Notes about Large Power Transformers

 The term LPT is broadly used to describe a power transformer with a

maximum nameplate rating of 100 megavolt-amperes (MVA) or higher unless otherwise
noted
 LPTs (Large Power Transformer) have long been a major concern for the U.S. electric
power sector, because failure of a single unit can cause temporary service interruption
and lead to collateral damages, and it could be difficult to quickly replace it.
 Limited availability of spare LPTs is a potential issue for critical infrastructure resilience
in the United States, and both the public and private sectors have been undertaking a
variety of efforts to address this concern. (processing time is a factor)
 LPTs are custom-designed equipment that entail significant capital expenditures and
long lead times due to an intricate procurement and manufacturing process.
 Although the costs and pricing vary by manufacturer and by size, an LPT can cost
millions of dollars and
 Weighs between approximately 100 and 400 tons (or between 200,000 and 800,000
pounds), special modes of transportation its required due to this weight and size.
 Primary Material is copper and electrical steel?
 The average age of installed LPTs in the United States is approximately 40 years, with
70 percent of LPTs being 25 years or older. 65 years on average
 aging power transformers are subject to an increased risk of failure.
 There is capacity problem – manufacturing companies under producing.
 The U.S. electric grid faces a wide variety of possible threats, including natural, physical,
cyber, and space weather.

Composite transformer casing

 Must be Reliability: Based on resilience strategy: “the ability to adapt to changing

conditions and prepare for, withstand, and rapidly recover from disruption”.
o The ability to adapt to changing conditions: This entails unchanging or adaptive
operational response to severe weather states, disruptive operating conditions,
changing economic conditions – investors
o Prepare for: forecasting capability (data mining) – sensors, internet of things,
proactive maintenance plan
o Withstand: Composite structure must be able to withstand disruptions, e.g.
lightning, or conditions higher than its specified operating conditions without a
catastrophic response
 o and rapidly recover from disruption”.
 Composite Tank must be hydrophobic to prevent moisture getting to the core and
winding. Winding is predominantly copper, core is predominantly electrical steel
 Must pass a failure mode and effect analysis FMEA

Some conditions that the transformer tank should be able to withstand

 Soil is severely corrosive

 Heavy soil erosion occurs
 High water table causes repeated flooding of the enclosures
 Heavy snowfall occurs
 Severe mosquito problem occurs
 Anaerobic corrosion on tank due foreign materials on tank

About Transformers
  The size of a power transformer is determined by the primary (input) voltage, the
secondary (output) voltage, and the load capacity measured by MVA – Mega Volt
Ampere.
 The core and windings are contained in a rectangular, mechanical frame called the
“tank.”
 Tank production: A tank must be completed before the winding and core assembly
finish the drying phase so that the core and windings do not start to reabsorb moisture
 An LPT is subjected to faults that result in high radial and compressive forces, as the load
and operating stress increase with system growth

Shortfalls of traditional Large Power Transformers

 Transporting the behemoth is very challenging. By road almost impossible, by rail, very
expensive the issuance of several permit…

Transformer Failures and why

 Mechanical Failure
 Dielectric Failure
In both cases, the transformer is no longer able to perform its intended function of carrying load
and stepping down (or up) the voltage. The main point of concern in ageing and the life
expectancy of transformers is the condition of the insulation system, which is typically based on
organic products. The organic products in a transformer degrade over time and finally they lose
the capability to withstand the stresses a transformer might see in daily life.

 Moisture ingress through the transformer tank

 Mechanical failure on tank during transportation
 Leaks through the tank, can cause leakages and elevated temperatures within the
transformer
 According to a latest 'Technical Paper' and transformer failure report published by
OMICRON, up to 26% of the major transformer failure is related to tap changer.

