into some water,
and not much will happen. But, if you add soap, a bunch of
soap molecules will surround the oil (with their hydrophobic
tails), and the hydrophilic ends of the soap will face out,
towards the water. This allows the oil to be suspended in the
water, away from the shirt.

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Soap is a type of emulsifier, which means it separates the
oil out, thus causing an emulsion. In other words, the oil is
removed from the material being cleaned and then is
suspended in the water via the soap. An emulsion is when
two substances that normally can't mix, mix.

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 DETERGENT

Soap sounds like a pretty good product, right? It almost

seems magical with its ability to remove oils and suspend
them in water. But, alas, it isn't perfect. When hard water
(water that contains a lot of minerals) is used, parts of the
soap combine with the minerals in the hard water and make
soap scum. In addition, the minerals make soap less
effective at removing dirt and oils. Soap also doesn't perform
well under acidic conditions and requires animal fats and/or
vegetable oil, which are sometimes in short supply.
So, some genius scientists invented detergents, which work
in a similar fashion to soaps, but have synthetic ingredients
that prevent soap scum and can perform under acidic
conditions. And when you're using soap, chances are you're
really using a detergent. In fact most commercial soaps are
technically detergents.

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APPLICATIONS

Household cleaning
One of the largest applications of detergents is for household
and shop cleaning including dish washing and
washing laundry. The formulations are complex, reflecting
the diverse demands of the application and the highly
competitive consumer market.

Fuel additives
Both carburettors and fuel injector components of Otto
engines benefit from detergents in the fuels to
prevent fouling. Concentrations are about 300 ppm. Typical
detergents are long-chain amines and amides such
as polyisobuteneamine and
polyisobuteneamide/succinimide.

Biological reagent
Reagent grade detergents are employed for the isolation and
purification of integral membrane proteins found in biological
cells. Solubilisation of cell membrane bilayers requires a
detergent that can enter the inner membrane monolayer.
Advancements in the purity and sophistication of detergents
have facilitated structural and biophysical characterization of
important membrane proteins such as ion channels also the
disrupt membrane by
binding lipopolysaccharide, transporters, signaling receptors,
and photosystem II.

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