Bathtub Curve

 Infant Mortality: Failures are the least expected. Design, manufacturing or material
defects are common causes and requires from the manufacturer a deep analysis of the
incidents.
 Normal Life: Also called useful life where random failures may occur. This is the lowest
constant failure.
 End of Life Wear-out: Wear and tear make products fail more often and signal the end
of life.
Tank Operating Conditions

 Does not allow for water retention

 Resistant to certain overpressure as well as to full vacuum
 All metal surfaces are shot, or sand blasted before applying the first coat of paint.
 The inner surface in contact with insulating oil is coated with oil-resistant paint – 3 coats
about 140𝜇𝑚 thick.
 Operating temperature of oil is around 40–60 degrees for different operating
conditions. An alarm is set at 80 degrees and if the temperature goes beyond 90
degrees it sends a trip signal.

Transformers are held at a high vacuum while oil flows into the tank during
assembly/construction. The coil is also heated up to remove moisture. The combination of
heat and vacuum assures that all moisture and all air bubbles have been removed from
 the coil providing electrical integrity and long life. Oil levels should never be taken down
below the coil level.

Sealed tank system has the interior sealed from the atmosphere. It maintains a layer of gas,
i.e. a gas space or cushion. This gas sits above the liquid. The gas-liquid volume remains
constant.

Negative internal pressure can exist in sealed thank at lower temperature or loads.
Remember that the oil is incompressible.

Although the external world is prevented from interacting with the internals of the
transformer, a level of interaction is required however. This interaction is called breathing,
to accommodate variations in pressure that occurs during operation to allow for the
expansion and contraction that occurs with temperature change.

Oils – Naphthenic, Paraffinic or synthetic (Silicon oil). Oils serves as liquid insulation and coolant
in the internal of the transformer. It also serves as preservation for the core and winding since
they are both immersed in the oil. Also serves as anti-oxidant because it prevents internals from
exposure to oxygen. Paraffin based transformer oil==Paraffin oil although oxidation rate is
lower than that of Naphtha oil, but the oxidation product or sludge is insoluble and precipitated
at the bottom of the tank and create inconsequential distributed load at the bottom of the
tank.

These oils are stable at high temperatures, but these oils have expansion and compression
coefficient at high temperatures
Naphtha based transformer oi==Naphtha oil is more easily oxidized than Paraffin oil. But
oxidation product i.e. sludge in the naphtha oil is more soluble than Paraffin oil. Thus, sludge of
naphtha-based oil is not precipitated in bottom of the transformer. Hence it does not obstruct
convection circulation of the oil, meaning it does not disturb the T/F Cooling system.

Types of Transformers

Normally conventional distribution and power transformers are of oil type i.e. the tank of the
transformer is filled with oil which acts as a cooling medium for the winding. This oil has
maintenance issue like you need to check moisture content in oil, track break down voltage and
oil has another problem of sludge formation.

To make a transformer maintenance free the idea of dry type transformer has evolved which
uses air as its medium of cooling. Now, there are primarily two major types of dry type
transformer available- Vacuum Pressure Impregnation (VPI) & Cast Resin Type (CRT).
A VPI dry type transformer is the one which has primary and secondary winding impregnated
with resin within a vacuum chamber. We can see the winding physically opening the door of
the transformer. But a CRT dry type transformer has its primary and secondary winding molded.
The winding becomes a solid mass after this mold casting is done. Thus, opening the door of the
transformer one can see three molds for three different limbs of the transformer.

VPI gives a chance for repair of the winding in case there is some winding fault, but CRT is a
solid mass and thus does not give any chance of repair. CRT has higher mechanical rigidity than
VPI which gives a higher short circuit withstand capability Other performance parameters like
efficiency, % regulation etc. can be made similar.

Material properties of steel

Because transformer tanks are made of steel, it is important to understand what type of steel,
and why?

The steel tank is made up of 400-series, or 300-series stainless steel or out of mild carbon steel.
In general

Take note that ABB has developed a composite hood for their single-phase transformer

Image from: Electric Power Transformer Engineering

edited by James H. Harlow
How do measure the properties of a laminated composite?

Material trends have largely been driven by both regulation and customer desire for safety, and
environmentally friendly constraints.

Carbon fiber reinforced polymers are composite materials which rely on the carbon fiber to
provide the strength and stiffness while the polymer provides a cohesive matrix to protect and
hold the fibers together and provides some toughness.

They can be engineered to achieve mass reductions not achievable by the metals. Since these
are artificially composited materials their properties and performance can be tailored to the
application through varying strength, length, directionality and amount of the reinforcing fibers
and in the selection of the polymer matrix.

The largest drawbacks are the high cost in producing the fibers and the low throughput rates at
which components can be manufactured. The cumulative time to place the fibers in a mold,
inject the polymer and allow the part to set is in the order of a few minutes.

QFD

On a deeper level, the customer requirements are obtained from a survey of literature of
surveys. These ideas should be conflicting, e.g. size, cheap, light, strong, etc. Now once these
ideas are retrieved from the customer, the horizontal row is then what we need to control to
get what we want. That is what can we control from design perspective to get what the
customer wants, looking at the customer requirements, what can we measure to be able to
obtain or satisfy this customer requirements. We will list that on the horizontal part upward of
the QFD.
Failure modes in laminated composites are strongly dependent on geometry, loading direction,
and ply orientation.

The failure strength in laminates also depends on the ply layup, the effective failure strength of
the layup is at a maximum if neighboring plies are orthogonal to each other. This means that
yield strength is maximum if plies are orthogonal to each other.

The effective strength decreases as the angle between plies decreases and is at a minimum if
plies have the same direction. (This is called a ply cluster.)

Matrix tensile cracking can result from a combination of transverse tensile stress, , and shear
stress, . The failure index, , can be defined in terms of these stresses and the strength
parameters, and . When the index exceeds 1.0, failure is assumed to occur. Without
nonlinear material behavior, the failure index has the simple form,

With nonlinear shear behavior taken into consideration, the failure index takes the more
complex form,
Fiber-matrix shearing failure results from a combination of fiber compression and matrix
shearing. The failure criterion has essentially the same form as the other two criteria:

Fiber buckling failure occurs when the maximum compressive stress in the fiber direction ( )
exceeds the fiber buckling strength, , independent of the other stress components:

Related Manufacturers of Large Power Transformers!!!

ABB Inc.

Eaton

Hammond Power Solutions Inc.

SPX Transformer solutions

Hitachi T&D Solutions, Inc.

Hyundai Heavy Industries’

Jinpan International USA Ltd.

Prolec GE

Schneider Electric

Siemens Energy, Inc.

In 2010, six power transformer manufacturing facilities existed in the United States, and together, they
met approximately 15 percent of the Nation’s demand for power transformers of a capacity rating
greater than or equal to 60 MVA.

Other Features connected to the tank are:

 bushings, which connect LPTs to transmission lines

 tap changers,
 power cable connectors,
  gas-operated relays,
 thermometers,
 relief devices,
 dehydrating breathers,
 oil level indicators,
 and other controls

Cost and pricing vary by manufacturers, but criteria is based around: cost of material, expertise, size,
market condition, manufacturing facility location, for now.

Transportation is also an important element of the total LPT cost, because an LPT can weigh as much as
410 tons (820,000 lb) and often requires long-distance transport.

From DOE’s documentation, there’s certainly some kind of relationship between dimensions of the LPT
and size. – DOE

Major Raw Material for designing an LPT, not the Tank

 Copper
 Steel
 Cooling Oil

Load and operating stress tend to increase with the age of the LPT

Given the technical valuation that a power transformer’s risk of failure increases with age, many of the
LPTs in the United States have outlived their useful lives and will need to be replaced or refurbished.

Strengths and weaknesses of Low Carbon Steel as transformer tank

Weaknesses

 Failure of the unit could not quickly be replaced possibly because of procurement troubles. Steel
tanks aligns completely with one of the risk scenarios identified by US DOE. An attack on it
cannot quickly be replaced, due to weight and size issues.
 It has long lead times due to its complex procurement and manufacturing process
 Excessive weight, between 100 to 400 tons
 Requires special modes of transportation due to size and weight.
 Current LPT made of steel cannot be transported on a normal rail car, the heaviest a rail road
can normally handle is about 100 tons and LPT can weigh 2 times more than that.
 In large power transformers, the presence of stray currents in the structural elements near the
high current bushings can be considerable, and this leads to hot spots in the steel structure of
the transformer tank

Globally, the statistics of failures in power transformers are as follows [13]: 41% of faults are related to
the tap changer, 19% with the windings, 3% with the core, 12% with the terminals, 13% with the tank
and fluids, and 12% with the accessories. However, in the case of large power transformers (100 MVA

and above), the overheating of flange–bolt regions can lead to

transformer failure. (Juan Carlos Olivares-Galvan, Rafael Escarela-Perez,Rodrigo Ocon-Valdez, AUGUST
2014)

How a power Transformer Works

To understand the concept of how a transformer works we need to go to the basic physics.
When different types of current passes through a conductor, they generate magnetic flux,
because they act like a magnet. An alternating current reverses its direction many times per
second at regular intervals. When this type of current flows through a wire it induces a
fluctuating emf. Power generation and distribution to customers is Ac and there are many
reasons for that. The power generated from source has a very high voltage, and it needs to be
step down to power smaller things like a computer. Transformers cannot change Dc – direct
voltages. Alternating current Ac flows like a sinusoidal wave. This also shows how the voltage is
changing, starts at zero rises, goes through zero builds up in the reverse, and back to zero again
as it completes one cycle. The time taken for a cycle is called a period T and 1/T. For example, if
4 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
we have 4 cycles in 1 second, then the frequency is essentially 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧 and since
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
1 1 1
frequency is 𝑇, then the period will be 𝑇 = 𝑓 = 4 = 0.25. This is important, because for example,
a grid having a frequency of 50c/s or 50hz i.e. 50 cycles per second(frequency) will have a
1
period of 50 𝑠𝑒𝑐. The effective value of an AC current is the r.m.s value which is usually less than
the amplitude current or peak current or voltage.

Now when a current flow in a coil, it causes magnetic field to flow in the coil. When the current
is turned on, it takes time for the fields to grow, that is from 0 to certain intensity as time goes.
When current is turned off, it takes time for the field to disappear as well, that is, from certain
intensity to 0, as time goes. The result of this time effect and the number of lines of magnetic
field as it grows and collapse when current is turned on and of is that an additional emf is
induced within the coil itself called an emf of self-induction. What this does is that when you
switch on the emf tries to oppose the build up of the magnetic field in the opposite direction,
slowing it down, and when you switch off, it tries to keep the field going, called Lenz’s Law,
which states that as current increases in a coil, an emf is induced which opposes the increase,
and vice versa. Effect opposes cause.
This property of a coil to oppose change is called inductance, unit of measurement for
inductance is called the Henry. With a set, up like the figure below,

An emf in the first winding can induce an emf in the second winding. Anytime the current
changes in the first coil, there is an induced emf in the second one. This is because the line of
force from the first coil, are coming across the turns of the second one. This is called the emf of
mutual induction. So, if we use an alternating voltage in the first coil, so that it fields changes
continuously, it will induce an alternating current in the other coil,

First coil or source coil is called the primary coil, second coil is called a secondary coil. The
supplied voltage is called the input voltage I/P, and the voltage produce in the secondary is
called the O/P output voltage.

To understand how this system transforms this voltage we need to what induce current is.

Suppose we have a system setup as below:

The output voltage is 10 times the input voltage, stepping up the voltage in what is called a
# 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 50 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 80
step-up transformer. Mathematically, = = 10, 𝑏𝑢𝑡 = =
# 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 5 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 8
10
𝑁 𝑂/𝑃 # 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
In simple terms𝑁 𝑆 = = =
𝑃 𝐼/𝑃 # 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝑂 𝑁𝑆
And or 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝑃 = ∗ 𝐼/𝑃.
𝑁𝑃

The symbol is seen below in circuits

The metal on which the windings are wound are called core. There are two types of core.

Transformer size is determined by the KVA of the load. To find the size of a transformer we
use the following notation. The load is important here. KVA is a representative of power, and it
can come as MVA, mega volt ampere. The ratings for large power transformer is from 100MVA.
Volts here is the load voltage which is the secondary voltage, or the voltage required to run a
load. Load is your equipment. The Amps here is the load current, the current required to drive
your load. Line voltage is voltage from the source in this case the dam which is usually very
high.